UNIT 4 THE PERSIAN EMPIRE

Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Expansion and Consolidation of the Empire
4.2.1 Cyrus
4.2.2 Cambyses
4.2.3 Darius I

4.3 Administrative Reorganization

4.4 System of Coinage
4.5 Language and Communication
4.6 Religion
4.7 Decline of the Empire
4.8 Summary
4.9 Exercises

4.1 INTRODUCTION
You have studied in earlier units about the Bronze Age Civilizations which
had emerged by about 3000 BC. In the next five hundred years or so these
civilizations acquired greater sophistication and became increasingly complex.
Their influence extended to neighbouring areas of West Asia. In the first
millennium BC new empires and states emerged not only in Asia but in other
parts of the world. A new type of state, which may loosely be referred to as
an ‘empire’, began to emerge, initially in West Asia, from around 1800 BC
onwards. As a type of state the empire encompassed a fairly large territory
which was not confined to a given geographical zone; was usually monarchical;
had extensive military resources; and was based on the collection of a large
tribute. Every empire had a core area as its political centre, and the ruling class
of the empire belonged overwhelmingly to this core area. The Medes were the
first empire-builders in Iran. However it was the Achaemenids who created the
first Iranian world empire. Within a few decades of the replacement of Median
rule by Achaemenid rule, the region of Fars (Parsa) in Iran had become the
centre of a huge empire which included most of West Asia, Anatolia and Egypt
— one of the most extensive empires of the ancient world. Parsa, which more or
less corresponds to the province of Fars in modern Iran, was called Persis by the
ancient Greeks. Since Parsa or Persis was the homeland of the Achaemenids,
their empire came to be known as the Persian Empire and Iran itself was
identified with Persia (Iran was referred to as Persia till very recently). Thus in
antiquity the place of origin of the Achaemenids was adopted as the name for
the entire Iranian plateau by the Greeks and subsequently by other peoples as
well.
In this Unit, we will discuss some of the salient features of this empire.
The expansion and consolidation of this biggest empire of the region was
54
accomplished in a span of fifty years. The administrative apparatus and the The Persian Empire
system of control on the extensive territories was one of the major achievements.
This was achieved through developing a mechanism of decentralized
governance. We will study the growth of languae and means of communication
and development of a common language in such a heterogeneous region. We
will devote some space to the standardization of monetary system and coinage
which was probably the first such attempt covering such vast territories as in
Persian empire. We will also discuss growth of a new religion and tradition of
religious tolerance a unique achievement during this age.

