‘MUGHAL ART AND ARCHITECTURE’

Introduction

The Mughal era (1526–1857) is often regarded as the golden period of art, architecture, and literature in the Indian subcontinent.
Under the patronage of Mughal emperors, especially from Akbar to Shah Jahan, a distinct cultural identity emerged, combining
Persian, Indian, and Islamic influences. One of the most significant contributions of this era was in the field of architecture, with
the Taj Mahal being a symbol of perfection in this artistic journey. Alongside architecture, Mughal painting, literature, and other
forms of artistic expression also flourished, leaving a lasting cultural legacy. Prominent historians like Abdul Fazl in the
Akbarnama, Bada'uni, and Firishta, as well as modern historians like Percy Brown, provide essential perspectives on the
Mughal era's contribution to art, architecture, and literature.

Taj Mahal: A Perfect Moment in the Evolution of Mughal Architecture

The Taj Mahal, commissioned by Shah Jahan in 1632 as a mausoleum for his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal, marks the zenith of
Mughal architectural achievement. Several aspects of its construction and design highlight the culmination of centuries of
architectural evolution.

1. Inspiration from earlier Mughal architecture

The Taj Mahal integrates elements from earlier Mughal monuments, such as Humayun’s Tomb and Akbar’s Tomb in Sikandra,
showcasing a synthesis of Persian, Islamic, and Indian architectural styles. Percy Brown, a noted historian on Indian
architecture, points out that the Taj Mahal reflects Shah Jahan’s vision of fusing different architectural traditions.

2. Symmetry and harmony

The Taj Mahal’s hallmark is its perfect symmetry. The use of white marble, a material that had only been sporadically used in
previous Mughal monuments, added to the building’s ethereal beauty. Ebba Koch, a leading scholar on Mughal architecture,
writes that the flawless symmetry of the structure symbolizes Shah Jahan’s vision of eternal love and paradise.

3. Architectural innovations

The Taj Mahal introduced several architectural innovations, such as the use of the double-dome system and intricate pietra dura
(inlay work using semi-precious stones) that had not been fully realized in earlier Mughal buildings. Abdul Fazl records in his
work Ain-i-Akbari that the Mughals were known for introducing innovations in architecture, and the Taj Mahal exemplifies this
tradition.

4. Islamic influence and symbolism

The Quranic inscriptions on the walls of the Taj Mahal and the perfect alignment of the structure with the cardinal directions
reflect its deep connection to Islamic architectural traditions. The garden, which surrounds the monument, symbolizes the
concept of paradise as described in the Quran, according to Bada'uni.

5. Representation of Mughal grandeur

The sheer scale of the Taj Mahal, coupled with its intricate detailing, reflects the grandeur of Mughal architecture at its height. It
stands as a symbol of the empire’s wealth, power, and cultural sophistication. Firishta notes that the Mughals were particularly
focused on creating monumental structures that would serve as lasting representations of their dynasty.

Distinctive Features of Mughal Architecture

Mughal architecture evolved over several reigns, reaching its peak during the period of Shah Jahan. Key features include a
synthesis of Persian, Islamic, and Indian influences, a focus on symmetry, and intricate decorative elements.

1. Use of red sandstone and white marble

Early Mughal architecture, especially during Akbar’s reign, was characterized by the extensive use of red sandstone, as seen in
Fatehpur Sikri. By Shah Jahan’s time, white marble became more prominent, as evidenced by the Taj Mahal and the Jama
Masjid. Abdul Fazl mentions in Akbarnama the symbolic value of using different materials to represent different phases of the
Mughal Empire.

2. Pietra dura and intricate inlay work

Pietra dura, or stone inlay work, became a distinctive feature of Mughal architecture, particularly under Shah Jahan. Semi-
precious stones like jasper and jade were embedded in white marble to create floral and geometric patterns. Percy Brown
describes this intricate inlay work as one of the hallmarks of Mughal sophistication.

3. Geometrical planning and symmetry

Mughal architecture was highly focused on creating symmetrical and geometrically aligned buildings, representing a cosmic
order. Firishta explains that this focus on geometry and symmetry was influenced by Persian architectural principles and Islamic
aesthetics.

4. Bulbous domes and tall minarets

The Mughals introduced the use of large, bulbous domes, often set on a high drum, as seen in Humayun’s Tomb and the Taj
Mahal. Minarets flanked these structures, serving both a religious function and adding to the visual grandeur. Bada'uni notes that
the inclusion of tall minarets was intended to evoke a sense of spiritual ascension.

5. Charbagh (four-part garden)

The Charbagh layout, a garden divided into four parts by walkways or waterways, is a significant feature of Mughal gardens,
symbolizing paradise. This garden layout can be seen in Shalimar Bagh in Lahore and the Taj Mahal. Ibn Khaldun, in his
works, emphasizes the importance of gardens in Islamic architecture as symbols of paradise.

Mughal Painting and Literary Achievements

The Mughal era was not only a time of architectural splendor but also of remarkable artistic and literary development. The
Mughal emperors were great patrons of the arts, leading to the flourishing of both painting and literature.

1. Mughal painting: Fusion of styles

Mughal painting developed a unique style, blending Persian, Indian, and European influences. Under Akbar, the Mughal atelier
flourished, with artists like Basawan and Daswanth producing miniature paintings that depicted court life, battles, and religious
themes. Abdul Fazl, in the Ain-i-Akbari, mentions that Akbar’s court employed hundreds of artists who produced exquisite
miniatures.

2. Realism and naturalism in Mughal art

A distinct feature of Mughal painting was its focus on realism and naturalism. Artists paid close attention to details like facial
expressions, plants, and animals. The works of Jahangir, who had a deep interest in nature, are particularly noteworthy.
Bada'uni mentions that Jahangir personally supervised many of the painters and encouraged depictions of flora and fauna.

