CONTENTS

SYMBOLS USED i - ii

TRIGONOMETRY 1 - 15

SET THEORY 16 - 27

RELATION AND FUNCTION 28 - 46

ALGEBRA 47 - 73

PERMUTATION &
COMBINATION 74 - 91

VECTOR ALGEBRA 92 - 100

STRAIGHT LINES (2D) 101 - 111

COMPLEX ALGEBRA 112 - 125

MATRICES 126 - 139

DETERMINANT 140 - 145

3D COORDINATE
GEOMETRY 146 - 160

CIRCLE 184 - 181

PARABOLA 182 - 193

ELLIPSE 194 - 201

HYPERBOLA 202 - 212

CONTINUITY &
DIFFERENTIABILITY 213 - 246

INTIGRAL CALCULUS 247 - 253

 i ii
Symbols used in mathematics Symbols used in mathematics
Symbol Symbol name Symbol Symbol name Symbol Symbol name Symbol Symbol name
Equivalence/ identical (a, b) Ordered pair rank(A) Rank of matrix A
≡ ≅ Congruence
to
Cartesian product (set of Nabla / del (gradient
∝ Proportional to ∞ Infinity A×B all ordered pairs from A ∇ / divergence opera-
and B) tor)
≪ Much less than ≫ Much greater than
a∈A Element of / belongs to x∉A Not element of
Set
~,≈ Approximately equal { a,b,..}
(Collection of elements) Universal set (set of
Ø or {} Empty set U
all possible values)
Determinant of matrix
|x| Absolute value, | -5 | = 5 |A|
A (det(A)) Intersection (objects
Union (objects that be-
A∪B A∩B that belong to set A
Delta = change / differ- Discriminant long to set A or set B)
∆ ∆ and set B)
ence e.g., ∆t = t1 - t0 = b2 - 4ac
Proper subset (subset has Proper superset (set
Function of x i.e., maps Function composition A⊂B fewer elements than the A⊃B A has more elements
f (x) (f ∘g)
values of x to f(x) (f ∘g) (x) = f (g(x)) set) than set B)
Open interval Closed interval Superset (set A has
(a, b) [a, b] Subset (has fewer ele-
= {x | a < x < b} = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b} A⊆B A⊇B more elements or
ments or equal to the set)
Complex conjugate equal to the set B)
i Iota = √−1 𝑧̅
(Imaginary number) (z = a + bi → 𝑧̅ = a - bi) Complement (all the ob- Not subset (left set
Ac jects that do not belong to A⊄B not a subset of right
⇒ Implies ⇔ Equivalent (or ↔)
set A) set)
∃ There exists ∄ There does not exists
A\B Symmetric difference
Relative complement A∆B
∀ For all n! n factorial = 1.2.3…. n or (objects that belong
(objects that belong to A or
to A or B but not to
Ceiling brackets or Floor brackets or A-B and not to B) A⊖B
their intersection)
rounds number to up- rounds number to
⌈x⌉ ⌊x⌋ Hermitian matrix
per integer e.g., ⌈4.3⌉ = lower integer e.g., ⌈4.3⌉ Matrix transpose A † or
5 =4 AT conjugate transpose
(AT)ij = (A)ji A*
[(A†)ij = (A)ji]
Sigma/ summation, Double Sigma/ double
∑ ∑∑ Cardinality (the
∑ xi= x1+x2+...+xn summation, Inverse matrix |A| or
A -1 number of elements
{ A A-1 = I } n(A)
r⃗ Vector r. 𝑛 Unit vector n =
⃗ of set A)
| ⃗|
Double integral
Dot/ scalar product Cross/ vector product Integral (Opposite to
𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗ 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗ ∫ ∬ (integration of func-
= | 𝑎⃗ || 𝑏⃗ | sin θ 𝑛 derivation)
= | 𝑎⃗ | | 𝑏⃗ | tion of 2 variables)
Combination of n Triple integral (integra-
n Pk Permutation of n things nCk things taken k at a Closed contour / line
∭ tion of function of 3 vari- ∮
taken k at a time time integral
ables)
Closed volume inte-
∯ Closed surface integral ∰
gral
 2

● Expressing each trigonometrical ratio in terms of each of the

* Angles: Measure of rotation of a given ray about its initial point.
others:
* Degree: A measure for angles. One full rotation = 360 degrees. The
symbol for degrees is °. Where 1° = 60′, 1′ = 60″.

* Radian: The angle subtended at the centre by an arc of 1 unit length in

a unit circle is called one radian. One full rotation = 2 π radians.
The angle subtended by an arc of length l of a circle of radius r is given by,
θ = l / r radians or l = r θ.

* Relation between degree and radian: π radian = 180°

or 1 radian = ( )° = 57° 16′ approx. Also 1° = radian = 0.01746 radi-
an approx.
● Trigonometric Ratios:

● Signs of trigonometric functions in different quadrants:

● Trigonometric functions:

sin θ = 0 ⇒ θ = nπ, n ∈ Z.
● Unit Circle:
( )
cos θ = 0 ⇒ θ= , n ∈ Z. The sequence of values in bracket is [cos, sin]

cosec θ = ⇒ θ ≠ nπ, n ∈ Z.

( )
sec θ = ⇒ θ≠ , n ∈ Z.

( )
tan θ = ⇒ θ≠ , n ∈ Z.

cot θ = ⇒ θ ≠ n π, n ∈ Z.

* For all real θ:

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1,
1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ,
1 + cot2 θ = cosec2 θ.
 3 4

θ θ sin θ cos θ tan θ cot θ sec θ cosec θ √𝟑 𝟏 √𝟑 𝟏

Also sin 150 = ; cos 150 = ;
degree radians 𝟐√𝟐 𝟐√𝟐

0 0 0 1 0 ∞ 1 ∞
√𝟓 𝟏 √𝟓 𝟏
𝛑 sin 180 = ; cos 360 =
30 𝟏 √𝟑 𝟏 √𝟑 𝟐 2 𝟒 𝟒
𝟔 𝟐 𝟐 √𝟑 √𝟑
● Trigonometric functions reduction formula table:
45 𝛑 𝟏 𝟏 1 1 √𝟐 √𝟐
𝟒 √𝟐 √𝟐
60 𝛑 𝟏 √𝟑 𝟏 2 𝟐
√𝟑
𝟑 𝟐 𝟐 √𝟑 √𝟑
90 𝛑 1 0 ∞ 0 ∞ 1
𝟐
120 𝟐𝛑 √𝟑 −𝟏 − √𝟑 −𝟏 −2 𝟐
𝟑 𝟐 𝟐 √𝟑 √𝟑
135 𝟑𝛑 𝟏 −𝟏 −1 −1 − √𝟐 √𝟐
𝟒 √𝟐 √𝟐
150 𝟓𝛑 𝟏 −√𝟑 −𝟏 − √𝟑 −𝟐 2
𝟔 𝟐 𝟐 √𝟑 √𝟑
180 π 0 −1 0 ∞ −1 ∞
210 𝟕𝛑 −𝟏 −√𝟑 𝟏 √𝟑 −𝟐 −2 ● Domain and range of trigonometric functions.
𝟔 𝟐 𝟐 √𝟑 √𝟑
225 𝟓𝛑 −𝟏 −𝟏 1 1 − √𝟐 − √𝟐
𝟒 √𝟐 √𝟐
240 𝟒𝛑 −√𝟑 −𝟏 √𝟑 𝟏 −2 −𝟐
𝟑 𝟐 𝟐 √𝟑 √𝟑
270 𝟑𝛑 −1 0 ∞ 0 ∞ −1
𝟐
300 𝟓𝛑 −√𝟑 𝟏 − √𝟑 −𝟏 2 −𝟐
𝟑 𝟐 𝟐 √𝟑 √𝟑
315 𝟕𝛑 −𝟏 𝟏 −1 −1 √𝟐 − √𝟐
𝟒 √𝟐 √𝟐
330 𝟏𝟏𝛑 −𝟏 √𝟑 −𝟏 − √𝟑 𝟐 −2
𝟔 𝟐 𝟐 √𝟑 √𝟑
Note:
360 2π 0 1 0 ∞ 1 ∞ 𝛑
tan and sec are undefined at and cot, cosec are undefined at π.
𝟐
 5 6
● Periodic formulas of trigonometrical functions:
● Sum/ difference to Product formula.
The periodic frequency of (sin, cos, sec and cosec) is 2π and the period-
ic frequency of (tan and cot) is π. Thus, if n ∈ Z then, sin A + sin B = 2 sin cos

sin (θ + 2πn) = sin θ, cosec (θ + 2πn) = cosec θ cos A + cos B = 2cos cos
cos (θ + 2πn) = cos θ, sec (θ + 2πn) = sec θ
sin A – sin B = 2 cos sin
tan (θ + πn) = tan θ, cot (θ + πn) = cot θ
cos A – cos B = – 2 sin sin
● General solution:
If sin θ = sin α, then θ = {nπ + (−1) n α} ● Product to sum/ difference formula.
If cos θ = cos α, then θ = {2nπ ± α} sin A sin B = [– cos (A + B) + cos (A – B)]
If tan θ = tan α, then θ = {nπ + α}
cos A cos B = [cos (A + B) + cos (A – B)]
● Trigonometric functions of sum and difference of two angles: sin A cos B = [sin (A + B) + sin (A – B)]
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
sin B cos A = [sin (A + B) – sin (A – B)]
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
sin (A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B ● Double/ Triple Angle Formulas.
cos (A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B sin 2A = 2sin A cos A =

● If none of the angles from A, B and (A + B) is an odd multiple

of π/2, then, cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A = 2cos2 A − 1 = 1 − 2sin2 A =

tan (A + B) = ; tan 2A =

tan (A − B) = sin 3A = 3 sin A − 4 sin3 A cos 3A = − 3 cos A + 4 cos3 A

● If none of the angles from A, B and (A + B) is multiple of π, tan 3A = ;

then,
. cot 3A =
cot (A + B) = ;

cot (A − B) =
. ● Half Angle Formulas.

( )
* Easy to remember: sin A = ± =

[sin (A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B,

( )
cos (A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B, cos A = ± =
± . ∓
tan (A ± B) = ; cot (A ± B) = ]
∓ ±
 7 8

( ) ⋯
tan A = ± * tan (A1+A2+A3+…. +An) =
( ) ⋯

Here, S1 = tan A1 + tan A2 + tan A3 +…

sin2 A = ;
= the sum of the tangents of the separate angles.

cos2 A = S2 = tan A1.tan A2 + tan A1.tan A3 + …

= the sum of the tangents taken two at a time.
sin3 A = ; S3 = tan A1.tan A2.tan A3 + tan A2.tan A3.tan A4 + …
= the sum of the tangents taken three at a time, and so on.
cos3 A =
● Relations between sides and angles of any plane triangle:
2 sin = ± √1 + sin A ± √1 − sin A In ∆ ABC the angles are A, B, and C with opposite sides a, b, and c respec-
𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
tively and S = .
𝟐
2 cos = ± √1 + sin A ∓ √1 − sin A
● Law of cosine:
● Some more useful formulae:
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc.cos A; a = b cos C + c cos B
* lim 1 + =e (e = 2.71828... ) b2 = c2 + a2 − 2ca.cos B; b = c cos A + a cos C
→
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab.cos C; c = a cos B + b cos A
* lim cos = lim ( )n = 1
→ →
cos A = ;

* (cos θ + i sin θ) n = cos n θ + i sin n θ = e in θ

cos B = ;
* Let S ≡ sin α + sin (α + β) + sin (α + 2β) + ... to n terms then,
cos C = .
( )
S= [ sin ]
● Law of sine:

* Let S ≡ cos α + cos (α + β) + cos (α + 2β) + ... to n terms then, = = = = 2R (R is radius of circumscribed circle)
∆
( )
S= [ sin ] ● Law of tangent:

* sin (A + B + C) = sin A cos B cos C + cos A sin B cos C = or tan = cot

+ cos A cos B sin C – sin A sin B sin C

* cos (A + B + C) = cos A cos B cos C – cos A sin B sin C = or tan = cot

– sin A cos B sin C – sin A sin B cos C

= or tan = cot
* tan (A + B + C) =
 9 10
● Circum-radius:
● Half Angle Formula: (2s = a + b + c)
R= = = = (Where ∆= Area of triangle)
∆

● In radius of inscribed circle:

∆
r= = (s − a) tan = (s − b) tan = (s − c) tan

● Radius of escribed circle (or Excircle):

A circle outside of a triangle that is tangent to one of its sides and also to
the other two sides that have been extended is called escribed circle.
( )
cos = =±

( )
cos = =±

( )
cos = =±
Let radius of escribed circles opposite to angles A, B, C be r1, r2, r3 respec-
tively, then:
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ∆
tan = ; tan = ; tan = r1 = = s tan ;
( ) ( ) ( )
∆
( ) ( ) r2 = = s tan ;
tan − tan = (s− c); cot − cot = s
∆ ∆ ∆
r3 = = s tan
tan + tan = cot = (s− c); cot + cot = cot
∆
● Hyperbolic Functions:
tan tan = ; cot cot =

● Area of Triangle (∆): ∆ = 𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)

(This is known as Hero’s formula) where s = (a + b + c)/2

∆= b c. sin A = c a. sin B = a b. sin C

cosh x = (ex + e−x)
∆ = = =
sinh x = (ex − e−x)

∆ = = = cosh ix = cos x
( ) ( ) ( )
sinh ix = i sin x
 11 12

cos ix = cosh x
sinh =
sin ix = i sinh x

cosh =
tanh x = =

tanh = =
coth x = =
sinh (2x) = 2sinh x. cosh x
sech x = =
tanh (2x) =

cosech x = =
cosh (2x) = cosh2 x + sinh2 x = 2cosh2 x −1 = 1 + 2sinh2 x

● Hyperbolic identities: sinh (3x) = 3sinh x + 4sinh3 x;

cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1 cosh (3x) = 4cosh3 x− 3cosh x
tanh2 x+ sech2 x=1
coth2 x − cosech2 x = 1 tanh (3x) =

● Relations of the hyperbolic functions: sinh (x ± y) = sinh x. cosh y ± cosh x. sinh y

sinh x = − sinh (− x); sech x = sech (− x)
cosh (x ± y) = cosh x.cosh y ± sinh x.sinh y
cosh x = cosh (− x); cosech x = − cosech (− x)
±
tanh (x ± y) =
tanh x = −tanh (− x); coth x = − coth (− x) ± .

sinh x = = sinh x + sinh y = 2sinh (x + y). cosh (x − y)

√

cosh x + cosh y = 2cosh (x + y). cosh (x − y)

cosh x = =
√
sinh x − sinh y = 2cosh (x + y). sinh (x − y)
tanh x = √1 − sech 𝑥 ;

coth x = √cosech 𝑥 + 1 cosh x − cosh y = 2sinh (x + y). sinh (x−y)

sech x = √1 − tanh 𝑥 ±
sinh x ± cosh x = = e ±x
∓
cosech x = √coth 𝑥 − 1
( ± )
tanh x ± tanh y = ;
.
 13 14

( ± ) The following table gives the principal value branches along with their
coth x ± coth y = ±
. domains and ranges.

● Trigonometric, Hyperbolic and other Series:

e=1+1+ + + ... up-to ∞

! ! !

ex = 1 + x + + + ... up-to ∞.
! ! !

e −x = 1 − x + − + ...
! ! !

ax = 1 + x. loge a + (x. loge a)2 + (x. loge a)3... up-to ∞.

! !
● Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions:
loge (1 + x) = x − x2 + x3 − x4 + ...up-to ∞. [−1 < x < 1]  
* sin–1 (sin x) = x: x∈[ , ]

loge (1 − x) = − x − x2 − x3− x4 − ... cos – 1(cos x) = x: x ∈ [0, π]

 
tan – 1(tan x) = x: x∈( , )
sin x = x − + − + −…
! ! ! !
cot – 1(cot x) = x: x ∈ (0, π)
cos x = 1 − + − +… 
! ! ! sec–1(sec x) = x: x ∈ [0, π] – { }
 
tan x = x − + − + … [− < x < ] cosec–1(cosec x) = x: x∈[ , ] – {0}

* sin (sin–1 x) = x: x ∈ [–1,1]

cot x = − − − −… [0< x < 𝜋]
cos (cos–1 x) = x: x ∈ [–1,1]
sec x = 1 + + + +… [− < x < ]
tan (tan–1 x) = x: x∈R
cosec x = + + + +… [0 < x < 𝜋]
cot (cot–1 x) = x : x∈R

sinh x = x + x3 + x5 + x7 + ··· valid for all x sec (sec–1 x) = x : x ∈ R – (–1,1)

! ! !
cosec (cosec–1 x) = x: x ∈ R – (–1,1)
cosh x = 1 + x2 + x4 + x6 + ··· valid for all x
! ! !

tanh x = x − x3 + x5 − x7 + ··· x < * sin–1 = cosec–1 x: x ∈ R – (–1,1)

cos–1 (– ) = sec–1 x: x ∈ R – (–1,1)

● Inverse Trigonometric Functions:
Principal value of function: The value of inverse trigonometric functions tan–1 (– ) = cot–1 x: x>0
which lies in the range of principal branch is called the principal value of
function. tan–1 (– ) = – π + cot–1 x: x<0
 15

* sin–1 (–x) = – sin–1 x: x ∈ [– 1, 1] Odd function

cos–1 (–x) = π – cos–1 x: x ∈ [– 1, 1] Neither odd nor even

Common symbols used in set theory.
tan–1 (–x) = – tan–1 x: x∈R Odd function
In the examples we have set A = {1,2,3,4}, set B = {3,4,5} and universal set
cot–1 (–x) = π – cot–1 x: x ∈ R Neither odd nor even U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7}.

sec–1 (–x) = π – sec–1 x: x ∈ R – (–1, 1) Neither odd nor even

cosec–1 (–x) = – cosec–1 x: x ∈ R – (–1, 1) Odd function

* sin–1 x + cos–1 x = : x ∈ [– 1, 1]

tan–1 x + cot–1 x = : x∈ R

cosec–1 x + sec–1 x = : x ∈ R – [–1, 1]

* tan–1x + tan–1 y = tan–1 : xy<1

tan–1x – tan–1 y = tan–1 : xy>–1

* 2tan–1 x = sin–1 : –1 ≤ x ≤ 1

2tan–1 x = cos–1 : x≥0

2 tan–1 x = tan–1 : –1<x<1

 17 18
● Important points on tautology and fallacy:
* {i} is not a set as i is not well defined. We don’t know any value whose
If ‘P’, ‘Q’ and ‘R’ are any three statements, T is tautology and, C is a con- square root is -1.
tradiction then:
* The elements that are written in the set can be in any order but cannot be
Idempotent Laws: P ∨ P = P and P ∧ P = P repeated.
Associative Laws: P ∨ (Q ∨ R) = (P ∨ Q) ∨ R and * A set may contain other sets. e.g., {1,2, {2,3}, {3}}
P ∧ (Q ∧ R) = (P ∧ Q) ∧ R
* Empty set, denoted by {} or ∅, is a set with no elements. It is a finite set.
Commutative Laws: P ∨ Q = Q ∨ P and P ∧ Q = Q ∧ P
* Empty set is a subset of all the sets.
Distributive Laws: P ∧ (Q ∨ R) = (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R) and
P ∨ (Q ∧ R) = (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R) ⁕ Analogy with a box:
Consider an empty box to be an empty set ∅ or {}. Then {∅} or {{}} can be
Identity Laws: P ∨ T = T, P ∧ T = P, thought as an empty box inside another box.
P ∨ C = P and P∧C=C
● Finite and infinite set:
Complement Laws: P ∨ (~ P) = T, P ∧ (~ P) = C, A set with definite number of elements. An empty set is also finite set as it
~T = C and ~C = T has nil elements.

Involution Law: ~ (~ P) = P A set having an unlimited element. e.g., {1,2, …}

De-Morgan’s Law: ~ (P ∨ Q) = (~ P) ∧ (~ Q) and ● Equal sets:

~ (P ∧ Q) = (~ P) ∨ (~ Q) Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have the same elements, oth-
erwise they are said to be unequal.
(Symbol ~ or ¬ is used for negation of any statement)

P ∨ Q = TRUE if and only if at least one of P and Q is true. ● Roster (or tabular) form:
P ∧ Q = TRUE if and only if both P and Q are true. In this method, all the elements of a set are listed down, and they are rep-
resented inside curly brackets. Each of the elements is written only once
(without repetition) and is separated by commas. For example, the set of
● Summary of explanation involving use of ∈ and ∉: letters in the word, "California" is written as A = {c, a, l, i, f, o, r, n}.
* x ∈ (A ∪ B) ⇔ x ∈ (A or B) ⇔ x ∈ A or x ∈ B
● Set-builder form:
* x ∈ (A ∩ B) ⇔ x ∈ (A and B) ⇔ x ∈ A and x ∈ B If the elements of a set have a common property, then they can be defined
by describing the property after x as follows in set builder form.
* x ∈ (A – B) ⇔ x ∈ A and x ∉ B
e.g., A = {x | 0 < x < 3} and read as “the set of all x such that x is between 0
* x ∉ (A ∪ B) ⇔ x ∉ (A or B) ⇔ x ∉ A and x ∉ B and 3”.

* x ∉ (A ∩ B) ⇔ x ∉ (A and B) ⇔ x ∉ A or x ∉ B ● Cardinality of a set:

* x ∉ (A – B) ⇔ x ∉ A or x ∈ B The number of distinct elements of any set is called its cardinality. The
cardinality of a set A is denoted by n(A) or |A|.
● Set:
● Singleton Set:
A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects called elements or A set having a single element is called singleton set. e.g., {a}.
members. (Sets are denoted by capital letters A, B, … etc. and its elements
by small letters or numbers a, b…1, 2… etc.)
 19 20

● Subset: ● Interval Notation of set:

Set A is said to be a subset of a set B if every element of A is also an ele- Let a, b ∈ R and a < b. Then we have following set of real numbers,
ment of B. Symbols ⊆ or ⊂ are used.
i. (a, b) = {y: a < y < b} iii. [a, b) = {x: a ≤ x < b}
* If A ⊂ B ⇒ a ∈ A and a ∈ B. Every element of B may or may not be in A. ii. [a, b] = {x: a ≤ x ≤ b} iv. (a, b] = {x: a < x ≤ b}

Therefore, A ⊂ A. * The number (b – a) is called the length of the interval.

* If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A ⇒ A = B.

* If A is not a subset of B we write A ⊄ B.

(Various types of intervals given above as subsets
* An element of a set can never be a subset of the set containing it. of R, are shown on number line in the figure.)

* If A ∈ B then A is element of B, hence A ⊄ B. ⁕ Set of non-negative real numbers is [0, ∞).

* ∅ is a subset of every set. ⇒ ∅ ⊂ ∅. * The set of negative real numbers is (– ∞, 0).

* ∅ ⊆ A but ∅ ∉ A. * The set (– ∞, ∞) describes the set of real numbers in relation to a line
extending from – ∞ to ∞.
● Some important sets:
N is set of Natural Numbers. N = {0,1, 2, 3, ···} ● Power set of a set:

Z is set of all Integers. Z = {···, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ··}. The set (or collection) of all subsets of a set A is called its power set and is
denoted by P(A). i.e., P(A) = {x: x ⊂ A}.
Z+ is set of Positive Integers. Z+ = {1, 2, 3, ···}
* If n(A) = n then n(P(A)) = 2n.
Z− is set of Negative Integers. Z− = {−1, −2, −3, ···}
R is set of Real Numbers. R=Q+T * If A ⊂ B, then P(A) ⊂ P(B).

Q is set of Rational Numbers. ● Important points on tautology and fallacy

T is set of Irrational Numbers. [T = {x: x ∈R and x ∉ Q} or T=R – Q]
* The denial of a statement is called the negation of the statement.
C is set of Complex Numbers.
* If P is some statement, then ¬ P (or ~ P) is called the denial of P.
B is set of Boolean Values (True, False).
* The compound statements which are true for any truth value of their
● Proper subset of a set: components are called tautologies.
If A ⊂ B and A ≠ B, then A is called a proper subset of B. * The negation of tautology is a fallacy or a contradiction.

● Superset of a set: * Tautology is always true. A fallacy is always false.

If A ⊂ B and A ≠ B, then B is called superset of A.
● Universal set:
* Some subsets are, N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q, Q ⊂ R, T ⊂ R, but N ⊄ T. A set which has elements of all the related sets, without any repetition of
elements. It is represented by U. If A and B are two sets, such as A =
{1,2,3} and B = {1, a, b, c}, then the universal set associated with these two
sets is given by U = {1, 2, 3, a, b, c}.
 21 22
ALGEBRA OF SETS
● Absorption Laws:
For three subsets A, B and C of a universal set U we have:
* A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A
● Important Points:
* A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A
* ϕ ⊂ A and A ⊂ U
* If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A ⇒ A = B ● Complement Laws:
* (A ∩ B) ⊂ A and (A ∩ B) ⊂ B * ϕ C = U and UC = ϕ
* A ⊂ (A ∪ B) and B ⊂ (A ∪ B) * A ∩ Ac = ϕ,
* A ∪ B = B iff A⊂B. * A ∪ Ac = U
* A ∩ B = A iff A⊂B.
* (Ac)c = A.
*A∪B=A∩B⇔A=B
* A ⊂ B ⇔ BC ⊂ AC
● Idempotent Laws:
● De Morgan’s Law:
*A∪A=A
* (A ∪ B) c = Ac ∩ B c
*A∩A=A
* (A ∩ B) c = Ac ∪ B c
● Identity Laws:
* A ∪ ϕ = A and A ∩ ϕ = ϕ ● Symmetric Difference:

* A ∪ U = U and A ∩ U = A * A△B = (A− B) ∪ (B − A) = (A∪B) − (B∩A)

* A △ B = B △ A (Commutative)
● Commutative Laws:
*A△A=∅
*A∪B=B∪A
*A∩B=B∩A *∅−A=∅

*A△∅=A
● Associative Laws:
* A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C * A △ (B △ C) = (A △ B) △ C (Associative)

* A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C * A ∩ (B Δ C) = (A ∩ B) Δ (A ∩ C)

● Distributive Laws: ● Set difference:

* A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) *A–B=B–A⇔A=B
* A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) *A−B=A⇒ A∩B=ϕ

● Power sets: * A – (A – B) = A ∩ B
* If A ⊂ B, then P(A) ⊂ P(B) * A – B = BC ∩ A
* If n(A) = n then n(P(A)) = 2n * A – B = BC – AC
* P(A) ∩ P(B) = P (A ∩ B)
* (A∩B) ∪ (A − B) = A
* P(A) ∪ P(B) = P (A ∪ B) ⇔ A ⊆ B or B ⊆ A
 23 24

* (A∪B) = (A – B) ∪ (B – A) ∪ (A∩B) ● Venn diagram:

* B ∩ (A − B) = ϕ Venn diagrams are used to represent the sets, relation between the sets
and operation performed on them, in a pictorial way. Venn diagram, uses
* A ∪ (A − B) = A circles (overlapping, intersecting and non-intersecting), to denote the rela-
tionship between sets.
* A ∪ (B − A) = A ∪ B

* A – (B ∪ C) = (A – B) ∩ (A – C)

* A – (B ∪ C) = (A – B) – C

* A – (B ∩ C) = (A – B) ∪ (A – C)

* (B − A) ∪ (C − A) = (B ∪ C) − A

* A ∩ (B − C) = (A ∩ B) − (A ∩ C) The elements of the sets are written in their respective circles. In the given
figure, U = {1, 2, ..., 10} is the universal set U of which A = {2,4,6,8,10} is a
subset.
● Operation on Empty sets:
i. A ∩ Ac = ϕ;
● Representation of subsets (A ⊂ B):
Let A and B be the sets represented as regions in the plane.
ii. A ∪ ϕ = A;

iii. A ∩ ϕ c = A

● Cardinality of Sets:
* n(A∪B) = n(A) + n(B) if A and B are disjoint.

* n(A∪B) = n(A) + n(B) – n (A ∩ B) ● Representation of A ⊄ B:

* |A–B| = |A| – |A∩B| & |B–A| = |B| – |A∩B|

* n (A Δ B) = n(A) + n(B) – 2n(A∩B)

* n(A∪B∪C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A∩B) – n(B∩C) – n(A∩C)

+ n(A∩B∩C) + n(A∩B∩C) The relationship A ⊄ B (A is not a subset of B) can be represented in any of
* |A∪B∪C∪D| = |A| + |B| + |C| + |D| − |A∩B| − |A∩C| three ways shown in figure.
− |A∩D| − |B∩C| − |B∩D| − |C∩D| + |A∩B∩C| ● Operations on Sets:
+ |A∩B∩D| + |A∩C∩D| + |B∩C∩D| − |A∩B∩C∩D|
We can consider all the sets as subsets of some universal set.
* n(AC∪BC) = n(A∩B) C = n(U) – n(A∩B)
i. Union of sets: A ∪ B = {x: x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
* n(AC∩BC) = n(A∪B) C = n(U) – n(A∪B)

* n(AC) = n(U) – n(A)

* n(A∩BC) = n(A) – n(A∩B)

* n(A∩B) = n(A∪B) – n(A∩BC) – n(AC∩B) Let A and B be two sets. The union of A and B is the set which consists of
all the elements of A and all the elements of B, the common elements be-
ing taken only once.
 25 26

ii. Intersection of sets: A ∩ B = {x: x ∈ A and x ∈ B}. It is denoted by

A Δ B or A ⊕ B. i.e., A Δ B = (A ∪ B) – (A ∩ B) = (A – B) ∪ (B – A)

● Complement of a Set:
The complement of set A is the set of all elements of universal set U which
The intersection of sets A and B is the set of all elements which are com- are not the elements of A. We write A′ (or AC) to denote the complement
mon to both A and B. The symbol ‘∩’ is used to denote the intersection. of A with respect to U.

● Disjoint sets: Thus, A′ = {x: x ∈ U and x ∉ A} or A′ = U – A.

If A and B are two sets such that A ∩ B = φ, then A and B are called dis-
joint sets. Here Venn diagram shows disjoint sets A and B. ⁕ If A ⊂ U, then A′ ⊂ U.