4.2 EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION OF

THE EMPIRE
The territorial expansion and consolidation of the Persian Empire was
accomplished in more than fifty years. A number of rulers contributed in the
whole process. However, Cyrus the great and Darius I stand out as the key
figures in the process of expansion and consolidation.
4.2.1 Cyrus
After Cyrus (generally referred to as Cyrus the Great to distinguish him from
other rulers of the same name) had overthrown Astyages he continued with
many of the features of the Median state. Like the Medes the Persians too were
initially a confederacy of several Iranian tribes settled in Parsa. They were
closely linked with the Medes. The overthrow of Astyages did not imply a
sudden disruption of the Median state. Cyrus combined in his person the unified
kingship of the Median and Persian tribal confederacies. In view of the active
support which Cyrus had received from a section of the Median aristocracy in
the struggle against Astyages, he allowed the Median elite to have a share in
political power. The Median aristocracy was not immediately dislodged and
continued to perform various functions in the new Achaemenid state. Over a
period of time the Persian element became more pronounced in the governance
of the empire. Simultaneously, the state became more centralized and monarchy
as an institution became more powerful.
Having stabilized his position Cyrus immediately embarked upon an ambitious
programme of expansion. The Achaemenids rapidly filled the political vacuum
that had been created in West Asia by the disappearance of the Assyrian empire.
Their expansion, however, was on a much bigger scale. The Babylonians
were unable to consolidate their hold over the territorial acquisitions of
Nebuchadnezzar II. In fact Babylon seems to have lacked the resources to build
an empire that could have lasted for a long duration. The Medes under Astyages
had already begun to encroach upon Babylonian possessions. The successors
of Nebuchadnezzar II were unable to resist these onslaughts. They eventually
succumbed to the Achaemenids who became the real successors to the Assyrian
empire.
Cyrus first concentrated on the conquest of Anatolia. The Median rulers had
been attempting to subdue the states of Anatolia, especially the kingdom of
Lydia. There were at this time several states in Anatolia, of which Lydia was
the most powerful. This was one of the states that had emerged in the region
after the collapse of the Hittite empire. The Lydian language was closely related
to the Hittite language. Croesus, who ruled over Lydia from 561 to 545 BC, was 55
Ancient and Medieval responsible for making Lydia the paramount power in western Anatolia. Lydia
Societies under Croesus is credited with having been the first state in history to issue
coins on a regular basis.
Croesus exercised nominal suzerainty over the Greek settlements on the west
coast of Anatolia. These Greeks were collectively referred to as Ionians (see
Unit 12). The Ionians lived in self-governing city-states. They had formed a
confederacy to pool together their resources and defend themselves. Cyrus first
tried to persuade the Ionians to revolt against Lydia. When this strategy failed he
invaded Lydia and succeeded in defeating Croesus in 545 BC. Lydia, and with it
most of western Anatolia, became a part of the Achaemenied Empire. Following
this the Ionian states were also annexed. Cyrus’s territories now extended to the
shores of the Aegean Sea. During the next fifty years the Achaemenids launched
a series of military expeditions to bring the entire Aegean and mainland Greece
under their control. In Anatolia Sardis, the capital of the erstwhile Lydian
Kingdom, became the seat of Achamenid authority in the region.
The next phase of Achaemenid expansion resulted in the conquest of
Mesopotamia. We have already referred to the decline of the New Babylonian
Empire under the successors of Nebuchadnezzar II. Nabonidus (556-539 BC)
was the reigning Babylonian king at the time of Cyrus. Babylon was invaded and
captured by Cyrus in 539 BC. This was a major event in the history of ancient
West Asia and is mentioned in many contemporary records including the Old
Testament and a cuneiform inscription dating back to the time of Nabonidus
(called the ‘Nabonidus Chronicle’). Cyrus allowed the Jews who had been
deported to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar II to return to their homeland. This
might have been related to his policy to create a friendly buffer between Egypt
and the Achaemenid possessions in Syria-Palestine. Nevertheless his action
earned him the reputation of being a just and tolerant ruler. Cyrus pursued a
liberal policy with regard to the religious and cultural traditions of many of the
people he conquered. Apart from facilitating the return of the Jews, he showed
respect for Babylonian traditions. Contemporary Greek writers also speak
favourably of him. Cyrus seems to have been generally held in high esteem in
antiquity.
With the victory over Babylon, all of Mesopotamia as well as Babylonian
territories in Syria-Palestine were incorporated within the Achaemenid Empire.
