SYNOPSIS

8).  x +  y    x + y    x + y  + 1

Signum function:

 −1, if x  0

f ( x) = 0, if x = 0
1, if , x  0


Fractional part function:

1) f ( x) = {x} = f, if x = n + f, where n is an integer and 0  f  1

1 −  x , x  I
2) − x = 
0, x  I

3) x + m = {x}, m  I

 x + 2, x  [−2, −1)
 x + 1, x  [−1, 0)

4)  x = 
 x, x  [0,1)
 x − 1, x  [1, 2)

5) { x } = x – [x] and { x } 0,1) and hence { x } can never be negative

6) The solutions of the equation { x } + { -x } = 0 are integers

7) Fractional function is periodic with period 1 and it is many to one function

Transcendental functions:

The function which is not algebraic, is called transcendental function

Examples: f(x) = sinx, f(x) = cosx and so…on

Identical functions:

Two functions f, g are said to be identical if their domains and ranges are equal, and
f ( x ) = g ( x ) x  domain of f or g

Examples:

( )
i) f ( x) = ln x 2 and f ( x) = 2ln ( x ) are not identical functions as their domains are not equal

1
ii) f ( x ) = and f ( x) = log x e are identical functions
ln ( x )

( ) ( )
iii) f ( x) = sin cos−1 x and f ( x) = cos sin −1 x are identical functions

ODD / EVEN functions:

1.A function is said to be even function if f (− x) = f ( x) , for all real x

2. Graph of an even function is always symmetrical about y – axis

3. A function is said to be odd function if f (− x) = − f ( x) , for all real x

4. If any function f(x) satisfies f (a + x) = f (a − x) for all real x then the graph of f(x) is
symmetrical about the line x = a (Particularly when a = 0 it is even function)

5. If any function f(x) satisfies f (a + x) = − f (a − x) for all real x then the graph of f(x) is
symmetrical about the point ( a, 0) (Particularly when a = 0 it is odd function)

6. Graph of an odd function is always symmetrical about the point origin

7. A function which is both odd and even is f(x) = 0

8. The derivative of an odd function is even function and vice versa

9. Even functions are always many one.

10. Inverse of an even function,is not defined.

11. Let f(x) and g(x) be two functions and f ( g ( x)) , g ( f ( x)) exist then

i) f(x) is odd and g(x) is odd  f ( g ( x)) is also odd function

ii)f(x) is odd and g(x) is even  f ( g ( x)) is even function

iii)f(x) is even and g(x) is even  f ( g ( x)) is also even function

iv) f(x) is even and g(x) is odd  f ( g ( x)) is also even function

12. A function may neither be even nor odd

13. Any function f(x) can be expressed as a sum of odd and even functions i.e.
1
f ( x) = ( f ( x) + f (− x) ) + ( f ( x) − f (− x) ) 
2

15. If f(x) is an odd function and f(x) is defined at x = 0 then

f(0) is to be equal to zero ( f(0) = 0)

16. If f(x) is odd function and periodic with periodic 2 then f(4) = 0

Some examples for odd functions

a) f ( x) = ( g ( x) − g (− x) )( h( x) + h(− x) )

b) f ( x) = 1 + x + x 2 − 1 − x + x 2

(
c) f ( x) = sin ln( x + x2 + 1) )
x ( sin x + tan x )
d) f ( x) = ([.] G I F )
 x +  1
   − 2
e) (
f ( x) = ( sgn x ) ) , x  0 , n is odd integer
sgn x n

f) f ( x) = max{cot x, tan x}

 2x − 1 
g) f ( x) =   ( g ( x) + g ( − x) )
 2 +1 
x

 1+ x 
h) f ( x ) = ln  
 1− x 

Some examples for even functions

x x
a) f ( x) = + +1
e −1 2
x

 1 1
d) Let G ( x ) =  x +  F(x), where ‘a’ is a positive real number not equal to 1 and F(x) is an odd
 a −1 2 
function, then G(x) is an even function

* The product of two odd functions is an even function and their sum is an odd function

PERIODIC Functions:

1. A f(x) is said to be periodic function if there exists a fixed positive real number T independent
of x such that f ( x  T ) = f ( x) for every x in its domain, then T is called its period

Here the least positive value of T is called fundamental period of the function

2. f(x) is a periodic functions with period T then f ( x  a) and af ( x)  b are also periodic function
with period T.

1
3. F(x) is a periodic functions with period T then f ( x) , ( f ( x)  0 ) and ( f ( x)  0 ) are also
f ( x)
periodic function with period T.