● Mutually Disjoint sets: ● De Morgan’s laws:

Sets A1, A2, …, An are said to be mutually disjoint (or pairwise disjoint or i. The complement of the union of two sets is the intersection of their
non-overlapping) iff for all i, j = 1, 2, …, n we have Ai ∩ A j = ϕ, i ≠ j. complements. i.e., (A ∪ B) ′ = A′ ∩ B′ and
ii. The complement of the intersection of two sets is the union of their
● Difference of sets: A – B = {x: x ∈ A and x ∉ B}. complements. i.e., (A∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′.

● Inclusion -Exclusion principle or Addition Principle

Given sets A1, A2, …An, the cardinality of the union is:
| A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ∪ ... ∪ An | = The sum of the individual cardinalities − (all
the cardinalities of intersections of two sets) + (all the cardinalities of in-
The difference of sets A and B in this order is the set of elements which tersections of three sets) − (all the cardinalities of intersections of four
belong to A but not to B. We denote it by A – B and read as ‘A minus B’. sets) + ... etc.
Here A – B ≠ B – A. This alternating sum ends with plus or minus the cardinality of the inter-
section of all𝑛 sets.
The shaded region represents A – B, B – A and A∩B. The sets A – B, A∩B
and B – A are mutually disjoint sets. ● Thus, the inclusion -exclusion principle or addition principle for differ-
(i.e., the intersection of any of these two sets is the null set as can be seen ent sets can be given as follows,
from above figure.) * For two sets:
● Symmetric difference between two sets:

If A and B are finite sets, then A ∪ B and A ∩ B are finite and

|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B |.
The symmetric difference between two sets A and B is the set containing
all the elements that are in A or in B but not in both.
 27

* For three sets:

● Ordered pair:
A pair of elements grouped together in a particular order. The ordered pair
is represented as (a, b).

* In ordered pair if (a, b) = (x, y), then a = x and b = y.

Let A, B and C be finite sets. Then,
|A ∪ B ∪ C| = |A|+|B|+|C|−|A ∩ B|−|B ∩ C|−|A∩C|+|A ∩ B ∩ C| ● Cartesian product of sets:
A × B = {(a, b): a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.
* For four sets:
e.g., A = {2, 3} and B = {0,1,2} then
A × B = {(2,0), (2,1), (2,2), (3,0), (3,1), (3,2)}
B × A = {(0,2), (0,3), (1,2), (1,3), (2,2), (2,3)}
A × A = {(2,2), (2,3), 3,2), (3,3)}
B × B = {(0,0), (0,1), (0,2), (1,0), (1,1), (1,2), (2,0), (2,1), (2,2)}
Let A, B, C and D be finite sets. Then,
|A ∪ B ∪ C ∪ D | = |A| + |B| + |C| + |D| − |A ∩ B| − |A ∩ C| In particular R × R = {(x, y): x, y ∈ R} represents coordinates of all the
points in 2-D space.
− |A ∩ D| − |B ∩ C| − |B ∩ D| − |C ∩ D|
R × R × R = {(x, y, z): x, y, z ∈ R} represents the coordinates of all the
+ |A ∩ B ∩ C| + |A ∩ B ∩ D| + |A ∩ C ∩ D| points in 3-D space. Here (x, y, z) is called an ordered triplet.
+ |B ∩ C ∩ D| − |A ∩ B ∩ C ∩ D |
● n-fold Cartesian products:
● Ordered Pair: A1 × A2 ×···× An = {(a1, a2, ..., an)| (a1 ∈ A1), (a2 ∈ A2), ···, (an ∈ An)}.
In an ordered pair the order of element is relevant and hence
(a, b) ≠ (b, a) unless a = b. * If all the sets in a Cartesian product are the same, then we can use an
exponent:
Hence an ordered pairs (a, b) = (c, d) iff a = c and b = d.
In general: An = A × A × ... × A. (Up to n times).
● Cartesian product:
Note: i. A × ∅ = ∅
Cartesian product A × B is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such that a ∈ A
and b ∈ B. and ii. In general, A × B ≠ B × A.

i.e., A × B = {(a, b) | (a ∈ A) ∧ (b ∈ B)}.

● Properties of Cartesian Product:
* If A = ϕ or B = ϕ, then clearly A × B = ϕ. Hence, A × ϕ = ϕ. For three sets A, B and C:
* n (A × B) = n (A). n (B)
* Cartesian product of a set A with itself = A × A = A2.
* A × B ≠ B × A, when A ≠ ∅ and B ≠ ∅.
* The set of elements (a, a) of A × A is called the diagonal of A × A.
* A × B = ϕ, if either A or B is an empty set.
Thus, we have A2 = A×A, A3 = A×A×A, etc.
In general: An = A×A× ... ×A (n -times). * A × B = B × A if and only if A = B, or A = ϕ, or B = ϕ.

* A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
 29 30

* (A ∪ B) × C = (A × C) ∪ (B × C) ● Domain, C0-domain and Range of Relation:

* A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C) 1. In the ordered pairs, for a given relation R (a, b) or aRb, the set of first
components is called the domain and the set of the second components is
* (A ∩ B) × C = (A × C) ∩ (B × C) called the range of the relation. The domain of R ⊂ A and range of R ⊂ B.

* A × (B – C) = (A × B) – (A × C) 2. The set of all second elements in a relation R from a set A to a set B is

called the range of the relation R and the whole set B is called the co-
* (A × C) ⊆ (B × C) Iff A ⊆ B. domain of the relation R. Hence Range ⊆ Co-domain.
Examples of Domain, Co-domain, and Range shown in figure:
* If A ⊂ B and C ⊂ D, then (A × C) ⊂ (B × D)

* (A × B) – (C × D) = (A × (B – D)) ∪ ((A – C) × B)

* (A × B) ∩ (C × D) = (A ∩ C) × (B ∩ D)

* If n (A ∩ B) = n then n [(A × B) ∩ (B × A)] = n2

* If A ⊆ B then (A × B) ∩ (B × A) = A2

* (Finite set) × (Infinite set) is an Infinite set.

● Relation:
A relation R from a non-empty set A to another non-empty set B is a sub-
set of the Cartesian product A×B which is obtained by describing a rela-
tionship between the first element x and the second element y of the or-
dered pairs in A×B. i.e., R ⊆ A×B.

Examples:
1. Consider a relation {(0,7), (0,8), (1,7), (1,8), (1,9), (2,10)}. Here the do-
main is, {0,1,2}, and the range is, {7,8,9,10}.

2. If R is a relation from Set A = {2,4,5} to Set B = {1,2,3,4,6,8} defined by,

xRy = {x: x divides y, x ∈ A and y ∈ B}. All the elements of set B = {1, 2, 3,
4, 6, 8} will be the elements of co-domain. The range is = {2, 4, 6, 8}.
* A relation R from A to B is written as aRb or R (a, b) iff (a, b) ∈ R and
a ∈ A, b ∈ B. ● Empty Relation:
Similarly, B × A is a relation from B to A written as bRa or R (b, a) if and A relation R in a set A is called empty relation, if no element of A is related
only if (b, a) ∈ R and a ∈ A, b ∈ B. to any element of A, i.e., R = φ ⊂ A × A.
Example of Empty relation:
* A (binary) relation on A is a subset of A×A. (a relation on A means a sub-
set R of A × A). 1. A relation R on set A= {1,2,3,4,5} defined by R = {x, y: x– y = 10}. This
is empty set, as no pair (x, y) satisfies the condition x – y = 10.
* If n(A) = p and n(B) = q then the total number of relations from A to B is 2. A relation R form a null set to null set is also an empty relation.
2pq and total non-empty relations is 2pq – 1.
● Universal Relation:
If each element of A is related to every element of A, then relation R in set
A is called Universal Relation, i.e., R = A× A.
 31 32

[Both the empty relation and the universal relation are sometimes called 3. Transitive Relation:
trivial relations]
A relation R on a set A is called transitive iff for any a, b, c ∈ A, whenever
Example of Universal relation: (a, b) ∈ R, and (b, c) ∈ R then (a, c) ∈ R.
i. Suppose A is a set of all natural numbers and B is a set of all whole num- i.e., A relation R is transitive iff aRb, bRc then aRc.
bers. The relation between A and B is universal as every element of A is in
set B. Examples of transitive relation:
i. Relations like ≤, ≥ and = on any set of numbers are transitive relations.
ii. Consider relation R = {(a, b): |a – b| ≥ 0}. This is the whole set A×A, as
all pairs (a, b) in A×A satisfy |a – b| ≥ 0. ii. If A = {1,2,3} then a relation R = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (3,1), (3,2)} is transi-
tive.
iii. If A = {1, 2, 3} then universal relation from A×A is given by,
U = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3)} = A×A iii. A singleton relation on set A is transitive.
e.g., Let A = {a,b,c} then consider a relation on A given by R = {(a,b)}.
● Image of an element: Image of element x under a relation R is given Transitivity requires, whenever (a, b) ∈ R, and (b, c) ∈ R then (a, c) ∈ R.
by y, where (x, y) ∈ R.
In other words, whenever (a, b) ∈ R, and (b, c) ∉ R then (a, c) ∉ R … (i)
or whenever (a, b) ∉ R, and (b, c) ∈ R then (a, c) ∉ R … (ii)
● Types of Relations:
or whenever (a, b) ∉ R, and (b, c) ∉ R then (a, c) ∉ R … (iii)
1. Inverse of a relation:
Here condition (i) applies. Hence R = {(a,b)} is transitive.
The inverse of Relation R is denoted by R−1. This means if R is the relation
iv. An empty relation is transitive. (Here condition (iii) applies)
from A to B, then R−1 will be another relation from B to A. i.e., R−1 = {(b,
a): (a, b) ∈ R}.
4. Symmetric Relation:
e.g., If R = {(x1, y1), (x2, y2)} then R−1 = {(y1, x1), (y2, x2)}.
A relation R on a set A is called symmetric iff whenever (a, b) ∈ R then
Thus, Domain of R = Range of R−1 and Range of R = Domain of R−1. (b, a) ∈ R for any a, b ∈ A. i.e., A relation R is symmetric iff, aRb, then bRa.

2. Reflexive Relation: This means if an ordered pair of elements “a” to “b” (aRb) is present in
relation R, then an ordered pair of elements “b” to “a” (bRa) should also be
A relation R on set A is called reflexive if we have aRa ∀ a ∈ A. Here for present in relation R. If any such bRa is not present for any aRb in R
every element a of A (a, a) ∈ R. then R is not a symmetric relation.
Examples of symmetric relation:
* Total Reflexive Relations on a set with n elements = 2n(n-1)
i. Relation (=) on any set of numbers is symmetric.
Examples of reflexive relation:
ii. Relation (<, >, ≤ and ≥) on any set of numbers is not symmetric.
i. On set A = {a, b} the relation R = {(a, a), (b, b)} is reflexive.
iii. Number of Symmetric Relations on a set with n elements = 2n(n+1)/2.
ii. A relation ≤, ≥ and = on any set of numbers are reflexive.
iv. Total number of reflexive relations in a set with n elements = 2n
iii. Relation ‘being the same height as’ is Reflexive because everything is
v. Total number of Reflexive and Symmetric relations from A to A on a set
‘the same height as’ itself.
with n elements is given by = 2n(n-1)/2.
iv. Relation ⊆ on any collection of sets [e.g., {φ, {3}, {3,4}}] is reflexive.
vi. Total number of Reflexive or Symmetric relations from A to A on a set
(Therefore, Relation ⊆ on power set of any set is reflexive).
of n element is given by = 2n(n-1) + 2n (n +1)/2 – 2n (n –1)/2.
v. Relation ‘<’ and ‘>’ on any set of numbers is not reflexive.
iv. An empty relation is symmetric.
vi. An empty relation from a non-empty set is not reflexive. (A symmetric relation requires that, whenever (a, b) ∈ R then (b, a) ∈ R for
any a, b ∈ A. In other words, a relation will also be called symmetric when-
ever (a, b) ∉ R then (b, a) ∉ R for any a, b ∈ A).
 33 34

5. Equivalence Relation: ● Equivalence class:

A relation R in a set A is said to be an equivalence relation if R is reflexive, For a set A and an equivalence relation (represented by ~) on A, the
symmetric and transitive. equivalence class of an element a in A, is denoted by [a].
Examples of equivalence relation:
Here [a] = {x ∈ A: x ~ a}.
i. "is equal to" on the set of numbers,
The subset of A which includes all elements that are equivalent to each
ii. "has the same birthday as" on the set of all people,
other is called an equivalence class.
iii. "is similar to" and "is congruent to" on the set of all triangles,
i.e., The equivalence class of a is denoted by [a] and it consists of the set of
iv. "has the same absolute value" on the set of real numbers,
all b in A such that a and b are related to each other by equivalence rela-
v. "has the same image under a function" on the elements of the domain of tion. i.e., [a] = {b E A: (a, b) ∈ R}.
the function,
Examples of equivalence class:
vi. "has the same cosine" on the set of all angles and
vii. “identical”. i. Suppose X was the set of all children playing in a playground. Then if ~
was an equivalence relation for ‘of the same age’, one equivalence class
* A relation on set A = {a,b,c} given by R = {(a,a), (b,b), (c,c)} is equiva- would be the set of all 2-year-olds, and another the set of all 5-year-olds.
lence relation.
ii. If X was the set of all polygons, and the equivalence relation ~ was
(Reflexive: Yes. As ∀ x ∈ A we have xRx.
defined as ‘with the same number of sides’, examples of equivalences
Symmetric: Yes. As whenever (a, b) ∉ R then (b, a) ∉ R for any a, b ∈ A. classes would be the set of all triangles, the set of all quadrilaterals, the
Transitive: Yes. As whenever (a, b) ∉ R, and (b, c) ∉ R then (a, c) ∉ R. set of all pentagons, etc.
Hence given relation is equivalence. iii. If X is the set of all integers, we can define the equivalence relation ~
by saying ‘a ~ b if and only if (a – b) is divisible by 9’. Then the equiva-
* The empty relation R on a non-empty set A is not an equivalence rela-
lence class of 4 would include -32, -23, -14, -5, 4, 13, 22, and 31 (and a
tion: (i.e., aRb is never true). As it is vacuously symmetric and transitive,
whole lot more).
but it is not reflexive (except when A is also empty).
E.g. if A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Let a relation from set A → A be R = {(a, b): a+b= ● Properties of equivalence classes:
10}. So, we observe that a + b ≠ 10 for any two elements of set A.
* Every element is in one and only one equivalence class.
Therefore (a, b) ∉ R for any a, b ∈ A. Hence R is an empty set a void rela-
tion on set A. So, void relation is not reflexive because it does not contain * The intersection of the two classes is empty.
(a, a) for any a ∈ R. * The union of all classes is the entire set.
* The empty relation R on an empty set A is an equivalence relation as it * Two elements are equivalent if and only if their equivalence classes are
is vacuously symmetric, transitive and reflexive. equal.
Proof: We use vacuous truth concept where a statement is considered Example: Let A= {0,1,2,3,4} and a relation R on A defined as follows:
true because it doesn't have any counterexamples. In the context of an
empty set, any statement about the elements of the set holds vacuously, R = {(0,0), (0,4), (1,1), (1,3), (2,2), (3,1), (3,3), (4,0), (4,4)}. To show that R
meaning by default or due to the absence of elements to disprove it. is an equivalent relation and find equivalent classes.
A relation is reflexive on an empty set because there are no elements that Solution: For R to be equivalent relation it should be Reflexive, Symmetric
fail to be related to themselves. and Transitive.
A relation is symmetric on an empty set because there are no element pairs The relation is reflexive as ∀ a ∈ A we have (a, a) ∈ R. As (0,0), (1,1), (2,2).
to show asymmetry. (3,3), (4,4) ∈ R.
A relation is transitive on an empty set because there are no chains of ele- The relation is symmetric as ∀ (a, b) ∈ R we have (b, a) ∈ R. Here (0,4), (4,0),
ments to violate transitivity. (1,3), (3,1) ∈ R.
In all cases, the reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity of a relation on an The relation is transitive as ∀ aRb and bRc we have aRc. R. Here 0R4 and 4R0
empty set are satisfied by vacuous truth. Hence here R is a equivalence then 0R0, as 1R3 and 3R1 then 1R1, as 3R1 and 1R3 we have 3R3.
relation.
Hence the given relation R is equivalence relation.
 35 36

For finding distinct equivalence classes of R we see that; * Every function is a relation, but every relation is not necessarily a func-
tion.
[0] = Set of all elements in R related to 0 = {0,4}
[1] = Set of all elements in R related to 1 = {1,3} * To find when a relation is called a function consider following figure.

[2] = Set of all elements in R related to 2 = {2}

[3] = Set of all elements in R related to 3 = {1, 3} = [1]
[4] = Set of all elements in R related to 4 = {0, 4} = [0]
So, there are only three equivalent classes, [0], [3], [2]. i.e., {0,4}, {1,3},
{2}} is the set of equivalence classes of A under R.
Fig (i): For each x in the domain, there is only one corresponding y in the
The digraph (directed graph) of R is given below, range. Hence this relation is a function.
Fig (ii): This relation is not a function. Element ‘d ’in x is not mapped to y.

Fig (iii): This relation is a function as for each value of x in the domain has
only one corresponding y value.
Fig (iv): This is not a function as for x = a, there are two range elements p
and q.

● Conditions for a graph to be a function:

If a graph satisfies the following two conditions, then we can call it a func-
tion otherwise not.
1st condition: “All the elements of set A should be mapped with the ele-
where three sub-graphs of the digraph represent the equivalence classes. ments of set B”. That means graphically, for every input in its domain, the
function must give or provide the corresponding output.
We further observe that: A= {0, 4} ∪ {1, 3} ∪ {2}
2nd condition: “Elements of set A should be uniquely mapped with the
So, {0, 4}, {1, 3} and {2} is the partition of A induced by R. elements of set B”. This means that, for any input x, we must have one and
only one output.
⇒ A = {0,4,1,3, 2} = {0,1,2,3,4}
● Best way to check if y = f(x) is a function:
● Function:
Draw a line parallel to the y – axis and see that it cuts the graph at one
A function f from set A to set B is a special type of relation for which every point. If it cuts at two or more distinct points, this means, for one value of
element of set A has one and only one image in set B. (In other words, no x, we are getting more than one output. And hence it will not be a function.
two distinct ordered pairs in f have the same first element.)

* Given a relation in x and y, we say “y is a function of x” if for every ele-

ment x in the domain, there corresponds exactly one element y in the
range.

* If f: A→B is a function then, Domain is set A, Co-domain is set B and Set

{f(x): x ∈ A} is the range of f. (Range is a subset of codomain.) ● Real valued function:
A function which has either R or one of its subsets as its range is called a
* If (a, b) ∈ f, then f (a) = b, where b is called the image of a under f and a real valued function.
is called the pre-image of b under f. The set of images is range of function.
 37 38

● Even Function: ● Types of functions:

Let f (x) be a real valued function of a real variable. Then f is even if in the
domain of f we have f (x) = f (–x).
Geometrically, the graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to
the y-axis. cos θ and sec θ are even function.

● Odd Function:

1. One-to-one or Injective function:

A function f: X → Y is defined to be one-one (or injective), if the images of
distinct elements of X under f are distinct.

Let f (x) be a real valued function of a real variable. Then f is odd if in the The function f1 and f4 in Fig. (i) and (iv) are one-one or injective. i.e., For
domain of f we have f (–x) = – f (x) or f (x) + f (–x) = 0. sin θ, tan θ, cot θ every x1, x2 ∈ X, a function f is injective,
and cosec θ are odd functions. If f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ x1 = x2. or we can say, for every x1, x2 ∈ X, a function f
is injective, If x1 ≠ x2 ⇒ f(x1) ≠ f(x2).
* Zero function (f(x) = 0) is both even and odd function.
* If a set A contains ‘n’ distinct elements then the number of possible dis-
● Neither even nor odd function: tinct functions from A to A is nn and out of these n! are one-one.
Some functions which are neither equal to f(x) nor -f(x) come under this * A function which is entirely increasing or decreasing in some entire do-
category. main is one-to one.
For example, f(x) = 2x5 + 3x2 + 1, here f(-x) = -2x5 + 3x2 + 1 which is nei-
ther equal to f(x) nor -f(x). Hence, function f(x) = 2x5 + 3x2 + 1 is neither 2. Into function:
even nor odd function.
If there exists at least one element in the codomain Y which is not an im-
● Increasing function: See following graph. age of any element in the domain X, then f is into function. [Fig (ii) & (iii)]

* A polynomial function of even degree is always into function.

3. Onto (or Surjective) function:

A function f: X→Y is said to be surjective or onto, if every element of Y is
the image of some element of X under f,
A function f is said to be increasing if whenever a > b, then f(a) ≥ f(b).
i.e., for every y ∈ Y, there exists an element x in X such that f (x) = y. The
Further a function is said to be strictly increasing if a > b, then f (a) > f (b). function f1 and f4, shown in Fig. (i) & (iv) are onto.
 39 40

*A function f: X → Y is onto iff the Range of ‘f ’ = co-domain. ● Algebra of real functions:

Example of Surjective Function: Let f: X → R and g: X → R be any two real functions, where X ⊂ R and α be
a scalar real number then ∀ x ∈ X:
A function f: N→N, f(x) = x + 2 is surjective.
a. (f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x),
But f: R→R, f(x) = x2 is not surjective as the range in R consists of negative
integers and we cannot find a real number whose square is negative. b. (f – g) (x) = f(x) – g(x),

* A one - one function defined from a finite set to itself is always onto but if c. (α f) (x) = α f (x),
the set is infinite then it is not the case
d. (f. g) (x) = f(x). g(x),
* A function will either be onto or into. ( )
e. (x) = , provided g(x) ≠ 0.
( )
* For a finite set X, a function f: X → X is one-one if, and only if, f is onto
function. Similarly, f: X → X is onto if, and only if, f is one-one function.
(This is not true for infinite set) * If ‘f’ and ‘g’ are real valued functions with domains as A and B respective-
ly, then both f and g are defined in A∩B.
4. Bijective/ (One-One & Onto) function: i. The domain of f + g, f – g and f. g are also A ∩ B.
A function f :X→Y is bijective if and only if f is both one-one and onto. See ii. The domain of (f /g) is {x | x ∈A ∩ B, g(x) ≠ 0}.
f1 in Fig (i).
Example of Bijective Function: ● Composition of f and g:
A function f: R→R defined by f(x) = 2x–3 is a bijective function. Here f is
injective because if f(x1) = f(x2), then 2x1 – 3 = 2x2 – 3 ⇒ x1 = x2.
And f is also surjective because, 2x – 3 = y
⇒ x = (y + 3)/2 ∈ R ⇒ f(x) = y.
Since f is both surjective and injective, we can say f is bijective.

5. Many-one function: Let f: A → B and g: B → C be two functions.

A function f: X → Y is defined to be many-one, if more than one distinct Then the composition of f and g, denoted by gof, is defined as the function
element of X under f has same image in Y. The functions f3 and f4 in Fig. gof : A → C given by gof (x) = g(f (x)), ∀ x ∈ A.
(iii) and (iv) are many-one.
Example of composite function:
* A function can either be one-one or many-one but not both. i. If f(x) = x+2 and g(x) = 2x+1,
Then, (fog)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(2x+1) = 2x + 1+ 2 = 2x + 3
* A continuous function which has at least one local maxima or local min-
ima is many-one. and (gof)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x+2) = 2(x + 2) + 1= 2x + 5.

ii. If f(x) = 2x + 4 and g(x) = x3, then:

* The range of a constant function is always a singleton.
(f ∘ g) (x) = f(g(x)) = f(x3) = 2x3 + 4, and
* A constant function may be one-one, many-one, onto or into. (g ∘ f) (x) = g(f(x)) = g(2x + 4) = (2x + 4)3.

* Two functions ‘f’ and ‘g’ are identical iff their domains and ranges are * For the product ‘gof’ of two functions f and g, the range of f must be a
equal and functions of elements belonging to common domain are equal. subset of the domain of g. Similarly, ‘fog’ of two functions g and f, the
range of g must be a subset of the domain of f.
 41 42

* If f and g are one-to-one then the function (gof) is also one-to-one. ● Important functions:
1. Polynomial function: y = f (x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ...+ an xn.
* If f and g are onto then the function (gof) is also onto.
A function f: R → R is said to be polynomial function if for each x in R,
* The composite of two bijections is a bijection i.e. if f and g are two bijec- y = f (x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ...+ an xn, where n is a non-negative integer and
tions and gof is defined then gof is also a bijection. a0, a1, a2..., an ∈ R and an ≠ 0. We call f a polynomial function of degree n.

* The composite of functions is not commutative. i.e., gof ≠ fog.

* The composite of functions is associative. i.e., For three functions f, g and

h: fo(goh) = (fog)oh.

● Inverse of a Function:
A function f: X → Y is invertible iff function f is bijective (one-one and on-
to).
Example of Inverse Function:
Domain of any polynomial is (−∞, ∞). If an ≠ 0 in polynomial, then n is its
i. A Function f: Z→Z, f(x) = x + 5, is invertible since it has the inverse
degree.
function g: Z→Z, g(x) = x − 5.
2. Rational functions:

ii. A Function f: Z→Z, f(x) = x2 is not invertible since this is not one-to-one
as (−x)2 = x2.

* The inverse of a bijective function f: X→Y, is the function g: Y→X, hold-

ing the property: f(x) = y ⇔ g(y) = x.

* A function f: X → Y is invertible if there exists a function g: Y → X such Rational functions are of the type
( )
, where f(x) and g(x) are polynomial
that gof = IX and fog = IY. ( )
functions of x defined in a domain, where g(x) ≠ 0.
● The inverse of a bijection is unique. e.g., f(x) =
( )(
. Its domain is all x except x = 2 and x = −1.
)
a. If f: X→ Y is a bijection, and g: Y→ X is its inverse, then fog = IB and gof
= IA, where IA and IB are the identities of A and B respectively. 3. Exponential Function: f(x) = ax where a > 0.
A function ax = ex ln a (where a > 0, a ≠ 1, x ∈ R) is called an exponential
b. The graphs of f and g in this case are the mirror images of each other in function because the variable x is the exponent.
the line y = x. i.e., (f –1) –1 = g –1 = f.

c. The inverse of a bijection is also a bijection.

d. If f and g are two bijections such as f: A→ B and g: B→ C, then the in-

verse of gof also exists and (fog)–1 = f –1og –1.
 43 44

For a < 0, this definition of ax does not apply. For f (x) = ex, the domain is 7. Absolute Value Function (or Modulus Function): y = | x |
in R and range is R+.

4. Logarithmic Function: y = log a (x), x > 0, a > 0, a ≠ 1.

● Basic Properties of modulus function |x|:

* ||x||=|x|

* | x | > a ⇒ x < a or x < – a if a ∈ R+ and x ∈ R if a ∈ R–

* | x | < a ⇒ – a < x < a if a ∈ R+ and no solution if a ∈ R– ∪ {0}

A function y = log a (x), x > 0, a > 0, a ≠ 1, is called logarithmic function.
Since y = ax is monotonic (i.e., either increasing or decreasing) then it * |x+y|≤|x|+|y|
passes horizontal line test. Thus, it has an inverse function. To find this
function we use an algorithm for finding the inverse. * |x–y|≥||x|–|y||

Interchange x and y to get x = ay. i.e., y = log a(x). Function y = log a(x) is (Properties given in (iv) & (v) can be put in one compact form namely,
called logarithmic function. Its domain is (0, ∞) and range is (−∞, ∞). |x| – | y | ≤ | x + y | ≤ | x | + | y |)
Since y = log a(x) is inverse of y = ax so their graphs are symmetric about
line y = x. * | x y | = | x | * | y |, y ≠ 0

* | x/y | = | x | / | y |, y ≠ 0
5. Identity function: y = f (x)= x.
|𝒙|
8. Signum Function: f(x) =
𝒙

6. Constant function: y = f (x) = c, x ∈ R

For signum function, Domain = R and Range = {–1, 0, 1}. The function is
not continuous at x = 0.

9. Greatest integer function or Step-up Function: f(x) = [x], x ∈ R.

This function assumes the value of the greatest integer, less than or equal
to x and hence is called Greatest integer function. It is denoted by
f(x) = [x], x ∈ R.
 45 46

* A binary operation ∗ on the set X is called commutative, if a ∗ b = b ∗ a,

for every a, b ∈ X.

● Identity element for binary operation:

An element e ∈ A is the identity element for binary operation ∗:
A × A → A, if a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a ∀ a ∈ A.
The identity element of (A, *) if it exists, is unique.

Note:
From the definition of [x], we can see that,
i. Zero is identity for the addition operation on R but zero is not identity
[x] = –1 for –1 ≤ x < 0 for the addition operation on N, as 0 ∉ N. In fact, the addition operation
[x] = 0 for 0 ≤ x < 1 on N does not have any identity.

[x] = 1 for 1 ≤ x < 2 [For any a ∈ R, there exists ‘– a’ in R such that, a + (– a) = 0 = (– a) + a.

Here ‘0’ is called the identity for the addition operation: R × R → R]
[x] = 2 for 2 ≤ x < 3 and so on. e.g., [1.999] = 1; [2.01] = 2
ii. One is identity for the multiplication operation on R.
● Properties of greatest integer function:
[For any a ≠ 0 in R, we can choose ‘ ’ in R such that, a × = 1 = × a.
* [x] ≤ x < [x] + 1
‘ ’ is called the identity for the multiplication operation: R × R → R]
* x – 1 < [x] ≤ x
● Invertible element for binary operation:
* [x + m] = [x] + m. (Where m is an integer)
a ∈ A is invertible for binary operation ∗: A × A → A, if there exists b ∈ A
* [x] + [y] ≤ [x + y] ≤ [x] + [y] + 1 such that, a ∗ b = e = b ∗ a (e is the identity for the binary operation ∗).
* [x] + [–x] = 0 if x is an integer, and [x] + [–x] = – 1 if x is not an integer. The element b is called inverse of a and is denoted by a–1.

● Binary Operation (∗):

A binary operation ∗ on a set A is a function ∗ from A × A → A. We denote
∗ (a, b) by a ∗ b.

* A binary operation ∗ on the set X is called associative, if

a∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c, for every a, b, c ∈ X

* Addition, subtraction, multiplication are binary operations on R, (Set of

real numbers), but division is a binary operation on R– {0} only.

* Addition and multiplication on N, the set of natural numbers are binary

operations.