This completed the shift in political gravity in West Asia from Mesopotamia
to Iran, a process which had started under the Medes. We do not possess much
information about Achaemenid expansion in the east under Cyrus. It is likely
that Bactria (Bakhtrish) was added to the empire and that by the time Cyrus
died Achaemenid rule extended to the Hindukush mountains.
4.2.2 Cambyses
Cyrus died in 529 BC while on a military expedition. He was succeeded by his
son Cambyses (Kambujiya), 529-522 BC. Not much is known about the brief
reign of Cambyses, except that he was mainly preoccupied with campaigns
in Egypt. Under Cambyses Egypt was added to the Achaemenid Empire. He
invaded Egypt c. 525 and quickly defeated the Egyptian ruler Psamtek III,
who belonged to the XXVIth Dynasty of Egypt, also called the Saite dynasty
after Sais which was the place of origin of the dynasty. The Saite dynasty was
already on the verge of collapse due to internal problems. This might account
56 for the ease with which Cambyses conquered Egypt.
Later Greek accounts of Cambyses are highly prejudiced. They portray him The Persian Empire
as a mad and tyrannical ruler who had no respect for Egyptian traditions. This
is not confirmed by the Egyptian evidence that has come to light in the past
few decades. Cambyses took over the throne as a traditional Egyptian ruler
and adopted the symbols associated with the pharaohs in order to legitimize
his authority. Persian rule over Egypt lasted for nearly two centuries, i.e.
till Alexander the Great’s conquest. In the context of Egyptian history the
Achaemenids are designated as the XXVIIth Dynasty, indicating an element of
continuity from the Saite to the Persian period.
Cambyses is supposed to have undertaken a series of military expeditions into
some of the areas surrounding Egypt proper. Most of these expeditions seem
to have ended disastrously. These setbacks undermined his position in Iran
itself. The last days of Cambyses are shrouded in mystery but the available
evidence indicates that he was faced with revolts in his homeland. The long
absence of the king from Iran and reports of his military failures must have
encouraged these revolts. Cambyses died in 522 BC while still in the midst
of dealing with the upheaval. The events following his death are even more
confusing. This confusion is largely due to the fact that soon after the death of
Cambyses a different branch of the Achaemenids usurped power. The political
crisis in the Achaemenid state towards the end of Cambyses’s reign facilitated
this development. It is hardly surprising that in this situation different versions
of what actually happened were put forward.
According to one version a person by the name of Gaumata declared himself as
king. Gaumata is said to have claimed that actually he was Smerdis (Bardiya),
the younger brother of Cambyses. A group of nobles then killed the fake Smerdis
(i.e. Gaumata). This version holds that Smerdis had already been killed by
Cambyses much earlier and that Gaumata was impersonating Smerdis. Another
version states that Cambyses was succeeded by Smerdis, who had not been
killed, and that it was the real Smerdis who was overthrown. In any case it is
clear that there was a conspiracy by some of the prominent Achaemenid officials
(referred to in contemporary records as the conspiracy of ‘seven’ nobles). The
leader of this conspiracy was Darius I (Darayavaus). The coup was successful
and Darius I became the ruler of the Achaemenid Empire in 522 BC.
4.2.3 Darius I
Darius I (522-486 BC) was the son of Hystaspes (Vishtaspa), who was a leading
Persian official, probably a provincial governor. Hystaspes was descended
from a collateral branch of the Achaemenids. It was this branch which ruled
from 522 BC onwards. Darius I was the most outstanding of the Achaemenid
rulers. Under him the extensive territories acquired by Cyrus and Cambyses
were systematically organized to create a stable empire. Till about 519 BC
Darius was engaged in restoring order and reasserting Achaemenid authority in
regions which were in rebellion. It may be mentioned here that after the death of
Cambyses the Medes had attempted to break away from the Persian Empire and
Gaumata/Smerdis had the support of the old Median aristocracy of Ecbatana.
Within a year of occupying the throne Darius had put down the Median revolt.
Darius continued the process of expansion, both in the east and the west. In
the east the empire extended upto the Hindukush mountains and the outlying
territories in this region were properly integrated with the empire. In the west
a large part of the Aegean Sea and perhaps Thrace came under Persian control. 57
Ancient and Medieval Efforts were made to strengthen Persian control over coastal areas in the Persian
Societies Gulf, the Red Sea, the Eastern Mediterranean, and the Aegean Sea. Ships were
stationed in the Persian Gulf and a navy was maintained off the Anatolian
coast. It should be borne in mind that the military strength of the Persians lay
primarily in their land-based army. Darius also carried out campaigns in the
Greek peninsula, but was unable to annex the states of mainland Greece. For
the Greeks of the classical period (c. 500-338 BC) the Persians were a constant