T
4. F(x) is a periodic functions with period T then f (ax  b) is also periodic function with period
a
where a,b are real numbers

5. Monotonic functions are not periodic, periodic functions are not injective

 a c e  LCM (a, c, e,....)

6. LCM of  , , ,...  =
 b d f  HCF (b, d , f ,...)

7. LCM ( irrational, irrational) is possible, (but similar irrationals)

LCM ( rational, rational) is possible

but LCM ( irrational, rational) is not possible

15. F(x) = k (where k is a real number) is a constant function is even function (Constant
functions are always periodic with no fundamental period)
18. If the period of f(x) is T1 and the period of g(x) is T2 , then the fundamental period of f(x) + g(x)
is the L.C.M. of T1 and T2 (in general) (but fundamental period of f ( x ) + g ( x ) may be lesser than
Lcm of T1 , T2 )

19.If f ( x) = − f ( x + a) , for all real x , a is real greater than zero , then the period of the function
f(x) is 2a.

20. If f (a + x) = f (a − x) and f (b + x) = f (b − x) for all real x , a, b are real constants , greater

than zero and a > b , then the period of the function f(x) is 2a - 2b.

21. If f (a + x) = f (a − x) and f (b + x) = − f (b − x) for all real x , a, b are real constants , greater

than zero and a > b , then the period of the function f(x) is 4(a – b)

1
22. If a function f(x) is defined such that f ( x + T ) =  (where T is a positive real number)
f ( x)
then f(x) is a periodic function with period 2T )

24) Dirichlet function:

1, x  rational
f ( x) =  , is periodic function with no fundamental period
0, x  irrational

One – one function (Injective):

A function f : A → B is said to be one – one function (injection) if different elements of A have

different images in B

[ f : A → B is one – one ,  a  b  f (a)  f (b) for all a,b  A  f (a) = f (b)  a = b , for all a,b
 A]
If f(x) is a real valued continuous function and monotonic ( either always increasing or
decreasing) then ‘f’ is one, but the converse is not true

On to function (Surjective):

A function f : A → B is said to be onto function (surjection) if every element of B, has atleast one
pre image in A (i.e. f(A)=B)

Identity function (IA):

Let A be a non empty set. A function f : A → A , is said to be an identity function if f associates every
element of set A, to the element itself (i.e. f(x) = x)

Invertible functions

A function which is one - one and on to, is called bijective

1.periodic functions are not invertible

−1
2. The graphs of f ( x) and f ( x) its inverse are symmetrical about the line y = x

3. The inverse of bijective function is unique and bijective

−1
6. Points of intersection of f ( x) & f ( x) , lie on the line y = x. It may lie elsewhere also.
7. Consider f ( x) = ax + bx + cx + d and f '( x) = 0 for x = c1 , c2 (exists)
3 2

i) if c1  c2 and f (c1 ). f (c2 )  0 f(x) = 0 has three distinct real roots and f(x) is not one – one

ii) if c1  c2 and f (c1 ). f (c2 )  0 f(x) = 0 has only one real root and f(x) is not one – one

ii) if c1  c2 and f (c1 ). f (c2 ) = 0 f(x) = 0 has three real roots out of which two of them are equal and
f(x) is not one – one

iv) if c1 = c2 and f (c1 ). f (c2 ) = 0 f(x) = 0 has three equal real roots and f(x) is one – one and hence
f(x) isinvertible

v) if c1 = c2 and f (c1 )  0 then f(x) = 0 has only one real root and f(x) is one – one and hence
invertible.

vi) if f '( x) = 0  x = c1 , c2 do not exist, then f(x) is monotonic, depends on sign of a.

Conclusion: f ( x) = ax + bx + cx + d is invertible then discriminant of f '( x) = 0 is  0.