* Subtraction ‘–’ and division are not binary operations on N.

[e.g., Subtraction binary operation: (4∗5) = 4 – 5 = –1 ∉ N & Division bina-
ry operation: (4∗5) = 4/5 = 0.8 ∉ N.]
 48

● Prime Number:
Natural Numbers: N = {1, 2, 3, ···}.
A natural number having exactly two distinct factors, namely 1 and itself is
Whole Number: W = {0, 1, 2…}. called Prime Number. e.g., 2, 3, 5, …

Integers: Z = {···, −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, ··}. ● Composite Number:

Positive Integers: Z+ = {1, 2, 3, …}. A natural number which has at least three distinct factors is said to be
Composite Number. e.g., 4, 6, 8, 9, …
Negative Integers: Z− = {−1, −2, −3, ···}.
Notes:
Non-negative Integers: W = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
i. The only number which is neither prime nor composite is 1.
Non positive Integer: {…, −3, −2, −1, 0}. ii. The only even prime number is 2.
Even Integer: 0, ±2, ± 4, … iii. Except number 1, all numbers which are not prime are composite
numbers.
Odd Integer: ±1, ± 3, ± 5, …
iv. The smallest composite number is 4.
Real Numbers: R = Q ∪ QC.
● Co-prime Number:
[The real numbers can be represented as a position of a point on
the real number line.] Two natural numbers whose HCF is 1, are called co-prime numbers. e.g.
𝒑 (1,2), (1,3), (3, 4), (3, 10), (5,6), (4, 11) etc.
Rational Number: Q={ : p, q ∈ Z and q ≠ 0}.
𝒒 Notes:
[e.g., Q = { , , , , …}. All recurring decimals are rational numbers.] i. Two prime number(s) are always co-prime, but converse need not be
true.
Irrational Number: T or QC = {x: x ∈R and x ∉ Q} ii. Consecutive numbers are always co-prime numbers.
or T= R – Q. [e.g., √2, 1 + √2, e, π, ... etc.]
● Twin Prime Numbers:
(These numbers cannot be expressed in form.) The prime numbers having a difference of two between them are called
twin prime numbers. e.g., {3,5}, {5,7}, {11, 13}, {17, 19}, {29, 31}, etc.
Notes:
i. Integers are rational numbers, but converse need not be true. ● Inequalities: If a > b, then:
ii. Negative of an irrational number is an irrational number. i. a − b > 0 or b − a < 0. iv. ma < mb when m < 0.
iii. Sum of a rational number and an irrational number is always an irra- ii. a + c > b + c. v. > when m > 0,
tional number e.g., √2 + 3.
iii. ma > mb when m > 0, vi. < when m < 0.
iv. The product of a non-zero rational number & an irrational number will
always be an irrational number. * If a > b and b > c, then a > c.
v. Sum, difference, product and quotient of two irrational numbers need
not be an irrational number, the result may also be a rational number. * If a + b > c, then a > c − b.

* If a > b and c > d, then

● Complex Number:
Denoted by Z and sometimes by C. [Z = {a + i b: a, b ∈ R and i = √−𝟏}.] i. a + c > b + d.
ii. a − d > b − c.
 49 50

* If a > b > 0, then

* If , , , …, be unequal fractions, of which denominators are
i. > ; all of same signs, then,
𝒂𝐫 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 … 𝒂𝐧 𝒂𝐬
ii. an > bn when n > 0.
𝒃𝐫
< 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟑 … 𝒃𝐧
< 𝒃𝐬 .
iii. an < bn when n < 0. 𝐫 𝐬
Here is the least fraction and is the greatest fraction among all.
iv. √𝑎 > √𝑏 when n > 0. 𝐫 𝐬

* If a > b > 0 and c > d > 0, then ac > bd. ● Inequalities involving absolute value:
(Note: |x| = a ⇒ x ± a)
* If a ≥ b > 0 and c > d > 0, then > .
* If | a | > | b | then an > bn. n ∈ N.
* If a < b < 0, then
* |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|
i. < .
* If |x| < a, then − a < x < a, where a > 0.
ii. a2n > b2n, (Similarly, if |x| ≤ a, then − a ≤ x ≤ a, where a > 0).
iii. a2n+1 < b2n+1. n ∈ N
* If |x| > a, then x > a and x < − a, where a > 0.

* If a > 0 > b, then > ; i.e., x ∈ (− ∞, − a) ∪ (a, ∞)

* If |x| ≥ a, then x ≥ a and x ≤ − a, where a > 0.

* If a < 0 < b, then < .
i.e., x ∈ (− ∞, − a] ∪ [a, ∞)
[Note: i. 2 < x < 4 ⇒ 4 < x2 < 16. * If x2 < a, then |x| < √𝒂, where a > 0.
ii. − 2 < x < 4 ⇒ 0 ≤ x2 < 16 {∵ x < 2 ⇒ x2 ≥ 0}
* If x2 > a, then |x| > √𝒂, where a > 0.
iii. − 5 < x < 4 ⇒ 0 ≤ x2 < 25.]
* | x + y | < | x | + | y | if x and y have opposite signs.
* a2 + b2 > 2ab.
* | x − y | < | x | + | y | if x and y have same sign.
* a+ ≥ 2, if and only if a = 1.
* | x + y | = | x | + | y | if x and y have same sign or at least one of x and y
is zero.
* a+ ≤ − 2, if and only if a = −1.
* | x − y | = | x | + | y | if x and y have opposite signs or at least one of x
and y is zero.
* √𝑎𝑏 ≤ , where a, b > 0. if and only if a = b.
Note: If |x| = − a ⇒ x = φ
⋯
* √𝑎1. 𝑎2. 𝑎3 … . 𝑎n. ≤ , where a1, a2…, an > 0. ● Inequalities involving functions.
( ) f(x) > 0 f(x) < 0
* If ax + b > 0, then x > − b/a (when a > 0). * > 0 ⇔ f(x). g(x) > 0 ⇔ or .
( ) g(x) > 0 g(x) < 0
* If ax + b > 0, then x < − b/a (when a < 0).
( ) f(x) > 0 f(x) < 0
* < 0 ⇔ f(x). g(x) < 0 ⇔ or .
( ) g(x) < 0 g(x) > 0
 51 52

*
( )
≥ 0, ⇔
f(x)g(x) ≥ 0
⇔
f(x) ≥ 0
or
f(x) ≤ 0
.
● m th power theorem:
( ) g(x) ≠ 0 g(x) > 0 g(x) < 0
If ai > 0, and i = 1,2,3…n, which are not identical then
( ) f(x)g(x) ≤ 0 f(x) ≤ 0 f(x) ≥ 0
* ≤ 0, ⇔ ⇔ or . (𝒂𝟏𝒎 𝒂𝟐𝒎 ⋯ 𝒂𝐧𝒎 ) 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 ⋯ 𝒂𝐧 m
( ) g(x) ≠ 0 g(x) > 0 g(x) < 0 >( ) when 0 < m < 1
𝒏 𝒏
● Inequalities and intervals of the number line:
(𝒂𝟏𝒎 𝒂𝟐𝒎 ⋯ 𝒂𝐧𝒎 ) 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 ⋯ 𝒂𝐧 m
& <( ) when m ∈ R − (0, 1)
𝒏 𝒏
i.e., when m > 1 and m < 0.

● Cauchy-Schwartz Inequality:
If a, b, c and x, y, z are any real numbers (positive, negative or zero), then.
(a2 + b2 + c2) (x2 + y2 + z2) ≥ (ax + by + cz)2

● Ratios:
𝒂 𝒄 𝒆 … 𝒑𝒂𝒏 𝒒𝒄𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒏 … 1/n
If = = = … = k, Then k = 𝒃 𝒅 𝒇 ⋯
=( 𝒏
𝒑𝒃 𝒒𝒅𝒏 𝒓𝒇𝒏 ⋯
)

● Proportion: If a: b = c: d, then
* b: a = d: c,

* a: c = b: d,

* a + b: b = c + d: d,

* a − b: b = c − d: d,

* a + b: a − b = c + d: c − d.

● Some Important formulae

● Frequently used inequalities.
* (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a − b)2 + 4ab,
* (x − a) (x − b) < 0 ⇒ x ∈ (a, b), where a < b.
* (a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2 − 4ab,
* (x − a) (x − b) > 0 ⇒ x ∈ (− ∞, a) ∪ (b, ∞), where a < b.
𝟏
* a2 + b2 = [(a + b)2 + (a − b)2]
* x2 ≤ | a |2 ⇒ x ∈ [− a, a] 𝟐

* x2 ≥ a2 ⇒ x ∈ (− ∞, − a] ∪ [a, ∞) * a2 − b2 = (a + b). (a − b)

* ax2 + bx + c < 0, (a > 0) ⇒ x ∈ (α, β), * (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab (a + b),

(Where α, β are roots of equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 and α < β). * (a − b)3 = a3 − b3 − 3ab (a − b),
* ax2 + bx + c > 0, (a > 0) ⇒ x ∈ (− ∞, α) ∪ (β, ∞), * a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 − 3ab (a + b) = (a + b) (a2 − ab + b2)
(Where α, β are roots of equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 and α < β).
* a3 − b3 = (a − b)3 + 3ab (a − b) = (a − b) (a2 + ab + b2)
 53 54

* (a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4 ● Surds

* (a − b)4 = a4 − 4a3b + 6a2b2 − 4ab3 + b4
* 𝑎 ± √𝑏 = [ 𝑎 + √𝑎 − 𝑏 ± 𝑎 − √𝑎 − 𝑏 ]
√
* a4 – b4 = (a + b) (a − b) (a2 + b2)
√ ∓√
* a4 + a2 + 1= (a2 + 1)2 − a2 = (a2 + a + 1) (a2 − a + 1) * =
√ ±√
* a5 – b5 = (a − b) (a4 + a3b + a2b2 + ab3 + b4)
* If √𝑥, 𝑦 are quadratic surds and if a + √𝑥 = 𝑦, then, a = 0 and x = y.
* an − bn = (a − b) (an−1 + an−2b + ··· + bn−2a + bn−1) [n ∈ N]
* If a + √𝑥 = b + 𝑦 and if √𝑥, 𝑦 are quadratic surds, then a=b and x=y.
* (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca)
𝟏 ● Natural Logarithm:
* a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca = [(a − b)2 + (b − c)2 + (c − a)2]
𝟐
The logarithm to the base ‘e’ is called natural logarithm.
* (a1 + a2 + … + an)2 = (a12 + a22 + … + an2) + 2(a1a2 + a2a3 + …. + ana1)
ln x = loge x = y ⇔ ey = x
* a3+b3+c3– 3abc = (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc − ca)
𝟏 ● Common Logarithm
= (a + b + c) [(a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c − a)2]
𝟐
Logarithm to the base 10 is called common logarithm and more widely
used in Physics. log x = log10 x = y ⇔ 10y = x
● Law of indices
* an = a. a. a . . . n times. ● Logarithm of a number (Here a, b, m, n > 0 and a, b ≠ 1)
* am + n = am.an. * log a m = n ⇔ a n = m.

* a−m = log a 1 = 0 ⇔ a0 = 1; log a a = 1 ⇔ a1 = a

log 1/a a = −1 ⇔ (1/ a) −1 = (a−1)−1
* am−n = m, n ∈ Q and a ≠ 0.
* log 1/a b = − log a b = log a (1/b)
* (am)n = a m n = (an)m * b = a log a b [Fundamental logarithm identity]
* a0 = 1 where a ∈ R, a ≠ 0 * e ln ax = ax.
* √a = a1/q ⇒ ( √a )q= a
● Principal properties of logarithms
* √a = √a = a1/p q * log a (m. n) = log a m + log a n

* ap/q = ( √a)p = √a * log a (m/n) = log a m - log a n

* ( √a )m = √a = ( √a )m p * log a (m)n = n. log a m

* √a = √a * log a m = (log b m)/ (log b a)

* If am = an and a ≠ ±1, a ≠ 0 then m = n. ● Results based on properties of logarithm.

* log a b. log b a = 1. This implies followings,
* If an = bn where n ≠ 0, then a = ± b
i. log a b. = 1/ log b a.
 55 56

ii. log a b. log b c. log c a = 1.

iii. log a b. log b m = log a m.
iv. log a b. log b c. log c d = log a d.
e.g., [i. log e10. log10 x = loge x i.e., ln 10. log x = ln x
ii. log10 e. loge x = log10 x i.e., log e. ln x = log x]

* log an b = (1/n) log a b

* log a bm = m. log a b.

* log an bm = (m/n). log a b.

* log 1/a (1/b) = log a b.

* If log a m = log a n, then m = n.

● Properties of monotonicity of logarithms

● Relation between roots
* For a > 1 and 0 < x < y ⇒ log a x < log a y
* If α and β are the roots of the ax2 + bx + c = 0, and a ≠ 0, then,
* For 0 < a < 1 and 0 < x < y ⇒ log a x > log a y 𝐛 𝐜𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟. 𝐨𝐟 𝐱
Sum of roots = α + β = – =–
𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟. 𝐨𝐟 𝐱𝟐
* For a > 1 and log a x < p ⇒ 0<x<ap
𝐜 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦
and Product of roots = α. β = =
* For a > 1 and log a x > p ⇒ x>ap 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟. 𝐨𝐟 𝐱𝟐

* For 0 < a < 1 and log a x > p ⇒ 0<x<ap * The quadratic equation whose roots are α and β is given by,
Notes: (x − α) (x − β) = 0. i.e. x2 − (α + β) x + αβ = 0
i. If number and base are on same side of unity, then logarithm is positive i.e. x2 – (Sum of roots). x + (Product of roots) = 0.
and if on different side of unity, then logarithm is negative.
ii. The base of logarithm must not be equal to unity. Notes:
i. If the coefficients of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are all real and
● Quadratic Equation: (α + iβ) is one of roots then (α − iβ) is also a root of the equation.
The roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0; a ≠ 0 are, (i.e., Imaginary roots occur in conjugate pairs.)

𝒃 𝒃𝟐 𝟒𝒂𝒄 𝒃 𝒃𝟐 𝟒𝒂𝒄 ii. If the coefficients of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are all rational and
α= , β= .
𝟐𝒂 𝟐𝒂 (α + 𝛽) is one of roots then (α − 𝛽) is also a root of the equation. Here α,
β ∈ Q and β is not a perfect square.
* Nature of roots depends on discriminant D = b2 – 4ac.
1. If D > 0 ⇒ the roots are real and unequal or distinct. iii. If f(x) = ax2 + bx + c is a perfect square then discriminant is given by,
D = b2 − 4ac = 0.
2. If D is a perfect square, then roots are rational and unequal.
3. If D = 0 ⇒ the roots are real and equal (coincident).
4. If D < 0 ⇒ the roots are non-real (imaginary) and unequal.
 57 58

● Common roots of quadratic equations

Hence, {2(hg – a f)}2 = 4 (h2 – ab) (g2 – ac)
Let a1 x2 + b1 x + c1 = 0 and a2 x2 + b2 x + c2 = 0 be two quadratic equations
⇒ (h2 g2 + a2 f 2 – 2afgh) = (g2 h2 – ab g2 – ac h2 + a2 b c)
having common roots.
𝒂 𝒉 𝒈
a. When one root is common. ⇒ a b c + 2fgh – a f 2 – bg2 – ch2 = 0 or 𝒉 𝒃 𝒇 = 0.
Let ‘p’ be a common root between the two equations. Then ‘p’ will satisfy 𝒈 𝒇 𝒄
both the equations. Hence a1 p2 + b1 p + c1 = 0 and a2 p2 + b2 p + c2 = 0
Solving by cross-multiplication method, we get, ● Graph of y = f(x) = ax2 + bx + c.

= =

⇒ =( )2 [As p2 = (p)2]

⇒ (a1b2 – a2b1) (b1c2 – c1b2) = (c1a2 – c2a1)2

This is the required condition for having one common root.

b. When two roots are common. This is a parabola of form Y = a X2.

In this case two equations are identical. So, the co-efficient of x2, x and 𝐃 𝒃
𝐚𝟏 𝐛𝟏 𝐜𝟏 Here Y = (y + ) and X = (x + ). We have the following cases.
constant terms are proportional, i.e. = = . 𝟒𝒂 𝟐𝒂
𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟐
Notes: 1. when a > 0
i. If f(x) = 0 and g(x) = 0 are two polynomial equations having some com- In this case the graph of y = f(x) is an upward parabola. The minimum
mon root(s) then these common root(s) is/are also the root(s) of 𝐃
value of y = - and the point of minima is (- ,- ).
h(x) = a f(x) + b g(x) = 0. 𝟒𝒂

ii. To obtain the common root, make coefficients of x2 in both equations 2. when a < 0
same and subtract one equation from the other to obtain a linear equation
in x and then solve it for x to get the common root. In this case the graph of y = f(x) is a downward parabola. The maximum
𝐃
value of y = - and the point of maxima is (- ,- ).
● Factorisation of Quadratic Expressions: 𝟒𝒂
Notes:
Let f (x, y) ≡ ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0.
𝒃 𝐃
⇒ ax2 + 2(h y + g) x + (by2 + 2fy + c) = 0 i. f(x) = ax2 + bx + c represents a parabola with vertex at ( , ).
𝟐𝒂 𝟒𝒂

( )± ( ) ( ) ii. Parabola is concave upwards if ‘a > 0’ and the parabola is concave

⇒ x=
downwards if ‘a < 0’.
⇒ ax + h y + g = (h − ab)y + 2(hg − af)y + (g − ac) iii. The parabola intersects y- axis at (0, c).
Now in order that f (x, y) may be the product of two linear factors of the iv. The x- coordinates of point of intersection of parabola with x- axis will
form p x + q y + r, the quantity under the radical sign must be a perfect be the real roots of the quadratic equation f(x) = 0.
square.
 59 60

● Range of quadratic equation f(x)= ax2+ bx + c.

a. Absolute Range:
𝐃
i. If a > 0 then f(x) ∈ [– , ∞)
𝟒𝒂
𝐃
ii. If a < 0 then f(x) ∈ (– ∞, – ]
𝟒𝒂
𝐃
In respective cases the maximum or minimum values of f(x) is  which
𝟒𝒂
𝒃
occurs at vertex (x =  ).
𝟐𝒂
b. Range in restricted domain:
𝒃
i. If   [x1, x2], then f(x) [min {f(x1), f(x2)}, max {f(x1), f(x2)}]
𝟐𝒂
𝒃 𝐃
ii. If  [x1, x2], then f(x)  [min {f(x1), f(x2),  },
𝟐𝒂 𝟒𝒂
𝐃
max {f(x1), f(x2),  }]
𝟒𝒂

● Sign of quadratic Expression:

The value of expression f(x) = ax2 + bx + c will be > 0, = 0 or < 0 according
to as the point (x0, f(x0)) lies above the x-axis, on the x-axis or below the x-
axis.
Notes:
i. ax2 + bx + c  0  x  R  a > 0 and D  0.
ii. ax2 + bx + c  0  x  R  a < 0 and D  0.
iii. ax2 + bx + c > 0  x  R  a > 0 and D < 0.
iv. ax2 + bx + c < 0  x  R  a < 0 and D < 0.

● Location of Roots:
Let α, β be roots of equation f(x) = ax2 + bx + c = 0 and a, b, c  R. Then
the condition for various positions of roots is as given below.
 61 62

● Roots of cubic equation ax3 + bx2 + c x + d = 0: ● Important Results:

Let α, β and γ be roots of this equation. Then, 1. If α is a root of f(x) = 0, then (x  α) is a factor of f(x).
𝒃
S1 = sum of all roots = α + β + γ = – , 2. If f(x) = 0 has n distinct real roots, then f(x) = a (x 1) (x 2) ... (x
𝒂
𝒄 n), where 1, 2, ... n are n distinct real roots.
S2 = sum of roots taking 2 roots at a time = α β + β γ + γ α = ,
𝒂 3. If the coefficient of highest degree term is positive in the equation f(x) =
𝒅 0 of odd degree then it has at least one real root of a sign opposite to that
S3 = sum of roots taking 3 roots at a time = α β γ = – .
𝒂 of its last constant term.

● Roots of polynomial of degree ‘n’ 4. The quadratic equation f(x) = ax2 + bx + c = 0, a  0 has  as a repeated
root if and only if f () = 0 and f '() = 0.
If r1, r2, r3, …, rn are n roots of the equation f(x) = 0,
where f(x) = an x n + an-1xn-1 + …. + a1x + a0, then 5. If f(x) = 0 has a root  of multiplicity r > 1, then f(x) = (x– )r. g(x),
where g ()  0.
an x n + an-1xn-1 + ... + a1x + a0 = an (x  r1) (x  r2). (x  r n) = 0
6. If f(a) and f(b) are of opposite signs, then f(x) = 0 must have odd num-
● Comparing coefficients of like powers of x on both sides. ber of real roots between two real numbers 'a' and 'b'.

7. If f(a) and f(b) are of same signs, then f(x) = 0 must have an even num-
S1 = ∑ 𝑟i = (–1) = (–1) ,
ber of real roots between two real numbers 'a' and 'b'.

S2 = ∑ 𝑟i.rj = (–1)2 = (–1)2 , 8. If polynomial equation f(x) = 0 has n- real roots, then f '(x) = 0 has at-
least (n – 1) real roots.

S3 = ∑ 𝑟 i. rj. rk = (–1)3 = (–1)3 ,

● Descartes rule of signs:
: : : This rule helps in finding out how many positive and/or negative roots a
: : : polynomial can have.

Sn = r1 r2 r3 … rn = (–1) n = (–1) n , a. Finding number of positive roots:

1. Arrange the exponents in f(x) from highest to lowest degree.
∴ (x+α1) (x+α2) … (x+αn) = x + n S1 xn-1 + S2 xn-2 + … + Sn. 2. Count the number of sign changes in f(x).
3. The number of positive real roots is equal to the number of sign changes
● Remainder Theorem in f(x) or is less than the number of sign changes in f(x) by multiple of 2.
Let f(x) be any polynomial of degree n ≥ 1 and 'a ' be any real number. e.g., the polynomial x5 + x4 − 2x3 + x2 − 1 = 0 changes sign three times, so
it has at most three positive real roots (or it can have 3–2 = 1 positive real
If f(x) is divided by (x  a), then the remainder is equal to f(a). root).
i.e., f(x) = (x - a) g(x) + r (r is remainder) Substituting (−x) for x gives the maximum number of negative roots (two).

or f(a) = r(Putting x = a). b. Finding number of negative roots:

● Factor Theorem: 1. Substitute (−x) for x and arrange the terms of f(–x) from highest to low-
est degree.
Let f(x) be a polynomial of degree n ≥ 1 and 'a ' be a real number such that
f(a) = 0, then (x  a) is a factor of f(x). 2. Count the number of sign changes in f(-x).

Conversely, if (x  a) is a factor of f(x), then f(a) = 0.

 63 64

2. The number of negative real roots is equal to the number of sign chang- Notes:
es in f (– x) or is less than the number of sign changes in f (– x) by multiple
of 2. i. n! = n.(n−1). (n−2) ….3.2.1. = n.(n–1)!

e.g., the negative roots of f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 are the positive roots ii. 0! = 1! = 1
of a (- x)3 + b (- x)2 + c (- x) + d = 0. iii. (2n)! = 2n. n! {1.3.5…. (2n-3) (2n–1)}
i.e., number of positive roots of - +ax3 bx2
- cx + d = 0, which is three here. iv. (– n)! is not defined.
Thus, there are 3 negative real roots of f(x) = 0.
𝒏!
● Binomial theorem (n is + ve integer): ● Binomial coefficient: n Cr =
𝒓!(𝒏 𝒓)!
(a + b) n = an + nC1an−1b + …+ n Cr an – r b r + … + n Cn b n (n>1)
● Pascal’s Triangle:
● Properties of Binomial theorem:
The binomial coefficients have a fixed pattern which can be seen through
* Number of terms in the expansion is (n+1). Pascal’s Triangle.

* The sum of indices of ‘a’ and ‘b’ in each term is n.

* The binomial coefficients of the terms equidistant from the beginning

and the end are equal. i.e., nC0 = n Cn, nC1 = nCn-1, …, n Cr = n Cn-r, etc.
𝒏(𝒏 𝟏)…(𝒏 𝒓 𝟏)
* General term = Tr+1 = n Cr an – r b r = an – r br
𝒓!.
𝒏!
* Binomial coefficient of general term = n Cr =
𝒓!.(𝒏 𝒓)!
* r th term from end = (n – r + 2) th term from the beginning.
In general, we see that coefficient of (x + a)n come from nth row of Pascal’s
* Middle terms depend upon the value of n. triangle, in which each term is the sum of the two terms just above it. In a
𝒏 similar manner the triangle can be expanded to any index n.
i. If n is even middle term = ( + 1) th term. Total (n +1) odd terms.
𝟐
The numbers arranged in Pascal's triangle are given by n Cr which is called
𝒏 𝟏 th 𝒏 𝟑 th Binomial Coefficient.
ii. If n is odd there are two middle terms ( ) and ( ) terms. To-
𝟐 𝟐
tal number of even terms are (n + 1). ● Properties of Binomial coefficients:
iii. In any binomial expansion the middle term has the greatest coefficient. Here n C0, n C1, n C2, …, n Cn are the binomial coefficients in the expansion
(If there are wo middle terms then their two coefficients are equal and of (1 + x) n.
greater.) * nC0 = n Cn = 1.
* If n is odd then (a + b)n - (a - b)n and (a + b)n + (a - b)n both have equal * C0 + C1 + C2 + …. + Cn = 2n.
𝒏 𝟏
no of terms and the number of terms equal to . * C0 – C1 + C2 – C3 + … +(−1) n. Cn = 0
𝟐

* If n is even then (a + b)n - (a - b)n has

𝒏
terms and (a + b)n + (a - b)n has * C0 + C2 + C4 + …. = C1 + C3 + C5 + …. = 2 n−1.
𝟐
𝒏 * C1 + 2C2 + 3C3 + … + n. Cn = n.2 n−1
( + 1) terms.
𝟐
* C1 – 2C2 + 3C3 – 4C4 + … +(−1) n-1 n. Cn = 0 for n > 1

* n Cr = n Cn−r.
 65 66

* n C x = n Cy ⇒ Either x = y or x + y = n. * (1 − x) n = nC0 − nC1 x + …+ (−1)r. n Cr x r + … + (−1)n nCn xn

( )…( )
* n Cr = (−1) r. r−1−n Cr. (For r ≥ 0) = 1– n x+ n(n−1) x2+ ... + (−1)r x r + … + (−1) n xn
! !

* n Cr / nCr−1 = . * (x + a) n + (x − a) n = 2[nC0xn.a0 + nC2xn−2.a2 + …]

= 2[Sum of terms at odd places]
* (a) n Cr + nCr−1 = n+1Cr.
* (x + a) n − (x − a) n = 2[nC1x n−1.a1 + nC3xn−3.a3 + …]
* (b) Cr +n nCr+1 = n+1C r+1.
= 2[Sum of terms at even places]

* n Cr + n−1Cr + n−2Cr + n−3Cr + …. + r Cr = n+1Cr+1. ● General term in expansion of (1 + x) n :

( ) n−2 ( )( ) n−3 𝒏(𝒏 𝟏)…(𝒏 𝒓 𝟏) r
* n Cr = . n−1Cr−1 = . Cr−2 = . Cr−3 and so on. (r+1) th term = Tr+1 = x .
( ) ( )( ) 𝒓!

● Summation up to middle term: ● Binomial expansions for negative index (n < 1)

When n is a negative integer or a fraction, the expansion is made possible
2nC0 +2nC1 +2n C2 +2n C3 + …. +2n Cn = 22n −1 + .2nCn. by making first term unity in the following way,
𝒃 𝒃 𝒃
● Sum of the series: (a + b) n = an (1 + )n , if < 1 and – 1 < .
𝒂 𝒂 𝒂

a. When the sum of the lower suffices are the same: Putting = x and −1 < x < 1 we get the following results.
b. When the difference of the lower suffices are the same:
● Binomial expansions for n < 1 and −1 < x < 1,
n Cr. n Cn + nCr−1. nCn−1 + nCr−2. n C n−2 + … + nC0. n C n−r = 2n C n−r
* (1 + x) n=1+n x + n(n−1) x2 + … + {n(n−1) (n−2) … (n−r+1) x r} + …
! !
( )!
c. C02 + C12 + C22 + …. + Cn2 = 2nCn =
!. !
* (1−x)n=1−nx+ n(n−1)x2 + … +(−1)r [n(n−1)(n−2) … (n−r+1)xr] + … ∞.
! !
● Binomial expansions of series for n > 1:
* (1+x)–n =1− nx+ n(n+1)x2+ …+ (−1)r [n(n+1)(n+2) …(n+r−1) xr]+… ∞.
By giving different values to a and b we get the following formulae. ! !