political and military factor to be reckoned with.
The historian Herodotus who wrote an account, in Greek, of the encounter
between the Persians and the Greeks is a major source for the Achaemenids.
Herodotus was born c. 485 BC at Halicarnassus located on the south-west
coast of Anatolia. Halicarnassus was an Achaemenid territory. His famous
history is essentially a narrative of the westward expansion of the Persian
empire. Herodotus had travelled widely (Greece, Egypt, Mesopotamia, etc.)
before writing his account. Most of his information about Persia was derived
from contemporary Greek sources and from some prominent people who had
been connected with the Persian court. Another Greek source, though not very
reliable, is the Persica of Ctesias. Ctesias belonged to Cnidus, situated just
south of Halicarnassus in south-western Anatolia. He was taken as a prisoner
by the Persians during the course of a military campaign and became a doctor
at the Persian court, where he stayed for about seventeen years (till c. 397 BC).
His account is frequently at variance with that of Herodotus. The consensus
among modern scholars is that much of the information contained in Persica is
inaccurate.
Darius I himself has left behind a record of the opening years of his reign in the
form of a large trilingual inscription carved on the face of a cliff at Behistun in
western Iran. This inscription, known as the ‘Behistun inscription’, is in the Old
Persian, Elamite and Babylonian (Akkadian) languages. It provided the key for
the decipherment of the cuneiform script. The inscription is accompanied by
a massive relief carving of Darius. The Behistun inscription and Herodotus’s
history are the two main written sources for this period.
We have noted that Herodotus was largely concerned with Persian military
campaigns against Greek states. At this time the Greek-speaking world
consisted of numerous states which were spread over a sizable area extending
from western Anatolia in the east to southern Italy in the west and included
the Aegean islands, Thrace, the Greek peninsula, Crete and Sicily. Sparta and
Athens were the two most prominent states on the mainland. They were also
militarily the most significant (see Unit 12). Anatolia was already a part of the
Achaemenid Empire and the Persians had acquired a foothold in the Greek world
by subjugating the Ionian states. The Persian attempt to establish supremacy
over the Greeks was a prolonged affair which continued almost till the end of
the classical period. However Persian military campaigns in mainland Greece
were confined to the beginning of the classical period.
As soon as Darius had put down rebellions in the empire he embarked on an
expedition in Thrace (c. 513 BC). He crossed the Sea of Marmara into Europe
and placed a Persian garrison at the southern extremity of Thrace. At the same
time he sent messengers to various Greek states, including Sparta, demanding
that they acknowledge him as their ruler. The Greek response to this move
was not favourable. Subsequently Darius had to turn his attention to the Ionian
58
states in Anatolia. These states revolted against the Persians in 499 BC. The
Ionian revolt lasted for about six years and was eventually crushed. The support The Persian Empire
extended to the Ionians by some states of the Greek mainland became one of
the reasons for Darius to launch a full-scale invasion of the mainland. The
coast of Thrace had been secured earlier and from here the Persians moved into
Macedonia and then southwards in the direction of Athens. There is reason to
believe that the elite of many Greek states were won over by the Persians and
that they were integrated into the empire by being given leading positions in
regional administration and the army. Nevertheless Darius’s invasion ended
in failure. The Persian army was defeated by the Athenians at the battle of
Marathon (490 BC).
Following the death of Darius I in 486 BC his son and successor Xerxes I
(Khshayarsha), 486-465 BC, renewed the invasion of the Greek mainland. He
made elaborate arrangements for this purpose. These included setting up supply
depots, laying of roads, construction of bridges, and securing allies. Xerxes
attempted a two-pronged attack from both land and sea. The Persians were
routed at sea by the Athenian navy in the battle of Salamis (480 BC). This was
the turning point of the war. It dashed Persian hopes of controlling the Aegean
Sea. The battle of Salamis was followed by a decisive victory of the combined
Greek armies on land, at Plataea (479 BC). At Plataea the Greek troops were
led by Sparta. The Persians completely withdrew from the Greek mainland
after these reverses. Though there were no further military offensives into this
region, from the point of view of the Greeks the Achaemenids continued to be a
factor. Moreover, given their presence in Anatolia the Persians tried to interfere
in Greek affairs whenever they got an opportunity to do so. For several decades
during the fourth century BC they enjoyed a position of virtual hegemony over
the Greek states. Yet in territorial terms Anatolia marked the extremity of the
empire in the west.