3. Development of literature under Mughal patronage

Mughal rulers were great patrons of Persian literature. Akbar commissioned the translation of several Sanskrit texts into
Persian, including the Mahabharata (translated as Razmnama) and the Ramayana. Firishta also mentions that Muslim rulers
encouraged the study and preservation of Islamic literature.

4. Sufi poetry and influence on Hindi and Urdu literature

During the Mughal period, Sufi poets like Hazrat Amir Khusro laid the foundation for Urdu literature, blending Persian and
local vernaculars. Bada'uni notes the spread of Hindi and Urdu as literary languages, with Mughal rulers often patronizing poets
and writers who contributed to this linguistic synthesis.

5. Historical writing and chronicles

Mughal emperors commissioned several important historical texts, such as Abul Fazl’s Akbarnama and Jahangir’s
autobiography, Tuzk-e-Jahangiri. These works provide invaluable insights into Mughal governance, culture, and court life.
Abdul Fazl in particular played a critical role in documenting Akbar's reign and the social, political, and cultural developments
of the time.

Mughal Architecture in Pakistan

Several Mughal architectural masterpieces exist in present-day Pakistan, reflecting the dynasty's legacy in the region.

1. Badshahi Mosque, Lahore

Commissioned by Aurangzeb in 1671, the Badshahi Mosque is one of the largest mosques in the world and a prime example of
Mughal architecture. The mosque combines red sandstone with marble inlay work, embodying the grandeur of Mughal style.

2. Shalimar Gardens, Lahore

The Shalimar Gardens, built by Shah Jahan in 1641, is a classic example of the Charbagh layout and showcases intricate
waterworks, fountains, and terraces. Firishta records this garden as a representation of the Mughals' love for paradise on earth.

3. Lahore Fort

The Lahore Fort was extensively renovated by Akbar and later by Shah Jahan. The Sheesh Mahal, with its elaborate
mirrorwork, is a fine example of the architectural refinement achieved under Shah Jahan. Bada'uni notes the fort's significance
as both a military and cultural center during the Mughal period.

4. Rohtas Fort

Built by Sher Shah Suri, though not strictly a Mughal structure, Rohtas Fort later became an important military outpost for the
Mughals. Its defensive features reflect the practical aspects of Mughal architecture.

5. Wazir Khan Mosque, Lahore

The Wazir Khan Mosque is renowned for its intricate tile work, which blends Persian and Mughal influences. Constructed
during Shah Jahan’s reign, the mosque represents the artistic zenith of Mughal tile work.

Role of Art, Architecture, and Literature in Projecting the Muslim Image in the Subcontinent

Mughal art, architecture, and literature played a crucial role in protecting the power, cultural identity, and religious significance
of Muslims in the Indian subcontinent.

1. Symbol of power and legitimacy

Monumental buildings such as the Taj Mahal, Badshahi Mosque, and Red Fort were symbols of Mughal power, authority, and
legitimacy. Firishta argues that these buildings helped consolidate the image of the Mughals as rightful rulers of the
subcontinent, combining Islamic, Persian, and Indian architectural traditions.

2. Islamic identity and cultural expression

The incorporation of Quranic inscriptions, geometric designs, and Islamic garden layouts in Mughal architecture reflected the
religious identity of the empire. Ibn Khaldun notes that architecture was a key medium through which Muslim rulers expressed
their cultural and spiritual ideals.

3. Promotion of Persian and Urdu literature

Mughal rulers actively promoted Persian literature, which became the court language, and encouraged the development of Urdu
as a literary medium. Abdul Fazl and Bada'uni describe the importance of literary patronage in shaping the cultural identity of
the Mughal court.

4. Cultural fusion and inclusivity

Mughal art and architecture were not exclusively Islamic; they integrated elements from Hindu, Jain, and Rajput traditions,
symbolizing the empire’s pluralistic and inclusive approach. Bada'uni and Ibn Battuta observed the Mughals’ cultural
tolerance, which allowed them to project a broader image of Muslim rule in a diverse subcontinent.

5. Architectural diplomacy

The Mughals used architecture as a form of soft power, forging alliances and showcasing their wealth to foreign emissaries.
Firishta records instances where Mughal monuments were designed to impress visiting dignitaries, helping strengthen
diplomatic relations with neighboring states.

Critical Analysis

The Mughal period was a remarkable era of cultural flourishing in the Indian subcontinent. The combination of Persian, Islamic,
and indigenous Indian traditions created a unique and sophisticated style of art, architecture, and literature. While Abdul Fazl
and Bada'uni provide glowing accounts of the cultural achievements of the Mughal rulers, some historians like Firishta
highlight the occasional excesses, such as the enormous resources devoted to monumental projects like the Taj Mahal.
Nonetheless, the Mughal legacy remains one of the most significant in the history of South Asia, influencing art, architecture, and
literature long after the empire’s decline.

Conclusion

The Mughal era was a golden age of art, architecture, and literature in the Indian subcontinent. The Taj Mahal stands as the
pinnacle of Mughal architectural achievement, symbolizing the perfect synthesis of diverse influences. In addition to architecture,
the Mughals made lasting contributions to painting, literature, and cultural patronage. Through their artistic endeavors, they
projected a powerful and enduring image of Muslim rule, one that emphasized grandeur, inclusivity, and cultural sophistication.
Historians like Abdul Fazl, Bada'uni, and Firishta offer invaluable insights into this period, helping to understand the
multifaceted legacy of the Mughal Empire in shaping the cultural landscape of the subcontinent.