* (x + a)n = nC0xn + nC1 xn−1a + …+ n Cr xn – r ar + … + nCn an * (1−x) –n=1+nx + n(n+1) x2 + … + {n(n+1) (n+2) … (n+r−1) x r} + … ∞.
! !
( )…( )
= x n + nxn−1a + …+ x n−r ar + …+ an
! If n ∈ N,

* (x − a) n = nC0xn + nC1 xn−1(−a) + …+ n Cr x n−r(−a) r+ …+ n Cn (−a)n (1 − x) − n = 1 + nC1 x + n+1C2 x2 + n+2C3 x3+ …+ n + r −1Cr x r + …
( )…( ) If n ∈ Q,
= x n − nxn−1a + …+ (−1) r x n−r a r + … + (−1) n an
!
(1 − x) − n = 1 + n x + n(n+1) x2 + n(n+1) (n+2) x3 +…
* (1 + x) n = nC0 + nC1 x + …+ n Cr x r + … + n Cn x n ! !
( )…( ) …+ {n(n+1) (n+2) … (n+r−1) x r} + … ∞.
=1+nx+ n(n−1) x2 + …. + x r + …+ x n. !
! !
 67 68

● Some expansions for n < 1 (when −1<x<1); 𝒂 𝒃

* Arithmetic mean: A = (where a, A, b are in A.P.)
* (1 − x) –1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + … + x r + … ∞ 𝟐

* (1 + x) –1 = 1 – x + x2 – x3 + … (−1) r x r + … ∞ * n arithmetic means between two positive real numbers

𝐧(𝐛 𝐚)
* (1 − x) –2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 − 4x3 + … + (r + 1) x r + … ∞ 1. An = a +
𝐧 𝟏
Where A1, A2, …., A n are n arithmetic mean between a and b and a, A1, A2,
* (1 + x) –2 = 1− 2x + 3x2 − 4x3 + …+(−1)r (r + 1) xr + … ∞
…., A n, b is an A.P.
* (1 − x) –3 = 1 + 3x + 6x2 + 10x3 + 15x4 + … ∞ 𝒏(𝒂 𝒃)
2. Sum of n arithmetic mean between a and b: =
𝟐
* (1 + x) –3 = 1− 3x + 6x2 – 10x3 + 15x4 − … ∞
● Properties of A.P. sequence:
● Sequence and Series
* Let a1, a2, a3, …, an be in AP and k be a non-zero real number, then
Sequence:
i. a1 ± k, a2 ± k, a3 ± k, …, an ± k are also in AP.
It is a function whose domain is the set of natural numbers. It can also be
defined as a function whose range is the set of real numbers. ii. k a1, k a2, k a3, …, k a n are also in AP.
e.g., If f(n) = n + 2, where n ∈ N, then {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, …} is a sequence.
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝐧
iii. , , , …, are also in AP.
𝒌 𝒌 𝒌 𝒌
Series:
When a sequence is connected by either +ve sign or –ve sign or both, it is * If a1, a2, a3, … and b1, b2, b3, … are two A.P. sequences then,
called a series. For example, 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + … is a series. a1 ± b1, a2 ± b2, a3 ± b3, …, an ± bn are also in AP.

● Finite and Infinite Sequences: [But a1.b1, a2.b2, …, an. bn and , , …, are not in AP.]
A sequence is said to be finite or infinite according as the number of ele-
ments is finite or infinite. For example, {1, 3, 5, 7, …, 99} is a finite se- * If a1, a2, …, a n are in AP, then a1 + an = a2 + an–1 = a3 + an–2 = …
quence and {1, 3, 5, 7, …,} is an infinite sequence.
𝟏
* In A.P. an = (a n – k + a n + k) for k ≤ n.
𝟐
● Progression:
It is a sequence in which each term is followed by a certain pattern. There * If log a, log b and log c are in AP, then a, b, c are in G. P and conversely.
are four types of progression, namely, AP, GP, HP and AGP.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
* If a, b, c are in A.P. then , , are in H.P.
● Arithmetic Progression (A.P.) 𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
Quantities are said to be in A, P. when they increase or decrease by a
common difference. e.g., a, a+ d, a+2d, … is in AP. Here ‘a’ is first term ● Some of the terms of an AP sequence
and ‘d’ is common difference. * Three numbers of an AP can be taken as: a – d, a, a + d.

* nth term of A.P. from beginning: tn = a + (n − 1) d * Four numbers of an AP can be taken as: a – 3d, a – d, a + d, a – 3d.

* pth term from the end of a finite A.P. series: tp = a + (n – p) d. * Five numbers of an AP can be taken as:
a – 2d, a – d, a, a + d, a + 2d.
* Sum of the first n terms in A.P.
* Six numbers of an AP can be taken as:
𝐧 𝐧
Sn = (a + l) or Sn = {2a + (n − 1) d} a – 5d, a – 3d, a – d, a + d, a + 3d, a + 5d.
𝟐 𝟐
 69 70

● Geometric progression (G. P.): * If a1, a2, a3, …, a n are in GP, then,
Quantities are said to be in G, P. when they increase or decrease by a i. a1r, a2 r, a3 r, …, an r are also in GP.
common factor. e.g., a, a r, ar2, ar3, …(Here a= first term, r=common ratio) 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
ii. , , , …, are also in GP.
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝐧
* nth term of G.P. from beginning: tn = a. r n−1
iii. a1.an = a2. an–1 = a3 .an–2 = …

* p th term of G.P. from the end of a finite series: = a r (n – p). iv. Term Tr = √ (Tr– k× Tr +k) where 0 ≤ k ≤ n – r.
v. a22 = a1.a3, a32 = a2.a4, a42 = a3.a5, … and so on.
● Sum of the first n terms of G.P.
* If a, b, c are in G. P. then log a, log b and log c are in AP, and vice versa.
When r < 1, When r > 1, When r = 1,
𝒂(𝟏 𝒓𝒏 ) 𝒂(𝒓𝒏 𝟏) ● Some of the terms of G.P. sequence
Sn = , Sn = , Sn = n a.
𝟏 𝒓 𝒓 𝟏 a. Three numbers of an GP can be taken as , a, a r.

● Geometric mean: G = √𝒂𝒃. (Where a, G, b are in G.P.) b. Four numbers of an GP can be taken as , , ar, a r3.

c. Five numbers of an GP can be taken as , , a, ar, a r2.

* n Geometric means between two positive real numbers:
d. Six numbers of an GP can be taken as , , , ar, ar3, ar5.
𝒃
Gn = a r = a ( )n/(n+1)
n
𝒂
Notes:
Where G1, G2, … G n are n geometric means between a and b.
i. No term of a GP sequence can be zero.

* The product of n geometric means inserted between two positive ii. All terms of a GP sequence can never be negative.
numbers, say a and b, is equal to the nth power of the single geometric
mean between the two given positive numbers.
● Harmonical progression (H.P.)
i.e., G1 × G2 × …× G n = (√𝒂𝒃)n
𝐚 𝐛 𝐚
Three numbers a, b, c are in H.P. if, =
𝐛 𝐜 𝐜
● Properties of G.P. sequence
𝟏
* If a1, a2, a3, …, a n are in GP and k be a non-zero real number, then * nth term of H.P. from beginning: tn= .
𝐚 (𝐧 𝟏)𝐝
i. ka1, ka2, ka3, …, k a n are also in GP.
𝟐𝐚𝐛
* Harmonic mean between two quantities a and b: H =
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝐧 𝐚 𝐛
ii. , , , …, are also in GP.
𝒌 𝒌 𝒌 𝒌
n - Harmonic means between two positive real numbers
(But a1 ± k, a2 ± k, a3 ± k, …, an ± k are not in GP.)
𝟏
* = nth arithmetic mean
* If a1, a2, a3, … and b1, b2, b3, … are two G.P. sequences then, 𝐧𝐭𝐡 𝐇𝐚𝐫𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐜 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧
𝟏 𝟏
i. a1.b1, a2.b2, a3.b3, …, an. bn are also in GP. = An = +nd
𝐇𝐧 𝐚
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝐧
ii. , , , …, are also in GP. 𝟏 𝟏 𝐧(𝐚 𝐛) (𝐚 𝐛)
𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟑 𝒃𝐧 ⇒ = + Where d =
𝐇𝐧 𝐚 𝐚𝐛(𝐧 𝟏) 𝐚𝐛(𝐧 𝟏)
(But a1 ± b1, a2 ± b2, a3 ± b3, …, an ± bn are not in GP.)
 71 72

* The sum of the reciprocal of n harmonic means is equal to n times the ● Arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means of n positive
single harmonic mean between the two given positive real numbers. quantities:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
i.e., + + …. + =n× Let a1, a2, …., an ∈ R+, be n positive quantities. Then,
𝐇𝟏 𝐇𝟐 𝐇𝐧 𝐇
𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝟐 ⋯. 𝐚𝐧
Notes: i. Arithmetic Mean of n positive quantities A = .
𝐧
i. No term of H.P. can be zero.
ii. Geometric Mean of n positive quantities G = (a1. a2. a3.…... an)1/n
ii. Since general term of A.P. is a + (n - 1) d, hence, general term of an H.P.
𝐧
is tn= . iii. Harmonic Mean of n positive quantities H = 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
( ) …..
𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝟐 𝐚𝟑 𝐚𝐧

iii. There is no general formula to find out the sum of n terms in HP.
* If A, G and H are arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means between
three given numbers a, b and c then then a, b, c are roots of equation, x3
● Properties of AM, GM and HM of two positive real numbers: 𝟑𝐆𝟑
– 3Ax2 + x – G2 = 0.
* Relation between A and G: If A and G are A.M. and G.M. respectively 𝐇
between two positive numbers a and b, then,
√ √ * R.M.S. ≥ A.M. ≥ G.M. ≥ H.M.
i. A ≥ G. [A – G = – √𝑎𝑏 = ( )2 ≥ 0.]
√

ii. A ± √A − G
iii. a, b are roots of equation x2 – 2Ax + G2 = 0.

* If A, G and H are in G.P. then A.H = G2.

* A. M. ≥ G. M. ≥ H. M.
● Inequalities involving AM of mth power.
* If a, b and c are three non-zero real numbers, then they will be,
𝐚 𝐜
If ai > 0, and i = 1,2,3…n, which are not all identical and m be a real num-
i. in AP if = or b= ber then,
𝟐
i. For m ∈ R − (0, 1) (i.e. when m > 1 and m < 0)

ii. in GP if = or b2 = ac (𝒂𝟏𝒎 𝒂𝟐𝒎 ⋯ 𝒂𝐧𝒎 ) 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 ⋯ 𝒂𝐧 m

we have, >( )
𝒏 𝒏
𝟐𝐚𝐜 (𝒂𝟏𝒎 𝒂𝟐𝒎 ⋯ 𝒂𝐧𝒎 ) 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 ⋯ 𝒂𝐧 m
iii. in HP if = or b= ii. For 0 < m < 1 we have, <( ) .
𝐚 𝐜 𝒏 𝒏

𝐚𝐧 𝟏 𝐛𝐧 𝟏 ● Arithmetico - Geometric Series:

* The equation given by will represent:
𝐚𝐧 𝐛 𝐧
A series, each term of which is formed by multiplying the corresponding
i. Arithmetic Mean between a and b if n = 0. term of an A.P. and G.P. is called the Arithmetico-Geometric Series.

𝟏
(e.g., 1 + 3x + 5x2 + 7x3 + ... Here 1, 3... are in A.P. & 1, x, x2, … are in G.P.)
ii. Geometric Mean between a and b if n = – .
𝟐
Note: nth term of any sequence is: tn = Sn – Sn −1.
iii. Harmonic Mean between a and b if n = – 1.
(where Sn =Sum of the first n terms).
 73

● Sum of n terms of an Arithmetico - Geometric Series

𝐚 𝐝𝐫(𝟏 𝐫 𝐧 𝟏 ) [𝐚 (𝐧–𝟏)𝐝].𝐫 𝐧
Sn = + – ● Fundamental Principle of Counting
𝟏 𝐫 (𝟏 𝐫)𝟐 𝟏 𝐫
* Multiplication rule:
● Sum of infinite terms of an Arithmetico-Geometric Series Assume a task can be broken up into two consecutive steps. If step 1 can be
𝐚𝐝𝐫 performed in m ways and for each of these, step 2 can be performed in n
Sn = + . ways, then the task itself can be performed in mn ways.
𝟏 𝐫 (𝟏 𝐫)𝟐

(If |r| < 1 & n   , then r n, r n–1 0) (or) If any event can occur in m ways and a second event can occur in n
ways, then both the events together can occur in m × n ways.
[e.g., Suppose that there are three routes from point A to point B, and five
● Important Results on summation from point B to point C. Then there are 3 × 5 = 15 routes from point A to
𝒏(𝒏 𝟏) point C]
* ∑𝒏𝟏 𝒏 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
𝟐
* Addition Rule:
𝒏(𝒏 𝟏)(𝟐𝒏 𝟏)
* ∑𝒏𝟏 𝒏2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + ... + n2 = If the first task can be performed in m ways, while a second task can be
𝟔
performed in n ways, and the tasks cannot be performed simultaneously,
𝒏(𝒏 𝟏) then performing either one of these tasks can be accomplished in any one
* ∑𝒏𝟏 𝒏3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + ... + n3 = [ ]2
𝟐 of total m + n ways.

𝒏(𝒏 𝟏)(𝟐𝐧 𝟏)(𝟑𝒏𝟐 𝟑𝒏 𝟏) or If one event can occur in m ways and a second event with no common
* ∑𝒏𝟏 𝒏4 = 14 + 24 + 34 + ... + n4 = outcomes can occur in n ways, then either of two events can occur in
𝟑𝟎
(m+n) ways.
[e.g., Selection of a boy from ‘m’ boys can be done in ‘m’ ways, and selec-
tion of a girl from ‘n’ girls can be done in ‘n’ ways, then selecting a monitor
for the class, which is done by selecting either a boy or a girl, can be done
in (m + n) ways.]

● Useful Results and notifications

* n Factorial = n! = n. (n − 1)! = n (n − 1) (n − 2) ... 3. 2. 1.

* 0! = 1! = 1;
* (2n)! = 2n. n! (1. 3. 5. 7... (2n − 1)).

* n P n = n (n − 1) (n − 2) .... 3.2.1 = n!

!
* n P0 = = 1.
!

* nP1 = n.
!
* nPr = n (n − 1) (n − 2) .... (n − r + 1) = .
( )!

* nPr = n. n-1Pr−1 = n(n-1). n-2Pr−2 = n(n-1) (n-2). n-3Pr−3.

 75 76

* nPr = n−1Pr + r. n−1Pr−1. * If n is even, then max. value of n Cr = n Cn/2.

* nPr = (n−r+1). nPr−1. * If n is odd, then max. value of n Cr is equal to, n C(n-1)/2 or n C(n+1)/2.

Note:
!
* n Cr = = . n Pr (Where r ≤ n; n ∈ N and r ∈ W) For solving series involving sum of product, following tips are useful.
!.( )! !
1. If sum of subscripts is constant, use (1+ x) n. (1+ x) n
* nC0 = n Cn = 1.
2. If difference of subscripts is constant, use (1+ x) n. (1+ )n
* nC1 = nCn−1 = n.
3. If terms are alternate positive and negative, use (1+ x)n. (1- x)n
* nC r = n Cn−r
4. Use the power based on superscripts involved in the question.
* r. n Cr = n. n−1Cr−1
● PERMUTATION
( ) n−2
* n Cr = . n−1Cr−1 = . Cr−2. Permutation is the different arrangements which can be made by taking
( )
some or all of a number of given things or objects at a time. In this order of
appearance of things/ item is important.
n Pr = No. of permutations of r things taken from n different things.
= No. of ways of filling r vacant places with n different things.
* If n Cr = n Cp, Then either (r = p) or (r + p = n).
= No. of ways of filling up n vacant places with r different things
* Cr + nCr−1 = n+1Cr. (In all these cases n > r).

* n Cr + nCr+1 = n+1Cr+1. ● Steps involved in the solution of a permutation problem:

* n Cr = n-1Cr + n-1Cr−1. Step 1: Recognizing the objects and the places involved in the problem.

Step 2: Checking whether the repetition of the objects is allowed or not.

* nC0 + nC1 + nC2 + …. + n Cn = 2n.
Number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time:
* nC0 + nC2 + nC4 + …. = nC1 + nC3 + nC5 + …. = 2n-1.
n Pr =
𝐧!
* 2n+1C0 + 2n+1C1 + 2n+1C2 + …. + 2n+1Cn = 22n. (𝐧 𝐫)!
i.e., nPr = n (n – 1) (n – 2) … (n – r + 1) (where, 0 ≤ r ≤ n)
* n Cn + n+1C1 + n+2C2 + …. + n+ r Cr = n+r+1Cr.
Notes:
* n Cn + n+1C1 + n+2C2 + …. + 2n−1Cn = 2nCn+1.
1. nPr = Number of ways of filling r vacant places with n different things.
* n+ m Cr = nC0 m Cr + nC1 mCr-1
+ …. + nCrmC0. = Choice for filling 1st place is from n objects × choice for 2nd place is
(Sum of lower suffices are same) from (n-1) objects (as 1 has already been chosen for 1st place) ×
choice for 3rd place is from (n-2) objects × … × choice for r th place
* 2nCn-r = n Cr n Cn + nCr-1 nCn-1 + …. + nC0nCn-r is from (n - r + 1) objects.
(Difference of lower suffices are same) !
Hence, nPr = n(n-1) (n-2) ... (n-r+1) ways. =
( )!
* nC02 + nC12 + nC22 + …. + nCn2 = 2n Cn.
 77 78

2. Permutation of n different things taken all at a time is n! * The number of arrangements of n distinct objects taken r at a time so that ‘k’
particular objects are never included, is = n−k Cr. r!
nP n = n(n-1) (n-2) … 3.2.1 = n!
[As ‘k’ objects are never included in selection, hence selection of r objects
● Different cases of Permutation is to be made from (n − k) objects. Also, the r objects can be arranged in r!
ways.]
Permutation of n objects taken all together when p of them are
alike and of one kind, q of them are alike and are of a second kind, ● String Method:
r of them are alike and are of a third kind and rest objects are dif- Permutation of n different objects, taken all at a time, when m specified objects
𝐧! always come together is = m! × (n−m+1)!
ferent is given by n
Pn=
𝐩!.𝐪!.𝐫!
[Here we can consider m objects tied with a string to form a single entity. Now total
Note: number of objects becomes = (n − m) + 1 (single entity of tied up m objects). The m
1. The number of permutations of n objects of which ‘m’ are of one kind and the (tied-up) objects can be arranged in m! ways and (n−m+1) objects can be arranged
𝐧! in (n−m+1)! ways. Hence, total number of ways of permutation is = m! (n−m+1)!]
rest (n - m) are of another kind, taken all at a time is .
𝐧!.(𝐧 𝐦)!
* Permutation of n objects, taken all at a time, when m specified objects never
2: The number of permutations of n object of which p objects are of one kind and come together is = n! − m! (n−m+1)!
𝒏!
the rest are all different = . * The number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time, when p par-
𝒑!.
ticular things are always together is,
● Permutation with repetition: (r-p+1)! p! n-p Cr-p = p! [r  (p1)]. np P rp = p! [rp+1].
(𝐧 𝐩)!
(𝐧 𝐫)!
Number of permutations of n different objects, taken r at a time when each object
can be repeated r times is: nPr = nr.
● Gap Method:
● Permutation under restriction The number of permutations of n different objects when no two of k given objects
occur together and there is no restriction on remaining m = n−k objects is,
* Total number of permutations of n different things taken not more than r at a
time, when each thing may be repeated any number of times is: m+1Pk × m! = m! × m+1Ck × k!

𝐧(𝐧𝐫 𝟏)
= . ● Circular Permutation
(𝐧 𝟏)
* Number of circular permutations of n different things taken all at a time:
* The number of permutations of n objects, taken r at a time, when a particular = (n − 1)!
object is always to be included in each arrangement, is given by = r. n−1Pr−1.
* If r things are taken at a time out of n distinct things and are arranged along a
circle, then the number of ways of doing this is
* Number of permutations of ‘n’ objects, taken ‘r’ at a time, when a particular ob-
= n Cr × (r−1)!
ject is fixed is = n-1 Pr-1.
* If clockwise and anticlockwise circular permutations are same, the number of
[Here one object has been fixed and we are left with arrangement of r-1 circular permutations of n different things taken all at a time is:
objects from n-1 objects which can be done in = n-1 Pr-1 ways.]
(𝒏 𝟏)!
= .
𝟐
* The number of arrangements of n distinct objects taken r at a time so that ‘k’
particular objects are always included, * If clockwise & anticlockwise circular permutations are same, then number of
𝐫! circular permutations of n different things taken r at a time is given by:
n−k Cr−k. r! = . n−p P r−p
(𝐫 𝐏)! 𝟏 𝟏
× n Cr × (r − 1)! = (nPr)
𝟐 𝟐𝒓
 79 80

* Number of circular permutations of n things when r things are taken at a time is ● Combination of identical objects.
𝟏
given by; n Cr × (r − 1)! = × nPr
𝒓 * The number of ways of selecting ‘r’ things from ‘n’ identical things is ‘1’.
* If n persons are to be seated around a round table in such a way that no person [This is because whether you select the first r objects or last r objects or
(𝐧 𝟏)! any r objects, you cannot differentiate between the objects].
has similar neighbour, then it is given by .
𝟐
* Total number of selections of ‘0’ or more things out of ‘n’ identical things can be done
* The number of circular permutations of m things of first kind, n things of second kind,
in ‘n+1’ ways.
such that no two things of second kind come together is = (m−1)! × m P n.

* The number of circular permutations of m things of first kind, n things of second * Selection of ‘1’ or more things out of ‘n’ identical things can be done in ‘n’
kind, such that all things of second kind come together is = m! n! ways.
{Here (m+1−1)! n! = m! n!}
● Selection from group of identical objects:
Note
* Out of (p + q + r + …) things, the total number of ways of selecting some or all
1. Number of circular permutations of n things (having p alike and the rest different things whereof p are alike of one kind, q are alike of second kind, and so on is,
things) taken all at a time distinguishing clockwise and anticlockwise arrangement {(p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) …} – 1.
(𝐧 𝟏)!
is: .
𝐩! * The total number of ways of selecting at least one thing of each type out of (p +
q + r + …) things, whereof p are alike of one kind, q are alike of second kind,
2. When the positions are numbered, circular arrangement is treated as a linear and so on is; p. q. r ….
arrangement and in this case the arrangement of n persons sitting around circular
table is: n!
● Selection from both identical and distinct objects
● COMBINATION * From (p + q + r + n) things total number of ways of selecting one or more
things, whereof p are alike of one kind, q are alike of second kind, r are alike of
* Combination of r objects selected from n distinct objects is given by: third kind and rest n things are all different is;
n Cr
𝐧! 𝟏 {(p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1). 2n} – 1.
= = . nPr
𝐫!.(𝐧 𝐫)! 𝐫!.
● Distribution of Identical objects into different groups:
* Combination of n distinct objects taken all at a time is: n Cn =1
* The number of ways of distribution of identical objects, when groups are allowed to
be empty: = n+r-1Cr-1 = n+r-1Cn
● Combinations of distinct objects with Repetition
* Total number of combinations of n different things taken one or more at a time ● The following statements are equivalent,
= 2n.
a. The number of ways of distributing n identical things among r persons
* The total number of ways of selecting, at least one thing from n different if each person may receive none, one or more things.
things. or
or b. The non-negative integer solutions of the equation: x 1+ x2 + ·· + x r = n.
The total number of ways in which it is possible to form groups by taking or
some or all of n things at a time is: nC1 + nC2 + … + n Cn = 2n – 1. c. Ways of distributing n identical objects among r distinct containers
when containers can have 0, 1 or more objects.
or
* The number of combinations of n distinct objects taken r at a time when any
d. The combinations of n identical objects taken r at a time with repetition
object may be repeated any number of times = n+ r–1Cr
when r can be 0, 1 or more.
or
Co-efficient of x r in expansion of (1 + x + x2 + …… + x r) n
* The number of ways of distribution of n identical objects, when groups are not
or
allowed to be empty: = n − 1Cr − 1.
Coefficient of x r in expansion of (1 – x)–n
 81 82

● The following statements are equivalent, ● Selection of non-consecutive objects:

a. The number of combinations of n identical objects taken r at a time with * The number of selections of r objects out of n objects in a row so that no two
repetition. objects are consecutive = n − r + 1 Cr.
(or)
b. The number of ways of distributing n identical things among r persons ● Selection of consecutive objects:
if each person may receive at least one thing. * The number of selections of r consecutive objects out of n objects in a row
(or)
= n − r + 1.
c. Ways in which n identical objects can be distributed among r distinct
containers when containers can have at least 1 object. * The number of selections of r consecutive objects out of n objects along a circle
(or) 𝒏, where 𝐫 < 𝐧
=
d. Positive integral solutions of the equation: x1 + x2 + ··· + x r = n. 𝟏, where 𝐫 = 𝐧.

● Restricted combinations: ● Division & distribution of distinct objects into groups:

* The number of combinations of n different objects taken r at a time in which ‘p’ * The number of ways in which (m + n) different objects can be divided into two
(𝒎 𝒏)!
particular objects are always excluded = n–p Cr. groups containing m & n things respectively is: m+ n Cm =
𝒎!.𝒏!

* The number of combinations of n different objects taken r at a time in which ‘p’ (𝟐𝒏)!
* If m = n, the number of subdivisions is = .
particular objects are always included = n–p Cr–p. 𝒏!.𝒏!.𝟐!

* The number of combinations of r things out of n different things such that m * The number of ways in which (m + n) different objects can be distributed be-
particular things are not included in any selection is tween two persons if one gets m & and other n objects respectively is:
(𝐦 𝐧)!
= n Cr – (n – m Cr – m). m+ n Cm = × 2!
𝐦!.𝐧!

* Number of combinations of n different objects taking r at a time when ‘p’ particu- * If (2n) things are to be distributed equally between two persons, then number of
lar objects are always included, and ‘q’ particular things are always excluded = n (𝟐𝐧)! (𝟐𝐧)!
– p – q Cr – p. ways = × 2! = .
𝐧!.𝐧!𝟐!. 𝐧!.𝐧!.

● Selection of r items from two groups of different objects * Number of ways in which (m + n + p) different objects can be divided into three
(𝐦 𝐧 𝐩)!
groups containing m, n & p objects (m ≠ n ≠ p) respectively is: .
* The number of ways of selecting exactly r objects from two groups one 𝐦!.𝐧!.𝐩!
containing n different objects and other containing m different objects, (𝟑𝐧)!
* If m = n = p then the number of groups division = .
𝐧!𝐧!.𝐧!.𝟑!
= m Cr. nC0 + mCr−1. nC1 +…+ mC0. n Cr (if r ≤ m, n).
= m Cm. n C r−m + mCm−1. n C r−(m−1) + … + m C r−n. n Cn * Distribution of (m+ n+ p) distinct objects among three persons (if they get m, n,
(𝐦 𝐧 𝐩)!
(if m, n ≤ r ≤ m+ n) p objects) (m ≠ n ≠ p) = × 3!.
𝐦!.𝐧!𝐩!

● Selection of r items from two groups: one of identical objects * If m = n = p then the number of ways 3n objects are to be distributed equally
and other of different objects: (𝟑𝐧)!
among three people = .
𝐧!.𝐧!.𝐧!.
* The number of ways of selecting exactly r objects from a group of n ob-
jects, in which p are identical and rest different is given by, * The number of ways in which division of n objects into 5 groups of size m, m,
m, p, p can be done is:
= n–p Cr + n–pCr−1 + n–pCr−2 +…+ n–pC0 (if r ≤ p)
(𝐦 𝐦 𝐦 𝐩 𝐩)! 𝐧! 𝐧!
= n–p Cr + n–pCr−1 + n–pCr−2 +…+ n–p C r−p (if r > p) = = .
𝐦!.𝐦!.𝐦!.𝐩!.𝐩!.𝟑!.𝟐! 𝐦!.𝐦!.𝐦!.𝐩!.𝐩!.𝟑!.𝟐! (𝐦!)𝟑 .(𝐩!)𝟐 .𝟑!.𝟐!
 83 84

* The number of ways of distributing these 5 groups among 5 persons can be v. P (6,5) = 1 way. (1+1+1+1+2) (i.e., Partitions of 6 into 5 parts)
𝐧!.𝟓!
done in, = . (vi) P (6,6) = 1way. (1+1+1+1+1+1) (i.e., Partitions of 6 into 6 parts)
𝐦!.𝐦!.𝐦!.𝐩!.𝐩!.𝟑!.𝟐!

Therefore, total partitions of 6 is given by,

* The number of ways of dividing n distinct objects into l groups containing p ob-
jects each, m groups containing q objects each is equal to, P (6) = 1 + 3 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 1 = 11 ways.
𝐧!
. (Where l p + m q = n.)
(𝐩!)𝐥 .(𝐪!)𝐦 𝐥!𝐦! ● Summary of the number of ways in which, under various con-
ditions, n balls can be distributed into r boxes.
 In general, the number of ways of division of (x1 + x2 + …. + xn) objects into n
groups of size x1, x2, …, x n (x1 ≠ x2 …. ≠ x n) is
(𝐱𝟏 𝐱𝟐 𝐱𝟑 ⋯ 𝐱𝐧)!
= .
(𝐱𝟏)!.(𝐱𝟐)!(𝐱𝟑)!….(𝐱𝐧)!

 In general, the number of ways of distribution of (x1 + x2 +…. + x n) objects

among n persons if they get x1, x2, x3, …., x n objects (where x1 ≠ x2 ≠ …. ≠ x n)
is,
(𝐱𝟏 𝐱𝟐 𝐱𝟑 ⋯ 𝐱𝐧)!
= × n!
(𝐱𝟏)!.(𝐱𝟐)!(𝐱𝟑)!….(𝐱𝐧)!

● Ways to Count the distribution of n items among m people:

1. Identical mangoes to be distributed to identical men in:
n+m-1Cm-1 ways.
2. Distinct mangoes to be distributed to identical men in :
n+m-1Cm-1 × n! ways.
3. Identical mangoes to be distributed to distinct men in
n+m-1Cm-1×(m-1)! ways.
4. Distinct mangoes to be distributed to distinct men in
n+m-1Cm-1 × (m-1)! × n! ways.