4.3 ADMINISTRATIVE REORGANIZATION

During the rule of Darius I the Persian Empire was the largest empire of the
period. Its territorial expansion included Asia minor, Armenia, Palestine, Syria,
Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia, Northern part of Arabia, Afghanistan, Turkistan,
Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Tazakistan, Macedon, parts of Indus Valley and a number
of smaller regions. Administrative governance of such a vast empire required an
effective administrative apparatus. Darius I set about to undertake the job.
His lasting achievement was reorganization of the Achaemenid Empire. He
welded into a compact political unit the farflung territories inherited by him. A
regular system of tribute realization was instituted in order to ensure sufficient
resources for supporting the centralized administrative structure of the state
and a large army. A powerful monarchical state emerged under Darius with a
vast amount of wealth concentrated in the hands of a very small ruling elite.
This elite was increasingly drawn from prominent Persian families (especially
the immediate family of Darius) who now completely monopolized political
power, at least at the central level. The prestige and authority of the king was
crucial for legitimizing the enormous power exercised by the imperial elite. An
elaborate court ceremonial emphasized the majesty of the king. The evolution
of the monarchical state under the Achaemenids was influenced by Egyptian,
Assyrian and Babylonian monarchical traditions. In turn Achaemenid traditions
were adopted or imitated by later rulers including Alexander the Great and his
successors. 59
Ancient and Medieval A prominent feature of the organization of the Achaemenid Empire was its
Societies division into a number of provinces governed by ‘satraps’ (khshatrapavan).
Greek texts use the term ‘satrapy’ to designate a Persian province. The division
of the empire into satrapies goes back to the Median era when these units
corresponded to the respective conquered lands. Darius I made satrapies the
basic unit of administration at the provincial level. Henceforth the boundaries
of satrapies did not necessarily coincide with the original boundaries of
conquered lands. However, they were often named after the principal people
who inhabited them. A satrap could be a semi-autonomous provincial ruler or

60
a high official appointed by the king. In either case satraps had wide-ranging The Persian Empire
authority within their own domains, but were subject to overall supervision by
the imperial government through civil and military officials appointed directly
by the king.
Herodotus enumerates twenty satrapies while the Behistun inscription has a
list of twenty-three satrapies. Some of these can be easily identified—as for
example Parsa (Persis), Babairus (Babylon), Yauna (Ionia), Mada (Media),
Armina (Armenia), Sparda (Sardis, i.e. Lydia), Parthava (Parthia), and Bakhtrish
(Bactria). As has been pointed out some of these satrapies were already
established prior to Darius. Darius gave to the satrapies a concrete shape as
units of provincial administration. It was in this form that the satrapies survived
for several centuries, though with some modifications. Alexander took over
the satrapy structure when he conquered the Persian Empire and the structure
remained more or less intact in the successor states as well.
The ruler enjoyed the absolute power over the territories of the empire through
the army and appointment of Satraps. The Satraps were supposed to keep regular
contact with the rulers through frequent correspondence. The kings had special
officials to keep a vigil called ‘listners’ the ears of the king. They sent reports
from provinces. The Satraps were to look after local administration, maintain
law and order and contingents of Army.
The large size of the Satrapies at times made Satraps powerful and encouraged
them to rebel. The situation demanded regular attention of the ruler because of
the vast size of the empire.
The organization of a powerful army also provided the king with striking
capability and help in suppressing the rebellions. The Persians formed the
core of the army with men from other nationalities joining in. The elite group
of the army most loyal to the king was termed ‘Imperishable Ten Thousand’
comprising of Persian spearmen and cavalry.
The empire was territorially too large to be efficiently governed from a
single fixed capital. The king usually found it necessary to move one major
administrative centre to another. This was particularly the case with the early
Achaemenid rulers. Once Achaemenid rule had stabilized under Darius and
his successors, preference was increasingly shown for Susa (Shush) in south-
western Iran. Darius built a large palace at Susa and in the following centuries
this city was the ‘normal recognized centre of government’ of the Achaemenids.
Babylon retained its prominence both due to its strategic location and its
historical importance. Babylon was, in fact, the foremost urban centre of the
empire. In Parsa proper the Achaemenids developed an impressive imperial
city which was known to the Greeks as Persepolis (modern Takhi-i-Jamshid).
Darius and his successors constructed a series of grand palaces at Persepolis.
This city primarily served a ceremonial purpose. This was the place where
the kings celebrated the New Year festival and where local chieftains made
ritual offerings of tribute. It has been suggested that the main treasury of the
Achaemenid rulers was located at Persepolis. The magnificent royal city was
destroyed by Alexander the Great, but the remains which still survive point
towards the huge dimensions of the palace. Large blocks of stone were used to
construct the palace. The walls are decorated with relief carvings. There were
several rows of pillars. Persepolis is one of the finest examples of Achaemenid
art and architecture. 61
Ancient and Medieval The Achaemenid rulers were buried near Persepolis, at a place called Naqsh-i-
Societies Rustam. Persepolis was situated close to the city of Pasargadae which was
founded by Cyrus the Great as the capital of the Persian Empire. Under the
early Achaemenids the old Median capital, Ecbatana, still had considerable
significance as an administrative centre. As already noted, Sardis was the main
centre of Achaemenid government in western Anatolia.