3 2

Composite function:

1. g ( f ( x) ) is defined when range of f(x) is a subset or equal to the domain of g(x)

(
2. Composition of functions is associative i.e. ( f g) h = f ( g h))
3. Composition is not commutative in general ( g ( f ( x) )  f ( g ( x) ) )

4. Composition of bijective functions is also bijective function and ( f g ) = g −1 f −1

−1

5. If f : A → B and g : B → C are functions such that ( f • g ) = I B & ( g • f ) = I A , then f and g are

−1 −1
bijective functions and also f = g & g = f

6) If f : A → B and g : B →A are functions such that

(a) If gof : A → C is one one then f must be one one (g may be or may not be one – one)

(b) If gof : A → C is onto then g must be onto (f may or may not be onto)

(c) gof : A → C is bijection then f and g are not necessarily bijections but f is necessarily

one-one ‘g’ is necessarily onto

7. Both f(x) and g(x) are on to functions which implies their composition may not be onto (i.e.
f ( g ( x) ) or g ( f ( x) ) is not necessarily to be on to function)

8. Both f(x) and g(x) are one – one functions which implies their composition is also one – one
(i.e. f ( g ( x) ) & g ( f ( x) ) is also one – one function)
9. If f(x) is a periodic function with periodic T and g(x) is non periodic & monotonic function, then
g ( f ( x) ) is also periodic function with period T

[example:

i) f ( x) = sin x and g ( x) = e which implies f ( g ( x) ) = esin x is also periodic function with period as
x

that of f(x)

ii)Function f ( x ) = sin ( x + 3sin x ) is periodic ,with period 2 f ( g ( x ) ) is periodic if g(x) is periodic

iii) Function f(x) = tan ( x + sin x ) , is periodic ,with period 2 ]

10. If f(x) is a periodic function with periodic T and g(x) is non periodic & non monotonic
function, then g ( f ( x) ) is also periodic function with fundamental period T or less than T

[example: f ( x) = sin x and g ( x) = x which implies f ( g ( x) ) = sin 2 x is also periodic function with
2

period less than the period of f(x) ]

11) Composition of two non periodic functions can be periodic

 x 2 , x  Integer
g ( x) =  , f ( x) = [ x] then g ( f ( x) ) = 2, x , which is periodic function with no fundamental
2, x  int eger
period

12) nature of t monotoncity of a function and it’s inverse remains same. But not the nature of concavity.

−1
Let g ( x) = f ( x)

g(f(x))=x

1
g ' ( f ( x)) = '
f ( x)

−1
g " ( f ( x)) = f " ( x)
( f ( x) )
' 3

f’= +Ve & f” = +Ve → g” = -Ve

f’= -Ve & f” = +Ve → g” = +Ve

f’= +Ve & f” = -Ve → g” = +Ve

f’= -Ve & f” = -Ve → g” = -Ve

Some standard functions/results

1 1
1. Let f(x) be a polynomial function of degree n, n is a natural) and if f ( x) f   = f ( x) + f   ,
 x  x
x  R − {0} , then f(x) = 1  x n .
3. If f : R → R is a real continuous function satisfying f ( x + y) = f ( x) + f ( y) for all real numbers
x and y, then f ( x) = x. f (1) or  x where  is a constant.

4. If f : R → R is a real continuous function satisfying f ( x + y) = f ( x) f ( y) for all real numbers x

and y, then f ( x) = ( f (1) ) or a  x , where  is a constant.
x

+
5. If f : R → R is a real continuous function satisfying f ( xy) = f ( x) + f ( y) for all positive real
numbers x and y, then f ( x) =  ln x , where  is a constant or f(x) = 0

Number of functions:

A function is defined from f : A → B , and r = n( A), n = n( B) , then

Number of ways in which r

different balls can be distributed
among “n” persons,

( n ( B )) (
Total number of If any one can get any number of n A) r
= n
functions balls
Total number of Each one gets, a maximum of one  n Cr .r ! if n( B)  n( A)
1-1 functions ball 
(or)  0, if n( B)  n( A)
Permutation of “n” different
objects,
Taken from “r” objects.
Total number of At least one person gets more than n r − n Cr .r ! if n  r
many-one one ball
 r
functions (or) n , if n  r
Total functions – number of 1-1
functions
Total number of Each one gets at least one ball if r  n
onto functions (that is no box is empty)
nr −n c1. ( n − 1) + n c2 . ( n − 2 ) −n c3 . ( n − 3) + .....,
r r r
f : A → B, such (or)
that Coefficient of Or
n(A) = n, n(B) = r x n ( A) in n( A)!.(e x − 1) n ( B )  r! if r = n
(or) selection and arrangement of n 
items from “r” categories of 0 if r  n
identical items of unlimited
numbers, selecting atleast one
item from each category.
Total number of Total functions - number of functions
into functions

Total number of r ! if r = n
bijective 
(invertible) o if r  n
functions
Total number of bijective (invertible) functions
Such that f (i)  i, i , is Dn
Number of All the balls are received by any n(B)
constant one person
functions
Number of 1
identity
functions
from f : A → A is
SETS AND RELATIONS