● Partitions of n into parts:

p(n) = The number of partitions of n into any number of parts.
P (n, r) = The number of partitions of the integer n into r parts.
Special Cases: P (0, 0) = P (n, n) = P (n, n-1) = P (n, 1) = 1.
For example, Partition of 6 in different situations is given below. Where S (n, r) is Stirling number of the second kind, and,
𝟏
i. P (6,1) = 1 way (6). (i.e., Partition of 6 into 1 part) S (n, r) =
𝒓!
∑𝒓𝒊 𝟏𝟏(−1) I r Ci(r−i) n
𝟏
ii. P (6,2) = 3ways. (1+5, 2+4, 3+3) (i.e., Partitions of 6 into 2 parts) = [rC0. (r−0) n − rC1(r−1) n + rC2(r−2) n+⋯+(−1) r−1. rCr−1]
𝒓!

iii. P (6,3) = 3 ways. (4+1+1, 3+2+1, 2+2+2) (i.e., Partitions of 6 into 3

Special Cases: S (0, 0) = 1, S (n, 0) = 0 for n ≥ 1, S (n, r) = 0 for n < r.
parts)
iv. P (6,4) = 2 ways. (1+1+1+3, 1+1+2+2). (i.e., Partitions of 6 into 4 parts)
 85 86

● Multinomial theorem: = Co-efficient of x r in

𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝐩 𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝐪 𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝐬
For real numbers x1, x2, …., xk and non-negative integers n1, n2, . . . nk {r! × (1+ +
𝟏! 𝟐!
+ …+ ) × (1+
𝒑! 𝟏!
+ + …+
𝟐! 𝒒!
) × (1+ +
𝟏! 𝟐!
+ …+ ) …}
𝒔!
(where n1 + n2 + … + nk = n), the followings hold.
* The number of ways in which n identical things can be distributed into r
groups so that no group contains less than m things and more than k
things (m < k) is,
The coefficients of every term x1n1 x2n2…. xknk in expansion of,
𝐧! = Co-efficient of x n in (x m + x m + 1 + x m + 2 + … + x k) r
(x1 + x2 + …. xk)n is = = Co-efficient of x n – m r in expansion of (1 + x + x2 + … + x k – m) r
𝐧𝟏!.𝐧𝟐!....𝐧𝐤!.
𝟏 𝒙𝐤 𝐦 𝟏
= Co-efficient of x n – m r in expansion of {( )r × (1– x) – r}
𝟏 𝒙
1. For equation (x1  x2  ...  x r  n), the number of non-negative solu-
tions is given by the coefficient of x n in the product of, * Number of ways of selecting r objects out of (m + n + p) things, where p
objects are alike of one kind, m alike of second kind and n alike of third
(xa1  x a1+1  ...  x b1)(xa2  x a2+1  ...  x b2)... (x ar  x ar+1  ...  x br) kind, is given by ,
(x1, x2, ..., xr are integers and a1  x1  b1, a2  x2  b2, ..., ar  xr  br) = coefficient of x r in the expansion of
(1 + x + x2 +.... + x p) × (1 + x + x2 +... + x m) × (1 + x + x2 +.... + x n).
2. For equation (x1 + x2 + … + x m = n), the number of integral solutions is
given by the solutions of the negative integers, Note: Coefficient of x r in (1 − x) −n = n + r − 1Cr (n ∈ N).
(n –∑𝒎
𝒊 𝟏 𝒄i) +
n – 1Cm – 1. (Here x1 ≥ c1, x2 ≥ c2, …, x m ≥ cm).
* If object of each kind is to be included then number of ways of selecting r
objects out of (m + n + p) things, where p objects are alike of one kind, m
alike of second kind and n alike of third kind, is given by,
● Application of multinomial theorem:
(a) Combination with Repetitions = Coefficient of x r in the expansion of,
* The number of combinations of r things out of n things of which p things (x + x2 +...... + x p) × (x + x2 +...... + x m) × (x + x2 +...... + x n).
are alike of one kind, q alike of second kind, s alike of third kind and rest
(n – p – q – s) things are all different is given by,
● Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion (PIE):
= Co-efficient of x r in expansion of, (1 + x +…+ x p) × (1 + x +…+ x q)
× (1 + x +…+ x s) × (1 + x) × …. × (1 + x) up-to (n – p – q – s) times. * For finite n sets A1, A2, ..., An:

𝟏 𝒙𝐩 𝟏 𝟏 𝒙𝐪 𝟏 𝟏 𝒙𝐬 𝟏
= Co-efficient of x r in × × × (1+ x) n – p – q – s
𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 𝒙

* The number of combinations of r things out of n things of which p alike

of one kind, q alike of second kind, s alike of third kind, when each thing is
taken at least once, is given by, Where | 𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ … ∪ 𝐴𝑛| =
= Co-efficient of x r in expansion of Sum of sizes of all single sets – Sum of sizes of all 2-set intersections +
(x + x2 +…+ x p) × (x + x2 +…+ x q) × (x + x2 +…+ x s) Sum of sizes of all 3-set intersections – Sum of sizes of all 4-set intersec-
𝟏 𝒙𝐩 𝟏 𝟏 𝒙𝐪 𝟏 𝟏 𝒙𝐬 𝟏
tions … + (–1) n+1 × (Sum of sizes of intersections of all n sets).
= Co-efficient of x (r – p – q – s) in ( × × )
𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 𝒙

(b) Permutations with Repetitions

* The number of permutations of r things out of n things in which p things
are alike of one kind, q things are alike of second kind, s things are alike of
third kind and so on, is given by,
 87 88

● Number of ways of distributing n distinct objects in r different Note:

boxes: 1. No. of divisors of N excluding 1 and N is
Let N = No. of ways in which n distinct objects can be distributed in r dif- = {(a+1) (b+1) (c +1) …} – 2.
ferent boxes are given below.
2. No. of divisors of N excluding either 1 or N is
Case 1: When empty boxes are allowed. N = r n. (r × r × … n times).
= {(a+1) (b+1) (c +1) …} – 1.
Case 2: When empty boxes are not allowed: (each box has ≥ 1 object and
n > r) ● The sum of divisors of N:
N = r n − rC1. (r−1) n + rC2 (r−2) n − rC3 (r−3) n + … (N = pa. q b. r c..... where p, q, r.... are distinct primes & a, b, c... ∈ N)
… + (−1) r−1. r Cr−1. {r− (r−1)} n + (−1) r. r Cr.(r−r) n.
Sum of divisors of N = (p0 +p1 +p2 +.... +pa) × (q0 +q1 +q2 +.... +q b)
● DERANGEMENT: × (r0 +r1 +r2 +.... +r c) × ( .... )
A derangement is a permutation of the elements of a set, such that no el- 𝒑𝐚 𝟏 𝟏 𝒒𝐛 𝟏 𝟏 𝒓𝐜 𝟏 𝟏
ement appears in its original position. In other words, derangement is a = × × ×…. (Sum of G.P.)
𝒑 𝟏 𝒒 𝟏 𝒓 𝟏
permutation where every element is moved from its original position.
For example, let's consider a set {1, 2, 3}. The permutations of this set are * Number of ways (W) in which N = pa. q b. r c … can be resolved as a prod-
{1, 2, 3}, {1, 3, 2}, {2, 1, 3}, {2, 3, 1}, {3, 1, 2}, {3, 2, 1}. Out of these, {2, 3, 1} uct of two factors is,
and {3, 1, 2} are derangements because no element in these permutations 𝟏
appears in its original position. Case 1. When N is not a perfect square. W = (a+1) (b+1) (c+1) …
𝟐
𝟏
Case 2. When N is a perfect square. W = [(a+1) (b+1) (c+1) …. + 1]
* If n things are arranged in a row, the number of ways in which they can 𝟐
be deranged so that no one of them occupies its original place or no object
goes to its scheduled place, is [Examples,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 i. 63 = 32×71. It can be resolved as a product of two factors in 3 ways only,
= n! [ − + + …+ (-1) n ].
𝟐! 𝟑! 𝟒! 𝒏! viz, (1 × 63), (3 × 21), (9 × 7). This can be given by = {(2+1) (1+1)} = 3.
The above statement is same as number of ways in which n letters can be
ii. A square number 36 = 22 × 32. It can be resolved as a product of two
placed in n directed envelope so that no letter goes into its own envelope.
factors in only 5 ways, viz, (1 × 36), (2 × 18), (3 × 12), (4 × 9), (6 × 6).
Note: De-arrangement of 1 object is not possible. This can be given by = {(2+1) (2+1) +1} = 5.]
De-arrangement of 2 objects is, D (2) = 2! ( )=1
! * The number of ways in which a composite number N can be resolved into
two factors which are relatively prime (or co-prime) to each other is = 2n−1
De-arrangement of 3 objects is, D (3) = 3! ( − )=3-1=2 where n is the number of different prime factors in N.
! !

De-arrangement of 4 objects is, D (4) = 4! [ − + ] = 12 - 4 + 1 = 9 [e.g., 48 = 24 x 31, the value of ‘n’ is 2 because only 2 distinct prime factors
! ! ! (2&3) are involved. Hence, the number of ways = 22-1 = 2. Here, 48 can be
written as a product of 2 co-primes, in two different ways, i.e., (1, 48) and
De-arrangement of 5 objects is, D (5) = 5! [ − + - ] (3, 16).]
! ! ! !
= 60 - 20 + 5 -1 = 44.
* The product of k consecutive positive integers is divisible by k!
● Prime Factorization of a Number
* If N = pa. q b. r c..... where p, q, r.... are distinct primes and a, b, c... are
natural numbers then the total numbers of divisors (factors) of N includ-
ing 1 & N is = (a + 1) (b + 1) (c + 1) ....
(All divisors excluding 1 and N are called proper divisors.)
 89 90

● IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED. * If n straight lines are drawn in the plane such that no two lines are par-
allel and no three lines are concurrent, then number of parts which these
a. For functions: divides the plane is equal to (1 + ∑n) and the total number of intersecting
If a set A has m elements and set B has n elements, points = nC2.

* If m parallel lines in a plane are intersected by a family of other n parallel

lines. Then total number of parallelograms so formed is given by,
𝟏
mC2×nC2 = m n (m–1) (n–1)
𝟒

* No. of rectangles (or parallelogram or quadrilateral) that can be formed

* Number of functions from A to B is = nm by using m horizontal lines and n vertical lines is given by, mC2 × n C2.

c. For polygon with n sides:

* Number of one-one function from A to B is, = n Pm (m ≤ n).
* The number of triangles formed by joining vertices of convex polygon of
* Number of onto functions from A to B is, n sides is = nC3.
N = nm — nC1(n — 1) m + nC2(n — 2) m …. m ≤ n.
* Number of quadrilaterals that can be formed by joining the vertices of a
(If m > n, there aren't any onto function and hence N = 0.) polygon of n sides = nC4.

* Number of strictly increasing (decreasing) functions from A to B is * The number of triangles having exactly two sides common to the polygon
= n Cm, m ≤ n. = n.

* Number of non-increasing (non-decreasing) functions from A to B is: * Number of triangles having,

= m+ n–1 Cm i. exactly 1 side common to the polygon is: n (n - 4).
𝟏
ii. no side common to the polygon is: n (n – 4) (n – 5).
* Number of bijective (one-one onto) functions from A to B is, 𝟔

= n! (if m = n.)
𝐧 (𝐧 𝟑)!
* Number of diagonals in polygon of n sides is given by: (nC2 – n) =
𝟐
b. For points and lines in a plane:
d. For circle:
* Given, n distinct points in the plane where no three points are collinear,
then the number of line segments formed = nC2. * Given, n points on the circumference of a circle, then,
i. Number of straight lines = nC2
* For there are n- distinct points in the plane, of which m are collinear
(m ≥ 3), then we have following results. ii. Number of triangles = nC3

i. The number of line segments is = (nC2 – mC2) + 1. iii. Number of quadrilaterals = nC4

[No. of line segments = (Total line segments from n points) – (line seg- e. For squares and rectangles:
ments due to m lines) + (1 line due to m collinear points)]
* In a ‘n x n’ square board,
ii. The number of different triangles formed by joining these n points is:
= nC3 – m C3. i. The total number of squares of any size is ∑𝒏𝒓 𝟏𝒓
2.

[No. of triangles = Total triangles from n points – triangles which could

have been due to m points.] ii. The total number of rectangles of any size is ∑𝒏𝒓 𝟏𝐫
3
 91

iii. In a ‘n × n’ square board the total number of rectangles (excluding the

𝟏 ⁕ Vector:
squares) are given by: . n(n2-1) (3n+2)
𝟏𝟐
A quantity that has magnitude as well as direction is called a vector, or a
* In a ‘n × m’ rectangle, directed line segment is called a vector.

𝟏
i. The total number of rectangles of any size = n m (n+ 1) (m+1) ⁕ Position Vector of a point P (x, y, z): 𝐎𝐏⃗ = 𝐫⃗ = x ̂ + y ̂ + z𝐤.
𝟒
Here point P is (x, y, z) and (0, 0, 0) is origin O.
ii. The total number of squares of any size
= ∑𝒏𝒓 𝟏(n + 1 – r). ∑𝒎 ⁕ Direction Cosines: l = cos α, m = cos β and n =cos γ.
𝒓 𝟏(m + 1 – r).
𝒙 𝒚 𝒛
or l = cos α = , m =cos β = , n = cos γ = .
| 𝒓⃗ | | 𝒓⃗ | | 𝒓⃗ |
● Divisibility Test of numbers:
* If the last digit of a number is even, then it is divisible by 2. Where a point P (x, y, z) lies on a vector r⃗ and α, β, γ are the angles which
vector r⃗ makes with the positive directions of x, y and z- axes respectively.
* If the last digit of a number is 0, then it is divisible by 2, 5 and 10.

* If the last digit of a number is 5, then it is divisible by 5. ⁕ Direction Ratios of vector 𝐫⃗: x= l r, y = m r, z= n r

* If the sum of the digits of a number is divisible by 3, then the number is (Note: l2 + m2 + n2 = 1).
divisible by 3.
⁕ Component form of 𝐫⃗: 𝒓⃗ = x ̂ + y ̂ + z 𝒌.
* If the last two digits of a number together are divisible by 4, then it is
divisible by 4.
⁕ Vector components of 𝐫⃗ : x ̂, y ̂, z 𝒌 are the vector components
* If the unit place of a number is divisible by 2 & sum of all digits of the of r⃗ along the respective axes.
number is divisible by 3, then number is divisible by 6.
⁕ Magnitude of 𝐫⃗: | 𝒓⃗| = | x ̂ + y ̂ + z 𝒌| = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐
* If the last 3 digits of a number (all together) are divisible by 8 then num-
ber is divisible by 8.
⁕ Zero or null Vector: | 𝟎⃗| = 0.
* A number will be divisible by 9 if the sum of all the digits of number is It may be regarded as having any direction. The vectors AA⃗, BB⃗ represent
divisible by 9. the zero vector.

* A number will be divisible by 11, if the difference between the sum of the ⁕ Unit Vector: |𝒂| = 1.
digits at even places and at odd places is 0 or multiple of 11.
𝒂⃗
Symbolically 𝒂 = . The unit vectors along x, y and z- axes are ̂, ,̂ 𝒌
[e.g., 1298, 1221, 123321] | 𝒂⃗|
respectively.

⁕ Co-initial Vectors:
Two or more vectors having the same initial point are called co-initial vec-
tors.

⁕ Collinear Vectors:
If a⃗ = k b⃗. Where k is any scalar then a⃗ and b⃗ are said to be collinear. k is
positive for Like vectors and is negative for Unlike vectors.
 93 94

⁕ Co-planer Vectors: ● Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar (λ 𝒂⃗): | λ 𝒂⃗| = |λ| | 𝒂⃗|.

When vectors are parallel to the same plane, they are called co-planer Vec- The magnitude of a zero vector does not change by multiplication:
tors. Two vectors are always co-planner.
λ (0⃗) = 0⃗.
⁕ Equal Vectors:
Distributive laws: Here k and m are any scalars.
Two vectors having the same magnitude and direction. e.g., 𝑎⃗ = 𝑏⃗.
i. (k + m) 𝑎⃗ = (k 𝑎⃗) + (m 𝑎⃗)
⁕ Negative of a Vector: e.g., BA⃗ = − AB⃗.
ii. k (m 𝑎⃗) = (km) 𝑎⃗
A vector which has same magnitude but opposite direction.
iii. k ( 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗ ) = k 𝑎⃗ + k 𝑏⃗
⁕ Free vectors:
When the vector may be subject to its parallel displacement without Remarks:
changing its magnitude and direction, it is called free vectors. But when it
is restricted to a certain specified point, then it is said to be localised vec- 1. Two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗ are collinear if and only if there exists a nonzero
tor. scalar λ such that 𝑏⃗ = λ 𝑎⃗. ⇒ b1 𝚤̂+ b2 𝚥̂+ b3 𝑘 = λ. (a1 𝚤̂+ a2 𝚥̂+ a3 𝑘 ),
𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟑
⁕ Reciprocal of a Vector: then condition of collinearity is: = = =λ
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑
A vector having the same direction as that of a given vector but magnitude
equal to the reciprocal of the given vector is known as the reciprocal of 𝑎⃗. 2. If l = cos α, m = cos β, n = cos γ are direction cosines of a vector 𝑟⃗, then
i.e., 𝑎⃗ 𝑎′⃗ = 1 the unit vector in the direction of the vector is,
𝒓⃗
● Triangle law of vector addition: AC⃗ = AB⃗ + BC⃗. 𝒓= = l ̂ + m ̂ + n 𝒌 = (cos α) ̂ + (cos β) ̂ + (cos γ) 𝒌
| 𝒓⃗|

● Section formula:
Let P and Q be two points represented by the position vectors OP⃗ and OQ⃗,
respectively, with respect to the origin O.
● Parallelogram law of vector addition: OA⃗ + OB⃗ = OC⃗.
1. Commutative property; a⃗ + b⃗ = b⃗ + a⃗.

2. Associative property; ( a⃗ + b⃗) + c⃗ = a⃗ + ( b⃗ + c⃗)

● Additive identity ( 𝟎⃗ ): As a⃗ + 0⃗ = 0⃗ + a⃗ = a⃗.

Case I: When R divides PQ internally:
If a⃗ = a1 ı̂ + a2 ȷ̂ + a3 k and b⃗ = b1 ı̂ + b2 ȷ̂ + b3 k, then
If R divides PQ⃗ internally in the ratio of m: n. Then position vector of point
(a). a⃗ + b⃗ = (a1 + b1).ı̂ + (a2 + b2).ȷ̂ + (a3 + b3).k
𝒎 𝒃⃗ 𝒏 𝒂⃗
R is given by, 𝒓⃗ =
(b). a⃗ – b⃗ = (a1 – b1).ı̂ + (a2 – b2).ȷ̂ + (a3 – b3).k 𝒎 𝒏

(c). a⃗ = b⃗ if and only if a1 = b1, a2 = b2 and a3 = b3 Remark: If R is the midpoint of PQ, then 𝑟⃗ = (𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗ )/2

(d). If λ is ay scalar, then λ a⃗ = λa1 ı̂ + λ a2 ȷ̂ + λ a3 k

 95 96

Case II: When R divides PQ externally: ● Projection of a vector:

If R divides PQ⃗ externally in the ratio of m: n. Then position vector of i. Projection of a vector a⃗ on a line: L = 𝐚⃗ ⋅ 𝐩
𝐦 𝐛⃗ 𝐧 𝐚⃗
point R is given by, 𝐫⃗ = Where p is the unit vector along a line L.
𝐦 𝐧

ii. Projection of a vector a⃗ on another vector b⃗ = 𝐚⃗ ⋅ 𝐛

● Scalar (or dot) product of two vectors: 𝐚⃗ ⋅ 𝐛⃗ = | 𝐚⃗ || 𝐛⃗ | cos θ.
⃗
a⃗ ⋅ b = a⃗ ⋅ = ( a⃗ ⋅ b⃗)
| ⃗| | ⃗|

𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝟐 𝐚𝟑
* The direction cosines of a⃗ , cos α = , cos β = , cos γ = ,
| 𝐚⃗ | | 𝐚⃗ | | 𝐚⃗ |
(θ is not defined for a⃗ = 0 or b⃗ = 0.) 𝐚⃗
and unit vector 𝐚= = cos α ̂ + cos β ̂ + cos γ 𝐤
| 𝐚⃗|
(Let a⃗ = a1 ı̂+b1 ȷ̂ +c1 k and b⃗ = a2 ı̂+b2 ȷ̂+ c2 k)

* ̂ ⋅ ̂ = ̂ ⋅ ̂ = 𝐤 ⋅ 𝐤 = 1, and ̂ ⋅ ̂ = ̂ ⋅ 𝐤 = 𝐤 ⋅ ̂ = 0.
● A vector in the direction of bisector of 𝐚⃗ and ⃗𝐛:
𝐚⃗ ⃗𝐛
𝐚±𝐛= ±
* 𝐚⃗ ⋅ 𝐛⃗ = a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2. (Hence a⃗ ⋅ b⃗ is a real number) | 𝐚⃗| | 𝐛⃗|

(𝐚 + 𝐛) is internal bisector and (𝐚 − 𝐛) is external bisector.

* 𝐚⃗ ⋅ 𝐛⃗ = ⃗𝐛 ⋅ 𝐚⃗ (Scalar product is commutative)
* Bisector of interior angle between two vectors a⃗ and b⃗ is
* 𝐚⃗ ⋅ 𝐛⃗ = 0 ⇔ 𝐚⃗ ⊥ 𝐛⃗
𝐚⃗ ⃗
𝐛
λ (𝐚 + 𝐛) = λ ( ⃗ + ⃗ ). (Where λ ∈ R)
𝐚⃗ ⋅ 𝐛⃗ | 𝐚| | 𝐛|
* cos θ =
| 𝐚⃗ | | 𝐛⃗ |
* Bisector of exterior angle between two vectors a⃗ and b⃗ is,
⃗ ⃗
λ (a − b) = λ ( ⃗ − ⃗ ). (Where λ ∈ R)
| | | |

● Vector (or cross) product of two vectors:

𝐚⃗ × ⃗𝐛 = | 𝐚⃗ || 𝐛⃗ | sin θ 𝐧,
* If θ = 0 then, a⃗ ⋅ b⃗ = | a⃗ | | b⃗| and if θ = π then, a⃗ ⋅ b⃗ =− | a⃗| | b⃗|⋅ where, θ is the angle between vectors and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π. n is a unit vector per-
pendicular to both a⃗ and b⃗, such that a⃗, b⃗ and n form a right-handed
* If 𝐚⃗ ⋅ 𝐛⃗ < 0 then θ is obtuse angle. system. i.e., the right-handed system rotated from a⃗ to b⃗ moves in the di-
rection of n.
* (λ a⃗ ) ⋅ b⃗ = λ( a⃗ ⋅ b⃗ ) = a⃗ ⋅ (λ b⃗ ) where λ is any scalar
(If either a⃗ = 0 or b⃗ = 0, then we define a⃗ × b⃗ = 0⃗ . But θ is not defined in
this case.)
* i. a⃗ ⋅ ( b⃗ + c⃗) = a⃗ ⋅ b⃗ + a⃗ ⋅ c⃗ (Distributivity over addition)
Note: For a⃗ = a1 ı̂ + a2 ȷ̂ + a3 k and b⃗ = b1 ı̂ + b2 ȷ̂ + b3 k where a⃗ and b⃗ both
ii. ( b⃗ + c⃗ ) · a⃗ = b⃗ · a⃗ + c⃗ · a⃗ are nonzero vectors we have:

* a⃗ × b⃗ = − b⃗ × a⃗
 97 98

ı̂ ȷ̂ k ● Scalar triple product or Box product:

* a⃗ × b⃗ = a1 a2 a3 . a⃗ × b⃗ is a vector.
b1 b2 b3 [ 𝒂⃗ 𝒃⃗ 𝒄⃗ ] = ( 𝒂⃗× 𝒃⃗) ∙ 𝒄⃗ = ( 𝒂⃗ ∙ 𝒃⃗) × 𝒄⃗ = a b c sin θ cos φ

{Where θ is angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗ and φ is angle between ( 𝑎⃗× 𝑏⃗ ) and 𝑐⃗ }

* ( 𝑎⃗× 𝑏⃗ )2 = a2b2 − ( 𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗ )2 = 𝑎⃗. 𝑎⃗ 𝑎⃗. 𝑏⃗
𝑎⃗. 𝑏⃗ 𝑏⃗ . 𝑏⃗
If 𝒂⃗ 𝒃⃗ 𝒄⃗ are coplanar then angle φ = 900 and therefore,
This is known as Lagrange’s Identity. From this Identity we have.
[ 𝒂⃗ 𝒃⃗ 𝒄⃗ ] = 0.
i. | 𝑎⃗× 𝑏⃗ | = [| 𝑎⃗|2 | 𝑏⃗ |2 − ( 𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗ )2]
(Use 𝑎⃗ = a1 𝚤̂ + a2 𝚥̂ + a3 𝑘 ; 𝑏⃗ = b1 𝚤̂ + b2 𝚥̂ + b3 𝑘 and 𝑐⃗ = c1 𝚤̂ + c2 𝚥̂ + c3 𝑘
ii. ( 𝑎⃗× 𝑏⃗ ). 𝑎⃗ = 0 = ( 𝑎⃗× 𝑏⃗ ) . 𝑏⃗ wherever necessary)

* λ ( 𝑎⃗× 𝑏⃗ ) = (λ 𝑎⃗) × 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎⃗ × (λ 𝑏⃗ ) (where λ ∈ R) If 𝒂⃗, 𝒃⃗, 𝒄⃗ are the position vectors of points A, B and C. then,

* 𝒂⃗× 𝒃⃗ + 𝒃⃗× 𝒄⃗ + 𝒄⃗× 𝒂⃗ is a vector perpendicular to the plane of ABC.

* If 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗ = 0⃗ ⇔ 𝑎⃗ || 𝑏⃗
* [ 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗ 𝑐⃗ ] = − [ 𝑎⃗ 𝑐⃗ 𝑏⃗ ]
* If 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗ = | 𝑎⃗ || 𝑏⃗ | then θ = π/2.
* [k 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗ 𝑐⃗ ] = k [ 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗ 𝑐⃗ ]

* ( 𝑎⃗× 𝑏⃗ ) ∙ c = − ( 𝑏⃗ × 𝑎⃗) ∙ c

* [𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘 ] = 1

𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
⃗× ⃗ * [ 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗ 𝑐⃗ ] = 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
* sin θ =
| ⃗ || ⃗ | 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3

𝒂⃗ × 𝒃⃗ * [( 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗ ) 𝑐⃗ 𝑑⃗ ] = [ 𝑎⃗ 𝑐⃗ 𝑑⃗ ] + [ 𝑏⃗ 𝑐⃗ 𝑑⃗ ]
* Unit vector perpendicular to plane of 𝒂⃗ and 𝒃⃗ is = ± .
| 𝒂⃗ × 𝒃⃗ |
* [ 𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗ 𝑏⃗ − 𝑐⃗ 𝑐⃗ − 𝑑⃗ ] = 0
* 𝑎⃗ × ( 𝑏⃗ + 𝑐⃗) = 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗ + 𝑎⃗ × 𝑐⃗
* [ 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗ 𝑏⃗ + 𝑐⃗ 𝑐⃗ + 𝑎⃗] = 2[ 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗ 𝑐⃗]

* Area of triangle with sides 𝒂⃗ and 𝒃⃗ = | 𝑎⃗× 𝑏⃗ | 𝑝⃗ 𝑎⃗ 𝑝⃗ 𝑏⃗ 𝑝⃗ 𝑐⃗

* [ 𝑝⃗ 𝑞⃗ 𝑟⃗ ] [ 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗ 𝑐⃗ ] = 𝑞⃗ 𝑎⃗ 𝑞⃗ 𝑏⃗ 𝑞⃗ 𝑐⃗
* Area of triangle ABC when p.v. of vertices are given: 𝑟⃗ 𝑎⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑏⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑐⃗
𝟏
= | [ 𝒂⃗× 𝒃⃗ + 𝒃⃗× 𝒄⃗ + 𝒄⃗× 𝒂⃗ ] |. (𝑎⃗ , 𝑏⃗ and 𝑐⃗ are p.v. of A, B and C)
𝟐 * If 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗ 𝑐⃗ are non-coplanar then, [ 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗ 𝑐⃗] > 0 for R.H. system, and [ 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗
𝑐⃗] < 0 for L.H. system.
* Condition for 𝒂⃗, 𝒃⃗ and 𝒄⃗ to be collinear: 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗ + 𝑏⃗ × 𝑐⃗ + 𝑐⃗ × 𝑎⃗ = 0.
* Volume of parallelepiped with 3 coterminous edges 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗, 𝑐⃗ is:
* Area of parallelogram with adjacent sides 𝒂⃗ and 𝒃⃗ = | 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗ |
V = [ 𝒂⃗ 𝒃⃗ 𝒄⃗ ] = [ 𝒃⃗ 𝒄⃗ 𝒂⃗ ] = [ 𝒄⃗ 𝒂⃗ 𝒃⃗ ]
* Area of quadrilateral with 𝒅𝟏⃗ and 𝒅𝟐⃗ as diagonal = | 𝑑1⃗× 𝑑2⃗|
 99

𝟏
100
* Volume of tetrahedron OABC: V = [ 𝒂⃗ 𝒃⃗ 𝒄⃗]
𝟔
Notes:

i. 𝑎⃗ 𝑎′⃗ + 𝑏⃗ 𝑏′⃗ + 𝑐⃗ 𝑐′⃗ = 3

ii. 𝑎⃗ 𝑏′⃗ = 𝑎⃗ 𝑐′⃗ = 𝑏⃗ 𝑐′⃗ = 𝑏⃗ 𝑎′⃗ = 𝑐⃗ 𝑎′⃗ = 𝑐⃗ 𝑏′⃗ = 0

iii. The reciprocal vectors system of 𝚤̂, 𝚥̂, 𝑘 is the vector system 𝚤̂, 𝚥̂, 𝑘 itself.
(Where O is origin and 𝑎⃗ , 𝑏⃗ and 𝑐⃗ are position vectors of A, B and C
respectively)
iv. If 𝑎′⃗, 𝑏′⃗ , 𝑐′⃗ are 3 non-coplanar vectors, then, [ 𝑎′⃗ 𝑏′⃗ 𝑐′⃗] =
[ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗]
● Vector Triple Product: 𝒂⃗ × ( 𝒃⃗ × 𝒄⃗)
v. 𝑎⃗ × 𝑎′⃗ + 𝑏⃗ × 𝑏′⃗ + 𝑐⃗ × 𝑐′⃗ = 0
* 𝑎⃗ × ( 𝑏⃗ × 𝑐⃗) = x 𝑏⃗ × y 𝑐⃗ (where x, y ∈ R)
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
v. 𝑎′⃗× 𝑏′⃗ + 𝑏′⃗ × 𝑐′⃗ + 𝑐′⃗ × 𝑎′⃗= , [ 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗ 𝑐⃗] ≠ 0
* 𝑎⃗ × ( 𝑏⃗ × 𝑐⃗) = ( 𝑎⃗ . 𝑐⃗) 𝑏⃗ − ( 𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗ ) 𝑐⃗ [ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗]

* ( 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗) × 𝑐⃗ = ( 𝑎⃗ . 𝑐⃗) 𝑏⃗ − ( 𝑏⃗ . 𝑐⃗) 𝑎⃗

* 𝑎⃗ × ( 𝑏⃗ × 𝑐⃗) ≠ ( 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗) × 𝑐⃗

● More vector products:

* ( 𝑎⃗× 𝑏⃗ )×( 𝑐⃗× 𝑑⃗ ) = 𝑐⃗ ( 𝑎⃗ · 𝑏⃗ × 𝑑⃗ ) − 𝑑⃗ ( 𝑎⃗ · 𝑏⃗ × 𝑐⃗)

* ( 𝑎⃗× 𝑏⃗ )×( 𝑐⃗× 𝑑⃗ ) = 𝑏⃗ ( 𝑎⃗ · 𝑐⃗× 𝑑⃗ ) − 𝑎⃗ ( 𝑏⃗ · 𝑐⃗ × 𝑑⃗ )

* [ 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗ 𝑐⃗] 𝑑⃗ = [ 𝑏⃗ 𝑐⃗ 𝑑⃗ ] 𝑎⃗ + [ 𝑐⃗ 𝑎⃗ d⃗] 𝑏⃗ + [ 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗ 𝑑⃗ ] 𝑐⃗

* 𝑎⃗ × ( 𝑏⃗ × 𝑐⃗) + 𝑏⃗ × ( 𝑐⃗ × 𝑎⃗) + 𝑐⃗ × ( 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗ ) = 0

● Reciprocal System of Vectors:

If 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗ , 𝑐⃗ and 𝑎′⃗, 𝑏′⃗ , 𝑐′⃗ are two sets of non- coplanar vectors such that,
𝑎⃗ 𝑎′⃗ = 𝑏⃗ 𝑏′⃗ = 𝑐⃗ 𝑐′⃗ = 1, then the two systems are called reciprocal systems
provided [ 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗ 𝑐⃗] ≠ 0 and;

𝒃⃗ × 𝒄⃗
𝒂′⃗ = ,
[ 𝒂⃗ 𝒃⃗ 𝒄⃗]

𝒄⃗ × 𝒂⃗
𝒃′⃗ = ,
[ 𝒂⃗ 𝒃⃗ 𝒄⃗]

𝒂⃗ × 𝒃⃗
𝒄′⃗ = .
[ 𝒂⃗ 𝒃⃗ 𝒄⃗]
 102

● Orthocentre (H):

H≡ ,
Distance between two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2):
● Circumcentre (C):
PQ = (𝐱𝟐 − 𝐱𝟏)𝟐 + (𝐲𝟐 − 𝐲𝟏)𝟐 . . . . . .
C≡ ,
● Coordinates of a point dividing a line segment in ratio m/n:
1. Point R divides line segment PQ internally in ratio m: n, ● In triangle ABC the In-centre divides:
𝐦𝐱𝟐 𝐧𝐱𝟏 𝐦𝐲𝟐 𝐧𝐲𝟏 - Bisector of angle A in the ratio (b + c): a.
Then R( , )
𝐦 𝐧 𝐦 𝐧 - Bisector of angle B in the ratio (c + a): b.
𝐱𝟐 𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝟐 𝐲𝟏 - Bisector of angle C in the ratio (a + b): c.
⁕ Coordinates of mid-point M of PQ: ( , )
𝟐 𝟐
* Orthocentre, Centroid & Circumcentre are always collinear.
2. Point divides line segment externally in ratio m: n,
* G divides the line joining H & C in the ratio 2:1.
𝐦𝐱𝟐 𝐧𝐱𝟏 𝐦𝐲𝟐 𝐧𝐲𝟏
Then R( , )
𝐦 𝐧 𝐦 𝐧 * The line joining C and H meets median of triangle at centroid of triangle.