4.4 SYSTEM OF COINAGE

The Achaemenids ruled over an empire which was inhabited by diverse ethnic
and linguistic groups. It is remarkable that they were able to keep the empire
unified over a long period of time despite this diversity and heterogeneity.
Darius introduced a uniform coinage, standardized weights and measures, and
promoted a new script to make the empire more cohesive. A uniform coinage
with a high level of metallic purity promotes economic activities and exchange.
At the same time circulation of this currency over a wide area is an assertion
of political authority. The conquest of Lydia, the first state in history to issue
coins on a regular basis, had a profound impact on Achaemenid monetary
development.
The striking of coins was at this time a relatively new phenomenon. Issuing
of coins by the state implied stamping pieces of precious metal (in convenient
units of predetermined size, weight and purity) with symbols that signified the
authority of the government and guaranteed the value of each piece. This was
preceded by, and closely linked to, a long process of standardization of weights
and measures. Over a period of nearly two centuries the Assyrian and Babylonian
empires had achieved such standardization. The Achaemenids inherited the
Babylonian standard that was widely prevalent in most of West Asia. Silver
was the main standard for worth, i.e. the value of other precious metals as well
as goods was measured in terms of their value in relation to silver. The metal
was used for exchange without being coined. Fine silver was simply weighed
for the purpose of exchange. Nevertheless the standardization of weights was
crucial for developing a generally acceptable system of determining the worth
of goods for exchange, and was an important prerequisite for the introduction
of coinage.
The Babylonian weight standard was based on a sexagesimal system of
multiples (the origins of which go back to the Sumerian civilization) in which
1 biltu (‘talent’) of 29,472 grams equaled 60 manu (‘minae’); 1 manu of 491.2
grams equaled 60 shiqlu (‘shekels’); and 1 shiqlu of 8.18 grams equaled 2
zuzu (‘drachmae’). This standard was revised by Darius I (c. 515 BC) so that
henceforth the weight of the talent was 30,240 grams, that of the mina was 504
grams and that of the shekel was 8.40 grams. The coins of Darius were based
on the revised shekel. Coinage was an innovation which the Achaemenids
borrowed from the Lydians.
A somewhat different system had evolved in western Anatolia, especially under
Lydian influence. Here gold (often in an impure form), rather than silver, was
initially the standard for worth. The earliest coins to be issued were struck out
of an alloy of gold and silver (electrum). Electrum was available as a natural
alloy in many parts of western Anatolia. Lydia and probably some of the Greek
settlements in Anatolia began issuing electrum coins around 600 BC. By the
62 time of Croesus Lydia had a bimetallic currency. Croesus is credited with this
reform. This meant that both gold and silver coins were issued and that the state The Persian Empire
established a fixed exchange rate between the two. The fixed rate of exchange
between gold and silver as metals was expressed in the form of a guaranteed
exchange rate between gold and silver coins.
When Lydia was annexed by the Achaemenids the type of gold and silver coins
which were most common in the region were of a type referred to by historians
as ‘light Croeseids’. These were struck separately in gold (weight 8.05 grams)
and silver (weight 5.40 grams). The ‘light Croeseids’ remained in circulation
within Persian territories in the west for several years after the conquest of
Lydia, and were even minted by the Achaemenids for some time. It was under
Darius that coins of a different design began to be issued — both in silver and
gold. These were the first truly Achaemenid coins and were minted at Sardis,
the former capital of Lydia and headquarters of the Persian territories in western
Anatolia. The silver coins were known to the Greeks as siglos (from shiqlu
or shekel, though their actual weight was different), while the gold coins of
Darius are referred to as ‘Darics’. The gold Darics conformed to the shekel
and weighed 8.40 grams (the weight of the revised shekel) while the silver
siglos were of the same weight as the former silver Croeseids (5.40 grams).
The exchange rate was 1 gold Daric = 20 silver sigloi. The evidence from coin
hoards indicates that the circulation of coins issued by Darius and his successors
remained confined mostly to the western portions of the empire, particularly
Anatolia. Apart from Achaemenid coins Athenian coins too were in circulation
in this region. In other parts of the empire uncoined precious metal remained
the medium of exchange.
The standardization of coinage, weights and measures helped the trading
activities. A unified large empire with comparative security provided markets
for large scale trading activities. We get evidence of fairly good quality artisanal
production with craftsmen of different nationalities engaged in production of
goods.