● Area of Triangle: With (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3) as vertices. * In an isosceles triangle G, H, Ι & C lie on the same line.
𝟏
∆= [x1(y2 − y3) + x2(y3 – y1) + x3(y1 − y2)] * In an equilateral triangle, points G, H, Ι & C coincide, i.e., there is only
𝟐
one point defining all.
⁕ Area of the triangle formed by 3 collinear points is zero. * Slope (m) of a line passing through (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) and inclined at an
𝐲𝟐 𝐲𝟏
angle θ with x-axis: m = tan θ =
⁕ In a triangle with vertices A (x1, y1), B (x2, y2) and C (x3, y3) and opposite 𝐱𝟐 𝐱𝟏
sides a, b, c respectively, we have,
* Angle between two non-vertical lines having slopes m1 and m2:
● Centroid (G) ≡ ( , ) tan θ = |
𝐦𝟐 𝐦𝟏
|
𝟏 𝐦𝟏𝐦𝟐

● Incentre (I) ≡ ( , ) i. If m1 > m2 > m3 are the slopes of three sides L1, L2 and L3, of ∆ ABC then
the interior angles of the ∆ ABC are given by,
or
𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐 𝐦𝟐 𝐦𝟑 𝐦𝟑 𝐦𝟏
tan A = , tan B = and tan C =
𝐱𝟏.𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐀 𝐱𝟐.𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐁 𝐱𝟑.𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐂 𝐲𝟏.𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐀 𝐲𝟐.𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐁 𝐲𝟑.𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐂 𝟏 𝐦𝟏.𝐦𝟐 𝟏 𝐦𝟐.𝐦𝟑 𝟏 𝐦𝟑.𝐦𝟏
( 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐁 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐂
,
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐁 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐂
)
ii. Slope of line inclined at an angle α with line y = mx + c, where m = tan
θ, is either tan (θ ± α) according to as the inclined line is on one side or
● Coordinates of excentres. other side of given line.
a. For angle A: (IA) ≡ ,
● Condition for collinearity of 3 points (A, B, C):
b. For angle B: (IB) ≡ , 1. Sope of AB = slope of BC.
(or) 2. Area of ∆ ABC = 0
c. For angle C: (IC) ≡ ,
(or) 3. AC = AB + BC or AB ~ BC
(or) 4. Point ‘A’ divides the line segment BC in some ratio.
 103 104

● Various Forms of the Equation of a Line: Notes:

1. Point-slope form: y – y1 = m (x – x1) i. If B ≠ 0, then m = − and c = − .
{ (x1, y1) is a fixed point on a non-vertical line, whose slope is m.}
ii. If B = 0, then x = − , (A vertical line).
𝐲𝟐 𝐲𝟏
2. Two-point form: y – y1 = (x – x1) 3. Normal form: x cos ω + y sin ω = p:
𝐱𝟐 𝐱𝟏
𝐱 𝐲 𝟏
or 𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝟏 𝟏 = 0. {where line passes through (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)} Where cos ω = ± , sinω = ± ρ=± .
𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐 𝟏 √ √ √
Proper choice of signs is made so that ρ should be positive.
3. Slope-intercept form: y = mx + c
𝐚𝟏𝐛𝟐 𝐚𝟐𝐛𝟏
(m is the slope of the line and ‘c’ an intercept on y- axis.) ● Angle between two lines: tan θ = .
𝐚𝟏𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟏𝐛𝟐

𝐱 𝐲 𝐱 𝐲 𝟏 (θ is angle between two lines a1x+b1y+c1= 0 & a2x+b2y+c2= 0)

4. Intercept - form: + =1 or 𝟎 𝐛 𝟏 = 0.
𝐚 𝐛
𝐚 𝟎 𝟏
● Length of perpendicular from a point on a line:
[‘a’ and ‘b’ are intercepts made by line on x and y axis respectively.] Perpendicular from a point (x1, y1) on a line ax + by + c = 0:
5. Normal form: x cos ω + y sin ω = ρ 𝐚𝐱𝟏 𝐛𝐲𝟏 𝐜
p=| |
𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐
[ρ is the length of the normal from origin to the line and ω is the angle of
normal with the positive direction of x-axis.] ● Perpendicular Lines:
𝐱 𝐱𝟏 𝐲 𝐲𝟏 1. If two lines y = m1x + c1 and y = m2x + c2 are perpendicular then,
6. Parametric form: = =r
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 m1 m2 = – 1.

[θ is the inclination of the line, and r is the distance between the points (x, 2. If two lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 are perpendicular
y) and a given point (x1, y1) on the line.] then, a1a2 + b1b2 = 0.

𝟏
● General Equation of a Line: Ax + By + C = 0, 3. A line perpendicular to y = mx + c given by: y = −
𝐦
x + d.

where A and B are not zero simultaneously. It can be represented in vari-

4. Family of perpendicular lines to the line ax + by + c = 0 is given by:
ous forms as given below:
bx − ay + k = 0.
𝐱 𝐲
1. Intercept form: + =1 5. The equation of line perpendicular to ax + by + c = 0 and passing
𝐚 𝐛
through point (x1, y1) and is: b (x – x1) – a (y – y1) = 0.
Notes:
● Parallel Lines:
i. If C ≠ 0, then, a = − and b = − .
1. Two lines are parallel only if their slopes are equal. (i.e., m1 = m2)
ii. If C = 0, then we have Ax + By = 0, a line passing through the
origin with zero intercepts on the axes. 2. A line parallel to y = mx + c is of the type, y = mx + d.

𝐀 𝐂 3. A line parallel to ax + by + c = 0 is of the type, ax + by + k = 0.

2. Slope-intercept form (y = mx + c): y=− x−
𝐁 𝐁
 105 106

● Condition for two lines to be parallel: ● Ratio in which a line divides joining of two points:
Two lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 are: A line ax + by + c = 0 will divide line joining two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2).
𝒂𝒙𝟏 𝒃𝒚𝟏 𝒄
𝐚𝟏 𝐛𝟏 𝐜𝟏 in the ratio given by, − .
i. parallel if, = ≠ . 𝒂𝒙𝟐 𝒃𝒚𝟐 𝒄
𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟐
𝐚𝟏 𝐛𝟏 𝐜𝟏 ● Position of points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) w.r.t. line ax + by + c = 0,
ii. coincident if, = = .
𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟐
1. Both will lie on same side of the line, if sign of is positive.
● Distance between two parallel lines:
i. For parallel lines y = mx + c1 and y = mx + c2, 2. Both will lie on opposite sides of the line, if sign of is nega-
|𝐜𝟏 𝐜𝟐| tive.
d=
𝟏 𝐦𝟐
* If two lines with slopes m1 and m2 are equally inclined to a line with
ii. For parallel lines ax + by + c1 = 0 and ax + by + c2 = 0, 𝐦𝟏 𝐦 𝐦𝟐 𝐦
slope m then: =–
𝟏 𝐦𝐦𝟏 𝟏 𝐦𝐦𝟐
𝐜𝟏 𝐜𝟐
d=| |
𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 * Equation of straight lines passing through a point (x1, y1) and inclined at
an angle α with a line y = mx + c is,
● Area (A) of the parallelogram:
y – y1= (x – x1). tan (θ ± α) (Where m = tan θ)
i. If p1 & p2 are distances between two sets of parallel sides and θ is the
angle between any two adjacent sides of parallelogram, then area is * System of straight lines passing through the point of intersection of lines
𝐩𝟏.𝐩𝟐 a1x + b1y + c1= 0 and a2x + b2y + c2= 0,
A=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 a1x + b1y + c1 + λ (a2x + b2y + c2) = 0.

ii. When the parallelogram is bounded by the lines, y = m1x + c1, (Where λ is an arbitrary constant and λ ≠ 0 or λ ≠ ∞).
y = m1x + c2, y = m2x + d1, y = m2x + d2, then area is
* Three lines a1x+ b1y+ c1= 0, a2x+ b2y+ c2= 0 & a3x + b3y + c3 = 0 will be
(𝐜𝟏 𝐜𝟐)(𝐝𝟏 𝐝𝟐) concurrent if:
A=| |
𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐 𝐚𝟏 𝐛𝟏 𝐜𝟏
𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟐 = 0
● Position of a point relative to line ax +by + c= 0: 𝐚𝟑 𝐛𝟑 𝐜𝟑

1. When point (x1, y1) is on origin side: Alternately: Lines will be concurrent if there exist three constants λ1, λ2
& λ3 (not all zero) such that,
The sign of c and sign of (ax1 + by1 + c) are the same.
λ1(a1x + b1y + c1) + λ2 (a2x + b2y + c2) + λ3 (a3x + b3y + c3) ≡ 0
2. When point (x1, y1) is on opposite side of origin:
The sign of c and sign of (ax1 + by1 + c) are opposite. ● Foot of the perpendicular from a point (x1, y1) on the line
ax + by + c = 0:
● Position of two points relative to line ax + by + c = 0: 𝐱 𝐱𝟏 𝐲 𝐲𝟏 𝐚𝐱𝟏 𝐛𝐲𝟏 𝐜
= =−
1. When two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) lie on same side of line. 𝐚 𝐛 𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐

Then (ax1 + by1 + c) and (ax2 + by2 + c) are of same signs. ● Image of a point (x1, y1) about a line ax + by + c = 0 :
𝐱 𝐱𝟏 𝐲 𝐲𝟏 𝐚𝐱𝟏 𝐛𝐲𝟏 𝐜
2. When two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) lie on opposite side of line. = = −2
𝐚 𝐛 𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐
Then (ax1 + by1 + c) and (ax2 + by2 + c) are of opposite signs.
 107 108

● Image of a line a1x + b1y + c1= 0 on a line ax + by + c = 0: ● Equation of bisector which contains a point (x1, y1):
2 2
2(aa1+bb1) (ax + by + c) = (a +b ) (a1x + b1y + c1) = 0 a. If (a1 x1 + b1 y1 + c1) and (a2 x1 + b2 y1 + c2) have same signs then equa-
tion of the bisector containing point (x1, y1) is,
● Shifting of origin: 𝐚𝟏𝐱 𝐛𝟏𝐲 𝐜𝟏 𝐚𝟐𝐱 𝐛𝟐𝐲 𝐜𝟐
=+
𝐚𝟏𝟐 𝐛𝟏𝟐 𝐚𝟐𝟐 𝐛𝟐𝟐
If (x, y) are the coordinates of a point P referred to old axes and the new
origin is shifted to (h, k) then the coordinates of point P referred to new b. If (a1 x1 + b1 y1 + c1) and (a2 x1 + b2 y1 + c2) have opposite signs then
axes are, equation of the bisector containing point (x1, y1) is,
X = x – h, Y = y – k.
𝐚𝟏𝐱 𝐛𝟏𝐲 𝐜𝟏 𝐚𝟐𝐱 𝐛𝟐𝐲 𝐜𝟐
=−
● Rotation of axes without changing origin: 𝐚𝟏𝟐 𝐛𝟏𝟐 𝐚𝟐𝟐 𝐛𝟐𝟐

If a point P (x, y) is referred to old axes and the axes are rotated by an an-
gle θ without changing origin, then the coordinates of the point P referred ● Equation of straight lines passing through a point & equally
to new axes are, inclined with two lines:
X′ = x cos θ + y sin θ, Y′ = – x sin θ + y cos θ Let a straight line passes through P (x1, y1) and equally inclined with the
lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0.
& x = x′ cos θ – y′ sin θ, y = x′ sin θ + y′ cos θ.
Such lines are those which are parallel to the bisectors between these two
lines & passing through the point P.
● How to remember: Equate the real and imaginary parts of the equa-
tion,
(X′ + i Y′) = (x + iy) (cos θ – i sin θ) ● Finding acute angle bisector & the obtuse angle bisector:
Method 1. Let θ be the angle between a bisector and anyone line.
● Bisectors of the angles between two lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and
a. If |tan θ| < 1, then the bisector is of acute angle.
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0:
𝐚𝟏𝐱 𝐛𝟏𝐲 𝐜𝟏 𝐚𝟐𝐱 𝐛𝟐𝐲 𝐜𝟐 b. If |tan θ| > 1, then the bisector is of obtuse angle.
=± (where ≠ )
𝐚𝟏𝟐 𝐛𝟏𝟐 𝐚𝟐𝟐 𝐛𝟐𝟐
Method 2. In equation =± check whether the
√ √
● Bisectors of angle containing/ not containing origin: constant terms c1 and c2 in the two equations are positive or not. If not,
The bisector of the angle containing the origin means the bisector of that then multiply both the sides of the given equations by −1 to make the con-
angle between the two straight lines which contains the origin within it. stant terms positive. Now if a1a2 + b1b2 < 0, then

Rewrite the equations of the lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 =+ is bisector of acute angle
such that c1 and c2 are of + ve sign. √ √
(If any constant term is negative, then multiply both the sides of that line and =− is bisector of obtuse angle.
equations by -1 to make the constant term positive). √ √

● Equation of bisectors of two lines: and if a1a2 + b1b2 > 0, then

a. Bisector of angle containing origin is given by,
=+ is bisector of obtuse angle
√ √
=+
√ √
and =− is bisector of acute angle.
√ √
b. Bisector of angle not containing origin is given by,

=–
√ √
 109 110

Method 3. Let L1≡ a1x + b1y + c1= 0 and L2≡ a2x + b2y + c2= 0 be two in- ● Slope of straight lines represented by ax² + 2hxy + by² = 0:
tersecting lines and B1 = 0 and B2 = 0 be their bisectors. Take any point P
on any one line and draw perpendiculars p and q from this point to bisec- 𝐡± 𝐡𝟐 𝐚𝐛
Slopes of the lines are m =
tors B1 = 0 and B2 = 0. 𝐛
𝟐𝐡 𝐚 𝟐 𝐡𝟐 𝐚𝐛
If |p| < |q| ⇒ B1 is the acute angle bisector. i. m1 + m2 = – ; m1m2 = and m1 – m2 =
𝐛 𝐛 𝐛
If |p| > |q| ⇒ B1 is the obtuse angle bisector.
ii. If θ is acute angle between the pair of straight lines,
If |p| = |q| ⇒ Lines L1 & L2 are perpendicular.
𝟐 𝐡𝟐 𝐚𝐛 𝐚 𝐛 𝟐 𝐡𝟐 𝐚𝐛
sin θ = , cos θ = and tan θ = .
● Condition for ax2 +2hxy +by2 +2gx +2fy + c =0 to represent a 𝟒𝐡𝟐 (𝐚 𝐛)𝟐 𝟒𝐡𝟐 (𝐚 𝐛)𝟐
𝐚 𝐛
pair of straight lines:
a h g
Note:
i. abc + 2fgh − af2 − bg2 − ch2 = 0, i.e., h b f = 0.
g f c i. The angle θ between the two lines represented by a general equation
ii. h2 > ab, g2 2
> ac and f > bc. (ax2 +2hxy +by2 +2gx +2fy + c = 0) is the same as that between the two
lines represented by its homogeneous part (ax2 +2hxy +by2 = 0) only.
● The angle between the pair of straight lines ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + ii. A homogeneous equation of degree n represents n straight lines passing
2gx + 2fy + c = 0: through origin.
𝟐 𝐡𝟐 𝐚𝐛
tan θ = * Equation of pair of lines passing through (α, β) and parallel to
𝐚 𝐛
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0 :
Notes:
a(x−α)2 + 2h(x – α)(y – β) + b(y – β)2 = 0
1. If pair of lines are perpendicular, then, a + b = 0.
2. If pair of lines are parallel, then, h2 = ab and bg2 = a f 2 and distance * The equation of pair of bisectors of the angles between the pair of
straight lines ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0 is;
between two parallel lines is given by,
𝐱 𝟐 𝐲 𝟐 𝐱𝐲
𝐠 𝟐 𝐚𝐜 𝐟 𝟐 𝐛𝐜 =
2 or 2 𝐚 𝐛 𝐡
𝐚(𝐚 𝐛) 𝐛(𝐚 𝐛)

3. The point of intersection of the pair of straight lines is given by, * If (x1, y1) be point of intersection of the lines represented by the equation
ax2+2hxy+by2+2gx+2fy +c = 0, then equation of the bisectors of the
𝐡𝐟 𝐛𝐠 𝐠𝐡 𝐚𝐟 𝐟 𝟐 𝐚𝐜 𝐠 𝟐 𝐚𝐜 angles between lines are given by;
( , ) or ( , ) where h2 ≠ ab.
𝐚𝐛 𝐡𝟐 𝐚𝐛 𝐡𝟐 𝐡𝟐 𝐚𝐛 𝐡𝟐 𝐚𝐛 (𝐱 𝐱𝟏)𝟐 (𝐲 𝐲𝟏)𝟐 (𝐱 𝐱𝟏)(𝐲 𝐲𝟏)
=
4. Distance of the point of intersection of pair of the lines from the origin is, 𝐚 𝐛 𝐡

𝐜(𝐚 𝐛) 𝐟 𝟐 𝐠 𝟐 * The equation to the pair of lines passing through the origin and
√[ ]
𝐚𝐛 𝐡𝟐 perpendicular to ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0 is; bx2−2hxy + ay2 = 0.

● Nature of straight lines represented by ax² + 2hxy + by² = 0: * The equation to the pair of lines passing through the point (α, β) and
1. The lines are real & distinct if h² > ab. perpendicular to ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0 is

2. The lines are coincident if h² = ab. b(x – α)2 – 2h(x – α)(y – β) + a(y – β)2 = 0.

3. Lines are imaginary with real point of intersection if h² < ab.

* The equation to the pair of lines which are at a distance ‘d’ from point (x1,
4. The lines will be equally inclined to the x-axis if h = 0. y1) and passing through the origin is,
5. The lines will be at right angles to each other if a + b = 0. (y1x − x1y)2 = d2(x2 + y2).
 111

* The product of the perpendiculars p1, p2, dropped from a point (x1, y1)
to the pair of lines represented by ax² + 2hxy + by² = 0 is ⁕ Complex numbers: z = a + bi.

𝐚𝐱𝟏𝟐 𝟐𝐡𝐱𝟏𝐲𝟏 𝐛𝐲𝟏𝟐 (Where a, b ∈ R and i = √−𝟏 is called imaginary unit)

p1. p2 =
(𝐚 𝐛)𝟐 𝟒𝐡𝟐 Notes:
i. a = Real part of Z (Re Z) and b = Imaginary part of Z (Im Z)
* The area of the triangle formed by the lines ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0 and the
𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐 𝐚𝐛 ii. z is a purely real number when b = 0 and is a purely imaginary number
line lx + my + n = 0 is; | | when a = 0.
𝐚𝐦𝟐 𝟐𝐡𝐥𝐦 𝐛𝐥𝟐

iii. Since 0 = 0 + i.0, hence 0 is both purely real as well as purely imagi-
* Equation to the pair of lines passing through the origin and forming an nary.
equilateral triangle with the line ax + by + c = 0 is
(ax + by)2 – 3(bx – ay)2 = 0 ⁕ Conjugate of (z = a + ib) is: 𝒛 = a – ib
𝐜𝟐
and area of equilateral ∆ = .
√𝟑 𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 )
(𝐚 ⁕ Modulus of z = (𝐑𝐞)𝟐 + (𝐈𝐦)𝟐 = Modulus of 𝒛 . (i.e., |z|= |𝒛|)
* Joint equation of a pair of straight lines joining origin to the points of
intersection of the line lx + my + n = 0 and the 2nd degree curve : ax² + ⁕ The sum of four consecutive power of i is zero.
2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is given by; in + in+1 + in+2 + in+3 = 0
𝐥𝐱 𝐦𝐲 𝐥𝐱 𝐦𝐲 𝐥𝐱 𝐦𝐲
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx ( ) + 2fy ( )+c( )2 = 0.
𝐧 𝐧 𝐧 ● Representation of complex number:

i. Cartesian Form: z = a + ib

(Here, |z|= √𝑎 + 𝑏 , θ = argument z = tan–1 )

ii. Trigonometric /Polar Form: z = r (cos θ + i sin θ)

(Here a = r. cos θ; b = r. sin θ; r = |z|= √𝑎 + 𝑏 and θ = arg z)
 113 114

iii. Euler’s/Exponential Form: z = r e iθ. (Here r = |z|) ● Properties of Conjugate of Complex Number

(Euler’s formula: eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ and e–iθ = cos θ – i sin θ. * is the mirror image of z in the real axis.
𝐳 𝒛
Euler’s identities: cos θ = and sin θ = ) * z = 𝑧̅ iff z is purely real. i.e., Re z = .
𝟐

𝐳 𝒛
iv. Vector Form: 𝐎𝐏⃗ = z. * z = − 𝑧̅ iff z is purely imaginary. i.e., Im z = .
𝟐𝒊
Every complex number z can be expressed as the position vector of a point
P. Here OP⃗ = z. * (𝑧̅) = z.

Notes: * 𝚤𝑧 = i 𝑧̅.
𝒃
a. θ = Argument z = tan –1 ( ). * 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧1+ 𝑧2. [In general, 𝒛𝟏 + 𝒛𝟐 … . +𝒛𝐧 = 𝒛𝟏 + 𝒛𝟐+…. + 𝒛𝐧.]
𝒂
(θ is not unique as θ = 2n π + θ, ∀ n ∈ I) * 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 − 𝑧2.
b. Value of θ, – π < θ ≤ π, is called Principal value or Amplitude θ. * 𝑧1. 𝑧2 = 𝑧1. 𝑧2.
c. If a + i. b = c + i. d if and only if (iff), a = c and b = d
* ( )= , z2 ≠ 0
and if a + ib = 0, then a = b = 0.
* 𝑧1. z2 + z1. 𝑧2 = 2Re (𝑧1. z2)
d. If z1 = a ± ib and z2 = c ± id, then z1 ± z2 = (a ± b) + i(c ± d)
= 2Re (z1. 𝑧2) = 2|z1|. |z2| cos (θ1 – θ2)
e. If z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id, then
* 𝑧1. z2 − z1. 𝑧2 = 2i. Im (𝑧1. z2)
i. (a + ib) (c + id) = (ac − bd) + i. (ad + bc)
= 2i. Im (z1. 𝑧2) = 2i.| z1|. |z2| sin (θ1 – θ2)

ii. = + i. * (z ) = (𝑧̅)n.

𝟏 𝟏 * If α = f(z), then 𝛼 = 𝑓(𝑧) = f ( 𝑧).

f. If z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) then = (cos θ – i sin θ)
𝐳 𝒓
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
g. If z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2) then * If z = 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 then 𝑧̅ = 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
i. z1 z2 = r1. r2 [cos (θ1 + θ2) + i sin (θ1 + θ2)]
● Properties of modulus of complex number
ii. = [cos (θ1 – θ2) + i sin (θ1 – θ2)]
* |z| = (Re(𝑧)) + (Im(𝑧)) = |𝑧̅| (Also |z| = |– z| = |–𝑧̅|), z > 0.
h. If z1 = r1eiθ1 and z2 = r2eiθ2, then i. z1.z2 = r1r2 e i(θ1+θ2)
* |z|  0  z = 0
𝒛𝟏 𝒓𝟏
ii. = e i(θ1 – θ2)
𝒛𝟐 𝒓𝟐
* – |z|  Re(z)  |z| and – |z|  Im(z)  |z|
● Conjugate of complex number:
* z. 𝑧̅ = |z|2 = |𝑧̅|2
Conjugate of z = a + ib is = a – ib.
Conjugate of z = re iθ is = |z| e– iθ. * |z1. z2| = |z1|. |z2|.

Conjugate of z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) is = r (cos θ – i sin θ). (In general, |z1. z2 …. z n| = |z1|. |z2|…. |z n|).
 115 116

| | * arg (𝑧̅) = – arg (z)

* | |=
| |
* arg ( ) = arg (z) – arg (𝑧̅) = θ – (– θ) = 2θ = 2arg (z)
* |z1 ± z2|2 = (z1 ± z2) (𝑧1 ± 𝑧2) = |z1|2 + |z2|2 ± 2Re z1. 𝑧2
= |z1|2 + |z2|2 ± (z1.𝑧2 ) ± (𝑧1.z2) Notes:
𝝅 𝝅
* |z1 + z2| ≤ |z1| + |z2| (Triangle inequality) i. i = (cos + i sin ).
𝟐 𝟐

* |z1 – z2| ≥ ||z1| – |z2|| (Triangle inequality) ii. If z = 0, the argument (z) is not defined.
* |z1 + z2|2 + |z1 – z2|2 = 2(|z1|2 + |z2|2)
iii. If |z1 + z2| = |z1| + |z2| ⇔ arg z1 – arg z2 = 0 or 2nπ, n ∈ I.

* If |z + | = a, (a > 0), iv. If |z1 – z2| = |z1| – |z2| ⇔ arg z1 – arg z2 = 2nπ, n ∈ I.
𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝟒 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝟒
then |z| max = , |z| min = v. If |z1 + z2| = |z1 – z2| ⇔ arg z1 – arg z2 = (2n+1) , n ∈ I.
𝟐 𝟐

* If |z|  1, then z is called uni-modular complex number.

● Square Root of a Complex Number (a + ib):
Thus is always uni-modular if z ≠ 0. i. For b > 0,
| |
𝟏
√𝒂 + 𝒊𝒃 = ± √𝟐 [ √𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒂 + i √𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒂]
● Properties of Argument of Complex Number:
ii. For b < 0,
* If arg (z) = 0, ⇒ z is purely real and + ve number.
𝟏
* If arg (z) = π, ⇒ z is purely real and – ve number. √𝒂 + 𝒊𝒃 = ± √𝟐 [ √𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒂 – i √𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒂]

* If arg (z) = , ⇒ z is purely imaginary and + ve. ● Square Root of i:

1. √𝑖 = ± (1+ i)
* If arg (z) = – , ⇒ z is purely imaginary and – ve. √

2. √−𝑖 = ± (1– i).

* arg (z – 𝑧̅) = ± . *. arg (z1. z2) = arg (z1) + arg (z2) + 2k, k ∈ I. √

= arg (z1) + arg (z2) {when θ ∈ (– π, π)} 3. √𝑖 + √−𝑖 = ± √2

{In general amp (z1.z2 … z n) = amp z1 + amp z2 + …. + amp z n} 4. √𝑖 – √−𝑖 = ± i √2

* arg (z1. 𝑧2) = arg(z1) – arg(z2) ● The value of ω and ω2:

(𝟐𝝅) (𝟐𝝅) 𝟏 √𝟑
* arg ( ) = arg(z1) – arg(z2) + 2k, k ∈ I. i. ω = cos + i sin =– +i
𝟑 𝟑 𝟐 𝟐
= arg (z1) – arg (z2) {when θ ∈ (– π, π]} 𝟏 √𝟑
and ii. ω2 = – – i
𝟐 𝟐
* If arg ( ) = θ, then arg ( ) = 2k – θ, k ∈ I.
● Cube Root of Unity: 𝟑√𝟏 = 1, ω, ω2.
* arg (z n) = n. arg (z) + 2k, k ∈ I. arg (z n) √ √
[Solutions to z3 = 1 are 1, , ]
= n. amp (z) {when θ ∈ (– π, π)}.
 117 118

● Cube root of –1: 𝟑√−𝟏 = –1, – ω, – ω2. i. (cos θ1 – i sin θ1). (cos θ2 – i sin θ2) … (cos θn – i sin θn)
√ √ = cos (θ1+ θ2+ … θn) – i sin (θ1+ θ2+ … θn)
[Solutions to z3 = -1 are -1, , . i.e., -1, - ω2, - ω]
[LHS = (ei θ1. ei θ2 …. ei θn) = ei (θ1+ θ2+… θn) = RHS]
● Properties of Cube Root of Unity:
(𝟐𝒌𝝅 𝛉)𝐩 (𝟐𝒌𝝅 𝛉)𝐩
* The sum of three cube roots of unity is zero. 1 + ω + ω2 = 0 ii. (cos θ – i sin θ) p/q = cos – i sin (p, q ∈ Z, q ≠ 0)
𝒒 𝒒
* The product of three cube roots of unity is 1. (1). (ω). (ω2) = ω3 = 1
* Each complex cube root of unity is the reciprocal of the other. [(cos θ – i sin θ) p/q = {cos (2kπ + θ) – i sin (2kπ + θ)} p/q = {ei (2kπ + θ)} p/q]

i.e., ω= , ω2 = and 1 = [As ω. ω2 = ω3 = 1]

● Roots of complex numbers z = r (cos θ + i sin θ):
z1/n =r1/n (cos θ + i sin θ) 1/n
* √𝛚 = ± ω2, √𝛚𝟐 = ± ω.
z1/n = r1/n (cos + i sin )
* The period of ω is 3. [i.e., ω3n = 1, ω3n+1 = ω, ω3n+2 = ω2, n ∈ I.] 𝒏 𝒏
From this n roots can be obtained by putting n = 0, 1, 2…, n-1.
3, when 𝑛 is a multiple of 3,
* 1 + ω n + ω2n =
0, when 𝑛 is not a multiple of 3. ● nth Roots of Unity: 1, ω, ω 2…… ω n–1
( ) (𝟐𝝅)
* ω n + ωn+1 + ωn+2 = 0. [ω n (1+ ω + ω2) = ω n × 0 = 0] Where ω = e i (2π)/n = cos + i sin .
𝒏

* 𝝎 = ω2 and 𝛚𝟐 = ω.
● Properties of the nth Roots of Unity:
* If a + bω + cω2 = 0 and a, b, c are real, then, a = b = c. * The nth roots of unity are in GP.
i.e., (1, ω, ω2, …… ωn–1 are in GP).
* Cube roots of unity lie on vertices of an equilateral triangle inscribed on
a unit circle. * The sum of the nth roots of unity is zero.
i.e., (1+ω+ω2+ ……+ ω n–1= 0).

* Sum of the p th power of nth roots of unity is also zero.

i.e., 1+ ω p+ ω 2p+…… + ω (n–1) p= 0.

* Product of nth roots of unity is (–1) n – 1.

* x2 – xy + y2 = (x + yω) (x + yω2)
i.e., 1. ω. ω2.… ω (n–1) = (–1) n – 1
* x2 + xy + y2 = (x – yω) (x – yω2)
* In the complex plane, the nth roots of unity are located on the cir-
* x2 + y2 + z2 –xy –yz –zx = (x+ yω+ zω2) (x+yω2+ zω) cumference of the unit circle and divide it into n equal arcs.

* Cube root of any number N = √𝑁, √𝑁 ω, √𝑁 ω2. * If 1, ω, ω2…… ω n–1. be the nth roots of unity, then,
(𝟐𝝅) (𝟒𝝅) 𝟐(𝒏 𝟏)𝝅
i. cos + cos + …. + cos =0
● De Moivre’s Theorem: 𝒏 𝒏 𝒏

(cos θ – i sin θ) n = cos (n θ) – i sin (n θ) n∈Z ii. sin

(𝟐𝝅)
+ sin
(𝟒𝝅)
+ …. + sin
𝟐(𝒏 𝟏)𝝅
=0
𝒏 𝒏 𝒏

[(cos θ – i sin θ) n = (ei θ) n = ei nθ = cos (nθ) – i sin (nθ)] iii. x n – 1 = (x – 1) (x – ω) (x – ω2) … (x – ω n – 1)

 119 120

● Distance between z1 and z2: |z1 – z2|. ● Relation between Real and Complex slope: m =
𝐢(𝟏 µ)
.
𝟏 µ
● Equation of straight line passing through z: 𝐚z + a 𝐳 + k = 0
● Condition for parallel lines: µ1 = µ 2.
(where a is a complex number and k is a real number)

● Equation of the line passing through z1 and z2: ● Condition for perpendicular lines: µ1 + µ2 = 0.

(z𝐳1 − z1𝐳) − (z 𝐳2 − z2 𝐳) + (z1𝐳2 − z2𝐳1) = 0 ● Perpendicular at z1 to line 𝜶 z + α 𝒛 + k = 0 is given by:

𝒛 𝒛 𝟏
or 𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟏 𝟏 = 0. 𝜶 z - α 𝒛 + iλ = 0, λ ∈ R
𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟐 𝟏
● Section formula:
● Equation of straight line in Parametric form:
𝟏 Let z divide line (z1z2) internally/ externally in the ratio m: n.
z = z1 + t. (z2 – z1) (where t = ∈ R)
𝟏 λ
i.e., PA/PB = m/n.

𝒛 𝒛𝟏 𝒛 𝒛𝟏
𝒛 𝒛 𝟏
● Non-parametric form:  or 𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟏 𝟏 = 0.
𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏
𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟐 𝟏 (Midpoint of A B in both cases is = )
𝒛 𝒛𝟏 𝟐
● Argument form of equation of straight line: arg  0 or .
𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏
Case i. arg (z) = θ. ● Locus of z when it lies between z1 and z2:
This is equation of a ray originating from the origin (but excluding origin)
inclined at an angle θ with real axis.
[Because argument of z = 0 is not defined hence origin is excluded.]

Case ii. arg (z – z1) = θ.

● Locus of z when it does not lie between z1 and z2:
This is equation of straight line passing through the z1 and inclined at an
angle θ with real axis.
𝐑𝐞 𝐚 𝛂 𝛂
● Real slope of line: m= =
𝐈𝐦 𝐚 𝐢(𝛂 𝛂)

● Complex slope of line 𝜶 z+α 𝒛 +k = 0 is given by, ● Angle between two lines in complex plane:
𝐜𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐳 𝜶 𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟏
µ= = = ei(2θ). θ = arg
𝐜𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐳 𝜶 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏
𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟏
● Complex slope of line joining z1 and z2: i.e., tan θ =
𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏
𝜶 𝐳𝟏 𝐳𝟐
µ= = = ei(2θ).
𝜶 𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟐
 121 122

● Rotation of complex vector: ● Important points

Rotation of PR (|z3 − z1 |) by an angle θ along direction PQ (|z2 − z1|) is
given by,
𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟏 |𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟏| iθ
= e
𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏 |𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏|

1. Condition for 4 non collinear points to represent vertices of a

Parallelogram:
z1 + z3 = z2 + z4 (Diagonals bisect each-other.)

● Condition for two lines to be parallel:

𝒛𝟒 𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟒 𝒛𝟑
arg = 0 or π i.e., is purely real.
𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏

● Condition for two lines to be perpendicular:

2. Condition for 4 non collinear points to represent vertices of a
𝒛𝟒 𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟒 𝒛𝟑
arg = ± π/2 i.e., is purely imaginary. rhombus:
𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏 i. Diagonals bisect, z1 + z3 = z2 + z4
ii. Adjacent sides are equal. |z1 – z2| = |z3 – z2|
● Equation of perpendicular bisector joining z1 and z2:
|z − z1| = |z − z2| 3. Condition for 4 non collinear points to represent vertices of a
Square:
i. Diagonals bisect. z1 + z3 = z2 + z4
ii. Adjacent sides are equal |z1 – z2|=|z3 – z2|
iii. Diagonals are equal. |z4 – z2|=|z3 – z1|

|𝜶𝐳𝟏 𝛂𝒛𝟏 𝐤| 4. Condition for 4 non collinear points to represent vertices of a

● Distance of a point from a line: p= Rectangle:
𝟐|𝛂|
i. Diagonals bisect z1 + z3 = z2 + z4
ii. Diagonals are equal. |z4 – z2|=|z3 – z1|

● Relation between z and iz: zi = r e i(θ + π/2)

Multiplying a complex number z by i is equivalent to rotating the image of
z in Argand plane by 900 about origin, anticlockwise.
𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟏 𝟏
● Condition for collinearity of 3 points z1, z2, z3: 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟐 𝟏 = 0
𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟑 𝟏
 123 124

● Relation between z & 𝒛 : 𝒛 is mirror image of z on real axis. 2. Parametric Equation of Circle: z = z0 + r e iθ, 0 ≤ θ < 2π
General equation of circle in complex plane:

If z = r e iθ then 𝒛 = re− iθ. Thus 𝑧 is mirror image of z on real axis. z 𝑧̅ – z1𝑧̅ – 𝑧1 z + b = 0

or z 𝑧̅ +α𝑧̅ + 𝛼 z + b = 0
● Relation between {z & ω z} and {z & ω2z}:
(z1 = - α is centre and r = (|z1|2 – b) is radius of circle.
i. ω z = r e iθ. ei2π/3 = r e i(θ + 2π/3) .

ii. ω2z = r e iθ. ei4π/3 = r e i(θ + 4π/3) . ● Diameter form of circle: (z is a circle with z1 and z2 as extremi-
ties of diameter.)
𝟏
● Centroid of triangles in a complex plane: (z1 + z2 + z3)
𝟑
Where A(z1), B(z2) and C(z3) be vertices of a triangle ABC.

𝒂𝒛𝟏 𝒃𝒛𝟐 𝒄𝒛𝟑

● Incentre of triangles in a complex plane:
𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
1. |z – z1|2 + |z – z2|2 = |z1 – z2|2
𝟏
● Area of a triangle in complex plane: |𝟐 Im (𝒛1z2 + 𝒛2 z3 + 𝒛3 z1)|
2. (z – z1) ( 𝒛 – 𝒛𝟐 ) + (z – z2) (𝒛 – 𝒛𝟏) = 0.
𝑧1 𝑧1 1
Area ∆ = | 𝑧2 𝑧2 1 |=| Im(𝑧̅1z2 + 𝑧̅2 z3 + 𝑧̅3 z1) | 𝒛 𝒛𝟏
3. arg   (/2)
𝑧3 𝑧3 1 𝒛 𝒛𝟐

● Condition for z1, z2, z3 to form an equilateral triangle. ● Circle passing through three non-collinear points.
Let P(z) be any point on the circle through points A(z1), B(z2) and C(z3).

● Equation of circle with centre z0 and radius r:

𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟐 𝒛 𝒛𝟏
arg [( )( )] = 0 or π.
𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟏 𝒛 𝒛𝟐
𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟐 𝒛 𝒛𝟏
⇒ ( )( ) is purely real.
𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟏 𝒛 𝒛𝟐

𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟐 𝒛 𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟐 𝒛 𝒛𝟏
⇔ ( )( )=( )( )
𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟏 𝒛 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟏 𝒛 𝒛𝟐
 125

● Condition for four points to be concyclic:

⁕ Matrix: An ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions.

⁕ Order of a matrix: (No. of rows) × (No. of columns) is called order of a

matrix.
e.g., A m × n is matrix having m rows and n columns.

𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟒 𝒛𝟏
arg ( ) + arg ( )] = 0 or π.
𝒛𝟒 𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏
𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟒 𝒛𝟏 i.e., A = [ai j]m × n, 1≤ i ≤ m, 1≤ j ≤ n i, j ∈ N
⇒ ( 𝒛𝟒 )(
𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏
) is purely real.
● Difference between Matrix and a Determinant:
𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟒 𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟒 𝒛𝟏
⇔ ( 𝒛𝟒 )(
𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏
) =( )(
𝒛𝟒 𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏 1. Matrices do not have definite value, but determinants have definite val-
ue.

● Logarithm of a Complex Number: 2. In a Matrix the number of rows and columns may be unequal, but in a
determinant the number of rows and columns must be equal.
If z = x + iy,
3. The entries of a Matrix are listed within a large parenthesis (large brac-
then loge z 
𝟏
loge (x2 + y2) + i. arg (z) es), but in a determinant the entries are listed between two strips (i.e.,
𝟐 between two vertical lines).
4. Let ‘A’ be a matrix. Matrix ‘kA’ is obtained by multiplying all the entries
of the matrix by k.
Note:
1. If ‘∆’ be any Determinant. Then ‘k∆’ is obtained by multiplying any one
row or any one column by k.
2. If [kA] is a square matrix of order 3, then |kA| = k3 |A|
In general, |kA| = k n |A|. Where [kA] is a square matrix of nth order.

● Types of Matrices:
(i) Row matrix: A matrix with only one row. e.g., [𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 ].
𝑎
(ii) Column matrix: A matrix with only one column. e.g., 𝑏 .
𝑐
(iii) Horizontal matrix: A m ×n matrix where m < n.
1 2 6
e.g., 3×2
5 4 3
(iv) Vertical matrix: A m ×n matrix where m > n.
1 2
e.g., 5 4 2×3
6 3
 127 128

(v). Zero matrix or Null matrix: A matrix with all its elements zero. A ⁕ Symmetric matrix properties:
zero matrix is denoted by O.
i. A unit matrix is always a symmetric matrix.
0 0 0
0 0
e.g., [0]1× 1;
0 0
2× 2; 0 0 0 3× 3; [0 0]1×2. ii. Maximum number of different elements in a symmetric matrix of order
0 0 0 𝟏
n is = n (n + 1)
𝟐
(vi) Square matrix: A matrix with equal rows and columns.
In general, A = [ai j] m × m is a square matrix of order m. iii. If A is a square matrix, then A + AT, AAT, ATA all are symmetric matri-
1 2 8 ces.
1 2
e.g., 2× 2; 5 4 7 3× 3.
5 4 iv. If A and B are symmetric matrices, then.
6 3 9
i. A ± B, AB + BA are symmetric.
● Types of square matrices:
ii. AB is a symmetric matrix iff AB = BA.
1. Diagonal matrix:
v. If A is symmetric then matrix BTAB is symmetric.
A square matrix whose all non-diagonal elements are zero.
i.e., Matrix A = [ai j] m ×m (ai j = 0, when i ≠ j). vi. If A is skew symmetric matrix, then A2n will be symmetric.
1 0 0
e.g., [𝑎]1×1;
1 0
0 4 0
5. Skew Symmetric Matrices:
2×2; 3×3.
0 4
0 0 9 A square matrix A = [ai j] is said to be skew symmetric matrix if AT = – A.
i.e., aji = – ai j ∀ i and j.
2. Scalar matrix:
A diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are equal, and all non- ⇒ 2aii = 0 ⇒ ai i = 0.
diagonal elements are zero. Hence all elements with ij = ji are zero. i.e., all diagonal elements of skew
i.e., A = [ai j]m ×m where ai j = 0, when i ≠ j & ai j = k, when i = j. symmetric matrix are zero.
0 2 −1
√3 0 0 0 −3
4 0 e.g., 2× 2; −2 0 −4 3× 3
e.g. [4]1× 1; 2×2; 0 √3 0 3×3 3 0
0 4 1 4 0
0 0 √3
⁕ Skew-symmetric matrix properties,
3. Identity matrix or Unit matrix:
i. All the diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are zero.
A square matrix in which elements in the diagonal are all 1 and rest ele-
ments are all zero is called an identity matrix or unit matrix. This is denot- ii. For a skew symmetric matrix A of odd order |A| = 0
ed by In, where n is order of matrix. Identity matrix is a scalar matrix. iii. If A is a square matrix, then A – AT is a skew-symmetric matrix.
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑗
i.e., A = [ai j] n × n is an identity matrix, if ai j = iv. If A and B are symmetric matrices of same order then, (AB – BA) is
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
skew symmetric.
1 0 0
1 0
e.g., [1]1× 1; 2×2 0 1 0 3×3 v. If A is skew symmetric matrix, then A2n+1 will be skew symmetric.
0 1
0 0 1
vi. If A and B are skew-symmetric matrices, then A ± B, AB – BA are skew-
4. Symmetric Matrices: symmetric matrices.

A square matrix A = [ai j] is said to be symmetric if AT = A, vii. If A is skew-symmetric then matrix BTAB is skew-symmetric.

i.e., [ai j] = [a j i] ∀ i j. viii. A square matrix A can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a
skew-symmetric matrix as
1 7 3
1 3
e.g., 2×2 7 4 −5 3×3 A = (A + AT) + (A – AT)
3 5
3 −5 6
 129 130

6. Triangular Matrix (Echelon Form of matrix): 7. Singular matrix:

A square matrix ‘A’ where |A| = 0 is a singular matrix. Inverse does not
i. Upper triangular Matrix: exist for a singular matrix.
1 2 3
A square matrix in which all elements below the main diagonal are zero. e.g.,
1 3
2× 2, 7 4 −5 3× 3
i.e., ai j = 0, i > j. 2 6
2 4 6
1 4 1 8. Non-singular matrix:
e.g., 0 6 4
0 0 1 A square matrix ‘A’ where |A| ≠ 0 is a non-singular matrix. Inverses do
exist for non-singular matrices.
ii. Unit-Upper Triangular Matrix: 1 2 0
1 3
e.g., 2× 2, 0 1 0 3× 3
A unit-upper-triangular matrix is a matrix which has 1 as entries on the 0 1
0 0 1
downwards diagonal and nonzero entries above it.
1 5 −2 9. Orthogonal matrix:
i.e., ai j = 0, i > j & ai j = 1, i = j. e.g., 0 1 6
0 0 1 A square symmetric matrix A where AAT = ATA = I.
1 0 0
1 0
iii. Lower triangular Matrix: e.g.,
0 1
2× 2; 0 1 0 3× 3
0 0 1
A square matrix in which all elements above the main diagonal are zero.
1 0 0 ⁕ Orthogonal matrix properties, (Assuming A & B are of same order)
i.e., ai j = 0, i < j. e.g., 2 8 0
4 9 7 i. |A| = ± 1.

iv. Unit-Lower Triangular Matrix. ii. A is invertible (as A is not singular).

A unit-lower- triangular matrix is a matrix which has all entries on the iii. AT = A–1
downwards-diagonal as 1 and nonzero entries below it. iv. If A is orthogonal ⇒ A–1 and AT are also orthogonal.
1 0 0
v. If A and B are orthogonal ⇒ AB and BA both are orthogonal.
i.e., ai j = 0, i < j & ai j = 1, i = j. e.g., 2 1 0
4 9 1 vi. A unit matrix is always an orthogonal matrix.
⁕ Properties of Triangular Matrices:
10. Idempotent matrix:
i. The inverse of upper (lower) triangular matrix is upper (lower) triangu- A square matrix where A2 = A.
lar matrix.
1 0 0 2 −2 −4
ii. The inverse of unit upper (unit lower) triangular matrix is unit upper 1 0 3 −6
e.g., 2× 2; 2× 2; 0 1 0 3× 3; −1 3 4 3× 3
0 1 1 −2
(unit lower) triangular. 0 0 1 1 −2 −3
iii. The product of two upper (lower) triangular matrices is upper (lower)
⁕ Idempotent matrix properties:
triangular matrix.
i. For idempotent matrix A: |A| = 0 or 1.
iv. The product of two units upper (unit lower) triangular matrix is unit
upper (unit lower) triangular matrix. ii. A unit matrix is always an idempotent matrix.

v. Determinant of upper or lower triangular matrix is equal to the product 11. Involutory matrix:
of its diagonal elements. A square matrix A where A2 = I or A–1 = A.
vi. The determinant of unit upper or unit lower triangular matrix is equal 1 0 0 1 0 0
to 1. 1 0
e.g., 2× 2; 0 1 0 3× 3; 0 0 1 3× 3
0 1
0 0 1 0 1 0
 131 132

⁕ Involutory matrix properties: ● Hermitian Matrix:

i. |A| = 1 or –1. The transpose of the conjugate of a matrix with complex entries is called
ii. A–1 = A. Hermitian matrix A θ.

iii. A2m = In and A2m+1 = A. i.e., A θ = (͞A) t

iv. If A and B are involutory matrices then AB is an involutory matrix. ● Skew-Hermitian matrix:
v. Every unit matrix is involutory. A square matrix where ai j = − ͞ai j ∀ i and j. The diagonal elements are ei-
ther zeros or pure imaginaries.
12. Periodic matrix:
It can also be defined as a square matrix A in which (A)t = − A θ.
A square matrix A in which Ak+1 = A is called periodic matrix and ‘k’ is
called the period of matrix. 𝑖 1−𝑖 2
Both definitions are equivalent. e.g., −1 − 𝑖 3𝑖 𝑖
1 −2 −6 2 −2 −6 −2 𝑖 0
e.g., −3 2 9 , Here k = 2. −3 2 9 , Here k = 4.
2 0 −3 2 0 −3 ● Equality of matrices:
Two matrices A = [ai j] and B = [bi j] are said to be equal (i.e., A = B) if both
⁕ Properties of periodic matrices: are of the same order and each element of A is equal to the corresponding
i. If A is non-singular matrix with period n, then An = I. element of B. i.e., ai j = bi j for all i and j.
ii. If A is non-singular matrix with period n, then A⁻¹ is non- singular ma-
trix with period n. ● Addition and subtraction of matrices:
If A, B and C are three matrices of same order, then,
13. Nilpotent matrix:
A square matrix where Am = 0. * A+B=B+A (Commutative law)
0 2 1 6
5 −3 2 * (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (Associative law)
0 1 0 0 1 2
e.g., ; 15 −9 6 ; .
0 0 0 0 0 3
10 −6 4 * A + O = O + A = A, where O is a zero matrix of the same order and is
0 0 0 0
(Here A2 = 0); (Here A2 = 0); (Here A4 = 0). called additive identity.

⁕ Nilpotent matrix properties: * A − B = A + (− B), where (–B) is obtained by changing the sign of eve-
ry element of B.
i. Am = 0; ⇒ Ak = 0, if k > m.
* A + (–A) = O = (–A) + A. where (–A) is additive inverse of A.
ii. The least value of m for which Am = 0 is called index.
* If A+ B = A + C and B + A = C + A ⇒ B = C (Cancellation law)
iii. |A| = 0.
● Scalar multiplication of Matrices:
Note: A Unit Matrix is Symmetric, Diagonal, Scalar, Orthogonal, Idem-
potent and Involutory. If A, B are two matrices of same order and α, β are any numbers, then,

● Conjugate of a matrix: * k [A] = k [ai j] = [k ai j] = [k A].

The matrix obtained from a given matrix A by replacing each entry con- * k (A ± B) = k A ± k B.
taining complex numbers with its complex conjugate is called conjugate of
A. It is denoted by . * (k ± l) A = kA ± l A.
1 𝑖 1 − 2𝑖 1 −𝑖 1 + 2𝑖 * α(βA) = β(αA) = (αβA)
If A = 8𝑖 2 3 then = −8𝑖 2 3
5 3 + 4𝑖 −4𝑖 5 3 − 4𝑖 4𝑖 * (–α) A = –(αA) = α(–A)
 133 134

* O.A = O (Where O is zero matrix) ● Multiplication of matrices:

* α.O = O (Where O is zero matrix) Multiplication AB is possible if the number of columns of A is equal to
the number of rows of B. e.g.,
● Rank of a Matrix: Let A = [ai j] m ×n, B = [b j k] n × p
Matrix A is said to be of rank ‘r’, if: then C = AB = [ci k] m × p.
1. A has at least one minor of order ‘r’ which does not vanish. 𝑏𝟏𝐤
⎡𝑏𝟐𝐤⎤
2. Every minor of A of order (r + 1) and higher order vanishes. ⎢ ⎥
Let the ith row of A is [ai1 ai2 ... ain] and kth column of B is ⎢ : ⎥,
⎢ : ⎥
In other words, Rank of Matrix A is equal to the order of the highest non- ⎣𝑏𝐧𝐤⎦
vanishing minor of the matrix.
Then ci k = ai1 b1k + ai2 b2k + ai3 b3k + ... + ain bn
Note:
e.g., Let both matrices A and B be of order 3. Then AB = A×B
Rank of a Matrix is less than or equal to the least of its row or
its column. i.e. 𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝒂𝟏𝟑 𝒃𝟏𝟏 𝒃𝟏𝟐 𝒃𝟏𝟑
i.e., AB = 𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟐𝟑 × 𝒃𝟐𝟏 𝒃𝟐𝟐 𝒃𝟐𝟑 =
i. If order of matrix A is 3 x 3 then ρ(A) ≤ 3 𝒂𝟑𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟐 𝒂𝟑𝟑 𝒃𝟑𝟏 𝒃𝟑𝟐 𝒃𝟑𝟑
ii. If order of matrix A is 5 x 4 then ρ(A) ≤ 4 𝑹𝟏𝑪𝟏 𝑹𝟏𝑪𝟐 𝑹𝟏𝑪𝟑
𝑹𝟐𝑪𝟏 𝑹𝟐𝑪𝟐 𝑹𝟐𝑪𝟑
iii. If order of matrix A is 2 x 3 then ρ(A) ≤ 2 𝑹𝟑𝑪𝟏 𝑹𝟑𝑪𝟐 𝑹𝟑𝑪𝟑

● Trace of a matrix:
Where R1C1 = ∑ 𝑎1i b i1 = a11b11 + a12b21 + a13b31 and similarly for others.
The sum of all diagonal elements of a square matrix A is called the trace of i.e.,
matrix A. It is denoted by tr (A).
R1C1 = a11b11 + a12b21 + a13b31 R1C2 = a11b12 + a12b22 + a13b32
Thus, tr(A) = ∑ 𝑎ii = a11 + a22 + …. + an n R2C1 = a21b11 + a22b21 + a23b31 R2C2 = a21b12 + a22b22 + a23b32
3 2 7 R3C1 = a31b11 + a32b21 + a33b31 R3C2 = a31b12 + a32b22 + a33b32
e.g., If A = 1 4 3 . Then tr(A) = 3 + 4 + 8 = 15 and
−2 5 8 R1C3 = a11b13 + a12b23 + a13b33
R2C3 = a21b13 + a22b23 + a23b33
● Properties of trace of a matrix: R3C3 = a31b13 + a32b23 + a33b33

Let A = [ai j]m × n and B = [bi j]m × n and λ be a scalar. Then,

● Properties of Matrix multiplication:
* tr (A ± B) = tr (A) ± tr (B). * Generally, AB ≠ BA but in some cases they can be equal.

* tr (λ A) = λ tr (A). * Multiplication of diagonal matrices of same order will be commutative.

i.e., AB = BA.
* tr (AB) = tr (BA) (if AB = BA).
* IA = AI = A where A is a square matrix, and I is an identity matrix of
same order.
* tr (A) = tr (AT).
* Multiplication of two diagonal matrices is a diagonal matrix.
* tr (In) = n.
* Multiplication of two scalar matrices is a scalar matrix.
* tr (O) = 0.
* (AB)C = A (B C) Associative property.
* tr (AB) ≠ tr (A). tr (B)
 135 136

* A. (B + C) = A.B + A.C Distributive property. ● Properties of adjoint:

* (A + B) C = A.C + B.C Distributive property. * A (adj A) = (adj A) A = |A| In.

* If A. B = A.C then it does not imply that C = B. * A (adj A) = (adj A) A = 0 (where A is singular)

* If A = 0 or B = 0, ⇒ AB = 0. * |adj A| = |A|n–1.

* If A is singular matrix, then |adj A| = 0.

* If AB = 0, then it is not necessary that A = 0 or B = 0.
* (adj AB) = (adj B) (adj A).
* If A and B are square matrices of the same order, then

i. (A + B)2 = A2 + AB + BA + B2. * adj (At) = (adj A)t.

ii. (A – B)2 = A2 – AB – BA + B2. * adj (adj A) = |A|n–2. A.

iii. (A+B) (A–B) = A2 – AB + BA – B2. * |adj (adj A) | = |A| (n– 1) (n– 1) = |A|(n–1)2.
iv. A (–B) = (–A) B = – (AB)
* |adj (adj (adj A)) | = |A|(n–1)3.
v. (A + B)2 ≠ A2 + 2AB + B2 (unless AB = BA).
* (adj kA) = kn–1(adj A), k ∈ R.
● Transpose of matrix:
* adj (Am) = (adj A) m, m ∈ N.
It is obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of matrix
A and is denoted by AT or A′. * adj (In) = In.

Rules for Transpose of matrices: * adj (O) = O.

* (AT)T = A. * Adjoint of a diagonal matrix is a diagonal matrix.

* (A ± B) = AT ± BT (A and B are of same order). * Adjoint of a triangular matrix is a triangular matrix.

* (AB)T = BTAT (A and B are of same order). * Adjoint of a symmetric matrix is a symmetric matrix.

* (kA)T = k(A)T. * Adjoint of a singular matrix is a singular matrix.

i.e., |adj A| = 0 for singular matrix.
* (A1 A2 A3 ......An−1 An) = An T − An−1T …. A3T. A2T. A1T
where A1 A2 A3 ... A n are square matrices of same order. ● Inverse of a matrix:
The inverse of a matrix A (i.e., A–1) exists if A is non-singular.
* IT = I where I is unit matrix of order n. i.e., |A| ≠ 0.

● Adjoint of a Matrix: ● Properties of inverse of matrix:

Adjoint of a matrix is transpose of cofactors of elements of that ma- * If AB = BA = In, where In is identify matrix, A and B both are square
trix. matrix of order n. Then B is called the inverse of A or vice versa.
i.e., adj A = [Aij]T.
* A–1 = (Adj. A).
| |
 137 138

* A–1A = In = AA–1 ● To find inverse of matrix:

(a) By using elementary row operations: Steps to be taken:
* (AT)–1 = (A–1) T.
i. Check |A| ≠ 0.
* (A–1)–1 = A. ii. Write, A = IA.
iii. Now apply a sequence of row operations simultaneously on A on LHS
* (AB)–1 = B–1 A–1.
and on the matrix I (of the product IA) on RHS, till we get, I = BA.
* (AB…N) −1 = N−1 ... B−1 A−1. iv. The matrix B will be the inverse of A.