4.5 LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

In order to rule over an empire inhabited by so many different linguistic
groups the Achaemenids needed to evolve a link language which would
facilitate communication. Darius actively pursued a policy for encouraging the
development of such a link language. It is generally recognized that the most
widely spoken language of the empire was Aramaic. Aramaic was originally
spoken by some of the tribes living in northern Mesopotamia. The use of Aramaic
had steadily grown in the Assyrian empire and the language had subsequently
penetrated the New Babylonian Empire. In other words, Aramaic (with the
various dialects derived from it) was already spoken by a large proportion of the
population in Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine by the time the Persian Empire
came into being. What is more, Aramaic had emerged as the main language of
trade in West Asia. It is not surprising that Darius and his successors promoted
the use of Aramaic throughout the empire. An Aramaic script had also evolved
which, because of its simplicity, could be used for a variety of purposes. This
was an alphabetic script of twenty letters. It was derived from the Phoenician
script and influenced the development of many other scripts of West Asia,
including Hebrew.

63
Ancient and Medieval Whereas Aramaic was essentially the language of the common people, the
Societies language of the Achaemenid elite was a form of Persian which is designated as
Old Persian. This may be regarded as the official language of the Achaemenid
state. Old Persian was the language used in inscriptions and royal proclamations.
The cuneiform script of the Mesopotamians was modified for writing Old
Persian. Darius categorically states in one of his inscriptions that he invented
a new cuneiform script. Though the process of adapting cuneiform to suit the
requirements of Old Persian might have begun earlier it was probably completed
under Darius. However, Aramaic (both language and script) was the main
language of official documents and day-to-day imperial communication. The
Aramaic script was sometimes also used for writing Old Persian. It needs to be
noted that several other languages (Elamite, Babylonian, Egyptian etc.) were
routinely used for official purposes, of which the trilingual Behistun inscription
is an outstanding example.

4.6 RELIGION
The fast expansion of the Persian Empire brought a large number of territories
inhabited by people of different faiths and beliefs. The attitude of the
Achaemenid state was open towards them. The Achaemenid state had a well-
deserved reputation for religious tolerance. Although by the time of Darius I
Zoroastrianism had become the dominant creed of the Persian elite, the religious
traditions of the several communities which inhabited the empire continued to
thrive. This was a key element of Achaemenid policy towards the conquered
people’s right since the time of Cyrus the Great. Cyrus definitely seems to have
protected local cults as is apparent from his support to the Jews. He also helped
to rebuild some of the sacred shrines of the Babylonians, for example the temple
of the moon-god at Ur.
Personally Cyrus might have accepted some Zoroastrian rituals, but we have
little information on this point. It is certain that under Darius Zoroastrianism
had come to occupy a prominent place in the religious life of the Persian ruling
class. The rise of Zoroastrianism goes back to the seventh century, or perhaps
even earlier, when the prophet Zarathustra (Zardusht, Zarat-ushtra) taught the
main tenets of this religion. Most scholars are of the view that Zarathustra lived
and preached in north-eastern Iran. The semi-nomadic people of this area were
his earliest followers. From here the ideas and beliefs of Zarathustra spread to
other parts of Iran. We know that Zoroastrianism had made a lot of progress
among the Medes.
During the course of its evolution Zoroastrianism incorporated some of the older
Iranian religious traditions, including some aspects of polytheism. Zarathustra
had taught a monotheistic doctrine, the fundamental feature of which was the
worship of Ahura-Mazdah. As this doctrine developed, the universe was seen
as being governed by two opposing forces. On the one hand are the forces of
light and goodness, and on the other are the forces of darkness and evil. A
cosmic struggle is constantly going on between the two. The forces of light and
righteousness are represented by Ahura-Mazdah. Ahura-Mazdah is worshipped
as the divine creator and lord of wisdom. The worship of fire is an important
component of Zoroastrian ritual. Fire symbolizes light in the struggle against
darkness. Subsequently some other divinities were accommodated within
Zoroastrianism. It is significant that whereas Darius usually projected himself
64
as a worshipper of Ahura-Mazdah he patronized some ancient Iranian cults as The Persian Empire
well.
Despite his adherence to Zoroastrianism Darius continued with the liberal policy
of Cyrus. He is known to have respected Greek gods and goddesses. A Greek
inscription from Darius’s reign records his regard for Apollo. The successors of
Darius too, by and large, left non-Iranian cults undisturbed. At the same time
Zoroastrianism emerged as the official religion of the state. In other words it
became an integral part of the state apparatus. This development was linked to
the growing importance of the Magi, a hereditary priestly class which began to
monopolize Zoroastrian rituals especially at the official level. The Magi had
become quite powerful under Xerxes and their influence continued to grow.
However the religious outlook of the Achaemenid state remained remarkably
eclectic right till the end.

4.7 DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE

The Achaemenid Empire flourished for more than 200 years with minor ups
and downs. Every time a ruler died there was some sort of upheaval in different
satrapies. The revolts in different regions occurred intermittently and were
suppressed. Skirmishes on the borders were also taking place and making small
dents but by and large the empire remained intact. The biggest blow came in the
form of the attack of Alexander.
The Achaemenid Empire came to an end as a result of the invasion of Persian
territories by Alexander the Great. The Achaemenid ruler at this time was Darius
III (336-331 BC). Alexander inflicted a series of defeats on the Persian army,
beginning with the battle of Granicus (334 BC) in western Anatolia. Following
this battle western Anatolia became a Macedonian territory. Subsequently
Alexander moved toward Syria and defeated the Persian army led by Darius III
at Issus (333 BC). Egypt was taken in 331 BC. Alexander then marched towards
the Tigris and after crossing it defeated Darius at the battle of Gaugamela (331
BC). While Darius fled to Ecbatana, Alexander captured Babylon, Susa and
Persepolis. As a symbolic act, marking the end of the Persian empire, Alexander
ravaged the city of Persepolis. Darius himself was assassinated in 330 BC.
Alexander the Great’s conquests in effect amounted to the conquest of the
Achaemenid Empire. The consequences of these conquests will be discussed in
the next Unit in the context of the history of ancient Greece.

4.8 SUMMARY
In this Unit, we have discussed the process of the expansion and consolidation
of the largest Persian empire of the period. Cyrus and Darius I played a key
role in its formation. The division of the empire into administrative units
called satrapies provided it certain stability. Satraps worked as an organized
bureaucracy to sustain it. Standardization of the coinage and safe transportation
of merchandise gave a fillip to economic activity.
Darius and his successors promoted Aramaic as a link language for the empire.
Zoroastrianism which incorporated some of the older Iranian traditions became
the most dominant religion. However, it was not forced on all regions of the
empire and state followed a policy of high degree of religious tolerance.
65
Ancient and Medieval The empire after flourishing for more than 200 years declined as a result of
Societies the invasion of the Alexander the Great around 334 BC. The empire gradually
disintegrated. In the 3rd Century A.D. we again witness the rise of another
mighty empire – the Sasanid Empire in Iran.

4.9 EXERCISES
1) How did Cyrus and Darius I expand the Persian Empire?
2) Write a note on administrative organization of the Persian Empire.
3) Briefly discuss the system of coinage and the evolution of Zoroastrianism
in the Persian Empire.

66