* (An)–1 = (A–1) n, n ∈ N. (b) By using column operations:

Steps to be taken:
* adj (A–1) = (adj A)–1 = .
| | i. Check |A| ≠ 0.
ii. Write, A = AI.
* |A–1| = |A|–1 = .
| | iii. Now apply a sequence of column operations simultaneously on A on
LHS and on the matrix I (of the product AI) on RHS till we get, I = AB.
* Inverse of a diagonal matrix is a diagonal matrix. iv. The matrix B will be the inverse of A.

* Inverse of a triangular matrix is a triangular matrix. (c) By using adjoint of matrix:

* Inverse of a scalar matrix is a scalar matrix. Let A be a square matrix of order n. Following are the steps to find the
inverse of a matrix.
* Inverse of a symmetric matrix is a symmetric matrix. i. Check |A| ≠ 0.
ii. Find the co-factors Aij of all the elements of A.
● Elementary operation (transformation) of a matrix:
There are six elementary operations or transformations on a matrix as iii. Find adj A = [Aij]T
given below,
iv. Find A –1 =
| |
* Interchange of any two rows. (Ri ↔ R j)
Note: A–1 does not exist when |A| = 0.
* Interchange of any two columns. (Ci ↔ C j).

* Multiplication of the elements of any row by a non-zero number. ● Consistent system:

(Ri → k Ri, k ≠ 0). A system of linear equations is said to be consistent if it has at least one
* Multiplication of the elements of any column by a non-zero number. solution.

(Ci → k Ci, k ≠ 0) If a consistent system has exactly one solution, it is independent.

If a consistent system has an infinite number of solutions, it is dependent.
* Addition to the elements of any row, the corresponding elements of any
other row multiplied by any non-zero number.
● Inconsistent system:
(Ri → Ri + k R j, k ≠ 0)
If a system has no solution, it is said to be inconsistent.
* Addition to the elements of any column, the corresponding elements of
any other column multiplied by any non-zero number.
(Ci → Ci + k C j, k ≠ 0).
 139

● Solving a system of linear equations by matrix method:

* Determinants exists only for square matrices. Determinant of a square
Let the linear equations in variable x, y, z be, matrix A is denoted by Δ or |A|.

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 * Order of matrix:
A matrix with m rows and n columns is of order: m × n.
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3 * Minor of an element aij of |A|:

Steps: The minor of aij is denoted by Mij which is a determinant obtained by de-
leting ith row and jth column of |A|.
1. Express equations as AX = B.
* Order of minor of an element of a determinant (for n ≥ 2) is:
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑥 𝑑1 = n – 1.
i.e., 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝑦 = 𝑑2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑧 𝑑3 * Cofactor of an element aij is denoted by Aij, and
2. Check if |A| 0. Aij = (–1) i+j Mij,
3. Find inverse of matrix A using relation, A –1 = .
| | ● Evaluation of Determinant:
4. If |A| 0, then unique solution is given by X = A-1B. It is evaluated as the sum of the products of elements of any row (or col-
Note: umn) with its corresponding cofactor.
(i). If |A| = 0, put x = k (y = k or z = k) in any two of the given equations i.e., Δ = ai1 (Ai1) + ai2(Ai2) + … + ain(Ain) expanding along ith row.
and find y and z in terms of k. or Δ = a1j (A1j) + a2j (A2j) + … + anj (Anj) expanding along jth column.
(ii). Substitute these values of x, y and z in terms of k in the third equa-
tion. If the third equation is satisfied by these values of x, y and z, then the 𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐
*Δ= = a11 (A22) + a12(A21) = a11. a22 – a12. a21.
system has infinitely many solutions. 𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐

(iii). If the third equation is not satisfied, the system has no solution. * For easy calculation determinant can be expanded along that row or col-
umn which contains maximum number of zeros.

* If elements of a row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of any

other row (or column), then their sum is zero.

● Operation on Determinants:
i. Ri ↔ R j (or Ci ↔ Cj) denotes interchange of rows (or columns).

ii. Ri → k Ri (or Ci → k Ci) denotes multiplication of the elements of any

row (or column) by a constant k.

iii. Ri → Ri + k Rj (or Ci → Ci + k Cj) denotes addition to the elements of

any row (or column), the corresponding elements of any other row (or
column) multiplied by any non-zero number.

* The value of the determinant remains unchanged if its rows and columns
are interchanged. |A| = |A′|.
 141 142

* If two rows or columns of a determinant are interchanged, then the sign 𝑏1k
of the determinant is changed. ⎡𝑏2k⎤
⎢ ⎥
and kth column of B is ⎢ : ⎥,
* If any two rows or columns of a determinant are either identical or pro- ⎢ : ⎥
portional, then its value is zero. ⎣𝑏nk⎦
Then (i, k)th element of their product C is given by,
* If some or all elements of a row or column of a determinant are ex-
pressed as sum of two (or more) terms, then the determinant can be ex- cik = ai1 b1k + ai2 b2k + ai3 b3k + ... + ain bn
pressed as sum of two (or more) determinants.
* The determinant of the product of matrices is equal to product of their
* If, to each element of any row or column of a determinant, the equi- respective determinants.
multiples of corresponding elements of other row (or column) are added,
then value of determinant remains the same. i.e., |AB| = |A| |B|, where A and B are square matrices of the same order.

(i.e., If Ri → Ri + k Rj or Ci → Ci + k Cj then the value of determinant * For N square matrices of same order, |AB... N| = |A||B|...|N|
remains same)
* |A| n = |An|, n ∈ N
* If each element of a row or column of a determinant multiplied by k,
then its value is multiplied by k.
* If A and B are non-singular matrices of the same order, then AB and BA
(i.e., If Ri → k Ri or Ci → k Ci, then Δ1 = k Δ) are also non-singular matrices of the same order.

* For square matrix of order n; | kA | = kn |A| ● Inverse of Matrix:

If AB = BA = In, then B = Inverse of matrix A= A−1, where In is the identity
* If A is a singular matrix, then |A| = 0. matrix and A, B square matrices of order n.
* If A is a non-singular matrix, then |A| 0. * The inverse of a matrix A exists if and only if A is non-singular. i.e.,
|A| 0. (Every non-singular matrix is invertible).
* If A is a skew-symmetric matrix of odd order then, |A| = 0.
* If A, B are invertible matrices then, (AB)−1 = B−1 A−1
* If A is an n × n upper or lower triangular matrix with elements a1,
a2, a3 …, an, then |A| = a1. a2. a3 … an.
● Transpose of a matrix:
* Area of a triangle with vertices (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is given by,
A Matrix which is formed by turning all the rows of a given matrix into
𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝟏 𝟏 columns and vice versa. It is denoted by AT or A′.
𝟏 𝟏
Δ = [x1(y2–y3) + x2 (y3–y1) + x3 (y1–y2)] = 𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐 𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
𝐱𝟑 𝐲𝟑 𝟏 * (AT)−1 = (A−1) T where A is invertible.

● Product of determinant:
● Adjoint of a matrix:
(Product of determinant is defined only for matrices of same order.)
The adjoint of a matrix is A= [aij] is defined as the transpose of the matrix
The product of the matrices A and B is the matrix C of same order. To get
[Aij], where Aij is the cofactor of the element aij.
the (i, k) th element cik of the matrix C, we take the ith row of A and kth col-
umn of B, multiply them elementwise and take the sum of all these prod- i.e., adj A = [Aij]′.
ucts.
Let A = [aij] and B = [bjk] are matrices of order n. * For a 2 x 2 matrix, the adjoint is easily obtained by interchanging ele-
ments in the leading diagonal and changing signs in the other diagonal.
Then the ith row of A is [ai1 ai2 ... ain].
 143 144

● Solving a system of linear equations in 2 variables and 2 equa-

tions,
a1 x + b1 y = c1,
a2 x + b2 y = c2.

By Cramer’s rule the solution may be written,

* For any square matrix A of order n: A (adj A) = (adj A) A = A In
(where In is the identity matrix of order n.) = =

* For a singular matrix A (i.e., |A|= 0), A (adj A) = (adj A) A = 0

We can have following cases,
𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟏
* A–1 = (i). If = ≠ ; There is no solution. Equations are inconsistent.
| | 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐
𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟏
(ii). If = = ; There are infinite solutions.
* |adj A| = |A|n-1 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐

𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏
* adj (adj A) = |A|n-2. A, |A| ≠ 0 (iii). If ≠ ; There is only one solution.
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐

* |adj (adj A) | = |A| (n– 1) (n– 1) = |A| (n– 1)2

● System of linear equations in 2 variables and 3 equations,
* |adj (adj (adj A)) | = |A| (n– 1)3
a1 x + b1 y = c1,
* adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A) a2 x + b2 y = c2.
a3 x + b3 y = c3.
* adj (kA) = kn-1 (adj A), where k is any scalar.

* adj (AT) = (adj A) T ● Then condition of consistency

(i.e., the system of linear equations has solution) is,
* adj (Am)= (adj A) m, m ∈ N 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 −𝒄𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 −𝒄𝟐 = 0
* adj (In) = In. 𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑 −𝒄𝟑

* adj (0) = 0. ● Solving of linear equations in 3 variables,

* For a singular matrix A, |adj A| = 0 a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1

a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2
● Consistent and inconsistent system of linear equations: a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3
A system of linear equations is said to be consistent if it has at least one
solution, otherwise it is inconsistent. (a) Solving by using Cramer’s Rule:

A system of equations is said to be inconsistent if its solution does not =∆ =∆ =∆

exist. ∆

or = = =
 145

We can have following cases,

(i) If the value of Δ ≠ 0, then there is a unique solution.
● Coordinate System
(ii) If Δ = 0, Δ x = 0, Δ y = 0, Δ z = 0, then in such a case, all the equa-
tions will be dependent on one another, and the given system of equations The three mutually perpendicular lines in a space which divides the space
will have an infinite number of solutions. into eight parts and if these perpendicular lines are the coordinate axes,
then it is said to be a coordinate system.
(iii) If the value of Δ = 0 and two of the three Δ x, Δ y, Δ z are zero
(say Δ x = 0, Δ y = 0) and one is not equal to zero (say Δ z ≠ 0), then the
given system of equations will have no solutions. i.e., the system of
equations is inconsistent.

(b) Solving by using inverse of a matrix method:

Consider the system of equations given above,

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑥 𝑑1
Let A = 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 , X = 𝑦 and B = 𝑑2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑧 𝑑3 ● Distance between two points P (x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2):
Then, the system of equations can be written as, AX = B.
PQ = (𝐱𝟐 − 𝐱𝟏)𝟐 + (𝐲𝟐 − 𝐲𝟏)𝟐 + (𝐳𝟐 − 𝐳𝟏)𝟐
Now we have following two cases,
● Distance of a point from origin when its perpendicular dis-
Case I: If |A| ≠ 0, then system has unique solution given by tances d1, d2, d3 from the coordinate planes are given:
X= A–1B. d = √𝐝𝟏𝟐 + 𝐝𝟐𝟐 + 𝐝𝟑𝟐

Case II: If |A| = 0 then we calculate (adj A) B. ● Distance of a point from origin when its perpendicular dis-
If (adj A) B ≠ O, (O being zero matrix), then solution does not exist, and tances d1, d2, d3 from the coordinate axes are given:
the system of equations is called inconsistent.
𝐝𝟏𝟐 𝐝𝟐𝟐 𝐝𝟑𝟐
If (adj A) B = O, (O being zero matrix), then system may be either con- d=
𝟐
sistent or inconsistent according as the system have either infinitely many
solutions or no solution.
● Section Formula:
Note:
Let point (x, y, z) divides join of (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) in ratio m: n,
If |A| = 0, put x = k (or y = k or z = k) in any two of the given equations 𝐦𝐱𝟐 𝐧𝐱𝟏 𝐦𝐲𝟐 𝐧𝐲𝟏 𝐦𝐳𝟐 𝐧𝐳𝟏
and find y and z in terms of k. i. Internally: Then x= ;y= ;z=
𝐦 𝐧 𝐦 𝐧 𝐦 𝐧
- Substitute these values of x, y and z in terms of k in the third equation. If
the third equation is satisfied by these values of x, y and z, then the system 𝐦𝐱𝟐 𝐧𝐱𝟏 𝐦𝐲𝟐 𝐧𝐲𝟏 𝐦𝐳𝟐 𝐧𝐳𝟏
ii. Externally: Then x= ;y= ;z=
has infinitely many solutions. 𝐦 𝐧 𝐦 𝐧 𝐦 𝐧

- If the third equation is not satisfied, the system has no solution. iii. Coordinates of mid-point of (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2),
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟏 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏
𝟐
, 𝟐
, 𝟐
 147 148

* Centroid of a Triangle with vertices (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2), (x3, y3, z3): * Direction ratios. are proportional to the direction cosines l, m, n.
𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟑 𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟑
𝟑
, 𝟑
, 𝟑 Here
𝒍 𝐦 𝐧
= = =±
𝐥𝟐 𝐦𝟐 𝐧𝟐
=±
𝟏
.
𝐚 𝐛 𝐜 𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐜 𝟐 𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐜 𝟐
* Centroid of a Tetrahedron with vertices (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2), (x3, 𝐚 𝐛 𝐜
y3, z3) and (x4, y4, z4): and l=± ,m=± ,n=±
𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟐 𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟐 𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟐
𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟒 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟑 𝒚𝟒 𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟑 𝒛𝟒
𝟒
, 𝟒
, 𝟒 * If P (x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2) are two points then,

● Direction Cosines of a line: Direction Ratios of PQ: x2 – x1, y2 – y1, z2 – z1.

𝐱𝟐 𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝟐 𝐲𝟏 𝐳𝟐 𝐳𝟏
If a directed line segment OP makes angle α, β and γ with OX, OY and OZ Direction Cosines of PQ: l = ,m= and n = .
𝐏𝐐 𝐏𝐐 𝐏𝐐
respectively, then cos α, cos β and cos γ are called direction cosines of OP
and it is represented by l, m, n.
● Angle between two lines:
l = cos α, m = cos β and n = cos γ.
𝐛𝟏⃗ ∙ 𝐛𝟐⃗
1. Vector form: cos θ =
𝐛𝟏⃗| | 𝐛𝟐⃗

[𝑟⃗ = 𝑎1⃗ + λ𝑏1⃗ and 𝑟⃗ = 𝑎2⃗ + μ𝑏2⃗ are two lines and θ is angle between them]

2. Cartesian form:
If l, m, n are direction cosines of a vector r⃗ = xî+yĵ+zk̂, then cos θ = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2|
* l2 + m2 + n2 =1.
sin θ = (𝐥𝟏𝐦𝟐 − 𝐥𝟐𝐦𝟏)𝟐 + (𝐦𝟏𝐧𝟐 − 𝐦𝟐𝐧𝟏)𝟐 + (𝐧𝟏𝐥𝟐 − 𝐧𝟐𝐥𝟏)𝟐
[i.e., cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2γ = 1 or sin2 α + sin2 β + sin2γ = 2
[l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 are the direction cosines of two lines and θ is the
or cos 2α + cos 2β + cos 2γ = – 1]
angle between them]
* Coordinates of any point P on a line: (l |r|, m |r|, n |r|)
Note: If θ is the angle between two lines whose direction ratios are a1, b1,
[Where |r| is the length of line and .x= l |r|, y = m |r|, z = n |r| are the pro- c1 & a2, b2, c2 and the direction cosines are l1, m1, n1 & l2, m2, n2 then,
jections of 𝑟⃗ on x, y, z axes.]
𝐚𝟏𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟏𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟏𝐜𝟐
* cos θ = | |
𝐚𝟏𝟐 𝐛𝟏𝟐 𝐜𝟏𝟐 𝐚𝟐𝟐 𝐛𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝟐𝟐
* |r| = | xî + yĵ + zk̂ | = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐
(𝐚𝟏𝐛𝟐 𝐚𝟐𝐛𝟏)𝟐 (𝐛𝟏𝐜𝟐 𝐛𝟐𝐜𝟏)𝟐 (𝐜𝟏𝐚𝟐 𝐜𝟐𝐚𝟏)𝟐
𝒓⃗ * sin θ =
* r̂ = lî+mĵ+nk̂ is a unit vector along 𝑟⃗ and r̂ = |𝒓⃗| . (𝐚𝟏𝟐 𝐛𝟏𝟐 𝐜𝟏𝟐 ) (𝐚𝟐𝟐 𝐛𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝟐𝟐 )

* Direction cosines of X- axis are (1,0,0) ● Condition for two lines to be perpendicular,
Direction cosines of Y- axis are (0,1,0) l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0
Direction cosines of Z-axis are (0,0,1). or a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0

● Direction Ratios (d. r.) of a Line ● Condition for two lines to be parallel,
* The direction ratios of any vector 𝐫⃗ = aî + bĵ + ck̂ are a, b, c. 𝐥𝟏 𝐦𝟏 𝐧𝟏 𝐚𝟏 𝐛𝟏 𝐜𝟏
= = or = =
𝐥𝟐 𝐦𝟐 𝐧𝟐 𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟐
 149 150

● Direction ratios of a line which is perpendicular to two given ● Foot of a perpendicular (projection) of a point on a line:
lines:
(m1 n2 – m2 n1), (n1 l2 – n2 l1), (l1 m2 – l2 m2) 𝐱 𝛂 𝐲 𝛃 𝐳 𝛄 (𝐚𝐱𝟏 𝐛𝐲𝟏 𝐜𝐳𝟏) (𝐚𝛂 𝐛𝛃 𝐜𝛄)
= = =
𝐚 𝐛 𝐜 𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐜 𝟐
[Here l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 are d. c. of two given lines].
[The given point is (x1, y1, z1) and the line is = = ]
● Length of projection of a line on another line with given d.c:
(x2 – x1) l + (y2 – y1) m + (z2 – z1) n. ● Image of a point on a line
[ (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) are two points on PQ and l, m, n are the direction cosines 𝐱 𝐱𝟏 𝟐𝛂 𝐲 𝐲𝟏 𝟐𝛃 𝐳 𝐳𝟏 𝟐𝛄 (𝐚𝐱𝟏 𝐛𝐲𝟏 𝐜𝐳𝟏) (𝐚𝛂 𝐛𝛃 𝐜𝛄)
= = =2[ ]
of a line on which projection of PQ is to be found.] 𝐚 𝐛 𝐜 𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐜 𝟐

● Equation of a line through a given point and parallel to a given [Given point is (x1, y1, z1) and the line is = = ]
line:
1. Vector equation: 𝑎⃗ is position vector of a given point and 𝑏⃗ is a given
vector parallel to line. 𝒓⃗ = 𝒂⃗ + λ𝒃⃗ ● The perpendicular distance of a point from a straight line:
or for parallel vectors (𝒓⃗ – 𝒂⃗) × 𝒃⃗ = 0 or 𝒓⃗ × 𝒃⃗ = 𝒂⃗ × 𝒃⃗ ⃗
(𝐜⃗ – 𝐚⃗) ∙ 𝐛
1. Vector form: d 2 = (𝐜⃗– 𝐚⃗) ∙ (𝐜⃗– 𝐚⃗) – [ ⃗
]2
𝐛
2. Cartesian equation: Given point is (x1, y1, z1) and d.c. and d.r. of giv-
en line are (l, m, n) and (b1, b2, b3) respectively. (d is the perpendicular distance of a point P (𝑐⃗) from straight line, 𝑟⃗ = 𝑎1⃗ + λ 𝑏1⃗.)

2. Cartesian form:
● Equation of a line passing through (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2):
d 2 = (x1– α)2 + (y1– β)2 + (z1– γ)2 – [l(x1– α) + m(y1– β) + n(z1– γ)]2
1. Vector equation: (Here 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗ are position vectors of two points.)
𝐱𝟏 – 𝛂 𝐲𝟏 – 𝛃 2 𝐲𝟏 – 𝛃 𝐳𝟏 – 𝛄 2 𝐳𝟏 – 𝛄 𝐱𝟏 – 𝛂 2
𝒓⃗ = 𝒂⃗ + λ (𝒃⃗ – 𝒂⃗), λ ∈ R or d 2= + + .
𝐥 𝐦 𝐦 𝐧 𝐧 𝐥
or (𝒓⃗ – 𝒂⃗) × (𝒃⃗ – 𝒂⃗) = 0 or 𝒓⃗ × (𝒃⃗ – 𝒂⃗) = 𝒂⃗ × 𝒃⃗ (‘d’ is the perpendicular distance of a point (x1, y1, z1) from a straight line

𝒙 𝒙𝟏 𝒚 𝒚𝟏 𝒛 𝒛𝟏 = = and l, m, n are direction cosines of line.)

2. Cartesian equation: = =
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟏 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟏

● Direction ratios of bisector lines: ● Distance between two parallel lines

(l1+ l2, m1+ m2, n1 + n2) and (l1– l2, m1– m2, n1 – n2) ⃗ × (𝐚𝟐⃗ 𝐚𝟏⃗)
𝐛
1. Vector form: d=| ⃗𝐛
|
[l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 are the direction cosines of two lines having θ angle
between them.] (d is the distance between two parallel lines l1≡ r⃗ = a1⃗ + λ b⃗ and l2≡ r⃗ = a2⃗ + μ b⃗)

● Direction cosines of bisector lines:

𝒍𝟏 𝒍𝟐 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 ̂ ̂ 𝐤
𝛉 , 𝛉 , 𝛉 d.c. of one bisector line 𝐱𝟐 𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝟐 𝐲𝟏 𝐳𝟐 𝐳𝟏
𝟐𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐚 𝐛 𝐜
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 2. Cartesian form: d=| |
𝒍𝟏 𝒍𝟐 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐜 𝟐
and 𝛉 , 𝛉 , 𝛉 d.c. of another bisector line
𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 (d is distance between two straight lines = = and =
[l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 are direction cosines of two lines and θ be angle = )
between them.]
 151 152

● Shortest distance between two skew lines: ● General equation of plane: ax + by + cz + d = 0.

|(𝐛𝟏⃗ × 𝐛𝟐⃗) . (𝐚𝟐⃗ 𝐚𝟏⃗)| (Where a, b, c are direction ratios of normal to the plane.)
1. Vector form: d =
𝐛𝟏⃗ × 𝐛𝟐⃗
Note:
(d is the perpendicular distance between two skew lines l1 ≡ r⃗ = a1⃗ + λ b1⃗ and 1. Plane ax+ by+ cz+ k = 0 is parallel to plane ax+ by+ cz+ d = 0, k being
the parameter.
l2 ≡ r⃗ = a2⃗ + μ b2⃗)
2. Equation of YZ plane is X= 0; equation of ZX plane is Y= 0; and equa-
𝐱𝟐 𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝟐 𝐲𝟏 𝐳𝟐 𝐳𝟏 tion of XY plane is Z= 0.
𝐚𝟏 𝐛𝟏 𝐜𝟏
𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟐
2. Cartesian form: d = | | ● Normal form of plane
(𝐚𝟏𝐛𝟐 𝐚𝟐𝐛𝟏)𝟐 (𝐛𝟏𝐜𝟐 𝐛𝟐𝐜𝟏)𝟐 (𝐜𝟏𝐚𝟐 𝐜𝟐𝐚𝟏)𝟐
1. Vector Equation: 𝐫⃗ ∙ 𝒏 = p
(‘d’ is the perpendicular distance between the two lines = = (𝑟⃗ is p.v. of any point on the plane, 𝑛 is unit normal vector to plane and p
and = = ) is perpendicular distance of plane from origin.)

● Equation of shortest distance between two lines: 2. Cartesian equation: lx + my + nz = p

(l, m, n are the direction cosines of normal n and p is the perpendicular
Equation of shortest distance between the two lines = = and distance of plane from origin.)
= = is given by,
● Converting general equation of plane to normal form
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 𝒛 − 𝒛𝟏 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟐 𝒛 − 𝒛𝟐
π1 ≡ 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟏 = 0 and π2 ≡ 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐 = 0 Let the general equation of plane be ax+ by+ cz+ d = 0. For converting it
𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑 𝒄𝟑 𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑 𝒄𝟑 into normal form (i.e., lx + my + nz = p) use the followings:
𝐚𝟑 𝐛𝟑 𝐜𝟑
where = = 𝐚 𝐛
𝐛𝟏𝐜𝟐 𝐛𝟐𝐜𝟏 𝐜𝟏𝐚𝟐 𝐜𝟐𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝟏𝐛𝟐 𝐚𝟐𝐛𝟏 l= , m= ,
𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐜 𝟐 𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐜 𝟐
𝐜 𝐝
● Condition for two given lines to intersect: n= , and p =
𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐜 𝟐 𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐜 𝟐
1. Vector form: (𝐚𝟐⃗ – 𝐚𝟏⃗) ∙ (𝐛𝟏⃗ × 𝐛𝟐⃗) = 0

[Here r⃗ = a𝟏⃗ + λ b⃗1 and r⃗ = a𝟐⃗ + μ b⃗2 are two lines.] ● Equation of a plane passing through a point:

𝐱𝟐 – 𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝟐 – 𝐲𝟏 𝐳𝟐 – 𝐳𝟏 1. Vector equation: (𝐫⃗ – 𝒂⃗) ∙ 𝐍⃗ = 0

2. Cartesian form: 𝐚𝟏 𝐛𝟏 𝐜𝟏 =0
(Here 𝑎⃗ is the p.v. of a given point in the plane and N⃗ is the perpendicular
𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟐
vector. r⃗ is p. v. of any point is in the plane.)
Here = = and = = are two lines.
2. Cartesian equation: a (x – x1) + b (y – y1) + c (z – z1) = 0

● Collinearity of 3 points: (Where a, b, c are direction ratio of normal to the plane and (x1, y1, z1) is a
given point in the plane.)
Three points A, B, C with position vectors a⃗, b⃗, c⃗ are collinear iff we can
find 3 constants λ1, λ2, λ3 (not all zero) such that,

λ1 𝐚⃗ + λ2 ⃗𝐛 + λ3 𝐜⃗ = 0 where λ1 + λ2 + λ3 = 0.
 153 154

● Equation of a plane passing through three non collinear 𝐱 – 𝐱𝟏 𝐲 – 𝐲𝟏 𝐳 – 𝐳𝟏

points: 2. Cartesian form: 𝐱𝟐 – 𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝟐 – 𝐲𝟏 𝐳𝟐 – 𝐳𝟏 = 0
𝐛𝟏 𝐛𝟐 𝐛𝟑
⃗ – 𝐚⃗)×( 𝐜⃗ – 𝐚⃗ )] = 0
1. Vector form: (𝐫⃗ – 𝐚⃗) ∙ [(𝐛
(Here (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2) are two given points and a line parallel to plane
(Here 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗ and 𝑐⃗ are the position vector of three non collinear points on the plane.)
has direction ratios b1, b2, b3.)

Note: If the three points (say R, S, T) were on the same line, then there 𝐱 𝐲 𝐳
will be many planes that will contain them.
● Equation of a plane in intercept form: + + =1
𝐚 𝐛 𝐜
[a, b, c are the intercepts made by the plane on x, y and z axes]
2. Cartesian form:

𝒙 – 𝒙𝟏 𝒚 – 𝒚𝟏 𝒛 – 𝒛𝟏
𝐱 𝐲 𝐳 𝟏 ● Equation of plane passing through the intersection of two giv-
𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝟏 𝐳𝟏 𝟏 en planes:
𝒙𝟐 – 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟐 – 𝒚𝟏 𝒛𝟐 – 𝒛𝟏 = 0. or =0
𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐 𝐳𝟐 𝟏
𝒙𝟑 – 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟑 – 𝒚𝟏 𝒛𝟑 – 𝒛𝟏 1. Vector Form: (𝐫⃗ ∙ 𝐧𝟏⃗ – d1) + λ (𝐫⃗ ∙ 𝐧𝟐⃗ – d2) = 0
𝐱𝟑 𝐲𝟑 𝐳𝟑 𝟏

(Where (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3) are three non- collinear points.)
or 𝐫⃗ ∙ ( 𝐧𝟏⃗ + λ 𝐧𝟐⃗ ) = d1 + λ d2

(Family of planes passing through the intersection of two planes r⃗ ∙ n1⃗ = d1

𝐱 𝐲 𝐳 𝟏
and r⃗ ∙ n2⃗ = d2.)
𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝟏 𝐳𝟏 𝟏
● Condition for four points to be coplanar: 𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐 𝐳𝟐 𝟏 = 0
2. Cartesian form: (a1x+ b1y + c1z + d1) + λ(a1x+ b1y + c1z+ d1) = 0
𝐱𝟑 𝐲𝟑 𝐳𝟑 𝟏
This is equation of a plane through 3 points (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2) and (x3, (Family of the planes passing through the intersection of two planes a1x +
y3, z3). The fourth point (x4, y4, z4) will be coplanar if it satisfies this equa- b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0, λ being a parameter.)
tion.

● Equation of a plane containing two given lines: ● Equation of plane containing a line:
a (x– x1) + b (y – y1) + c (z – z1) = 0 where al + bm + cn = 0
⃗ × 𝐜⃗) = 0
1. Vector equation: (𝐫⃗ – 𝐚⃗ ) ∙ (𝐛 or ⃗ 𝐜⃗] = [𝐚⃗ 𝐛
[𝐫⃗ 𝐛 ⃗ 𝐜⃗]
(A plane containing the line = = )
(Here a⃗ is the position vector of given point in the plane which contains
two-line vectors b⃗ and c⃗.)
● Angle between a line and a plane:
𝐱 – 𝐱𝟏 𝐲 – 𝐲𝟏 𝐳 – 𝐳𝟏
2. Cartesian equation: 𝐛𝟏 𝐛𝟐 𝐛𝟑 = 0
𝐜𝟏 𝐜𝟐 𝐜𝟑
(Here the plane has a point (x1, y1, z1) and is parallel to two given lines with
d.r.s as b1, b2, b3; and c1, c2, c3.)

● Equation of a plane passing through two given points and par-

allel to a given line. 𝒃⃗ . 𝒏⃗
1. Vector form: cos (90 – θ) = sin θ = | ⃗ |
𝒃 | 𝒏⃗ |
⃗ – 𝐚⃗) × 𝐜⃗ = 0.
1. Vector form: (𝐫⃗ – 𝐚⃗ ) ∙ (𝐛
[The line is 𝑟⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + λ𝑏⃗ is inclined at an angle θ, i.e., line makes an angle 90
or ⃗ – 𝐚⃗) 𝐜⃗] = 0
[(𝐫⃗ – 𝐚⃗ ) (𝐛 - θ with the normal to plane 𝑟⃗ ∙ 𝑛⃗ = d.]
(Here a⃗ and b⃗ are p.v. of two points in a plane and plane is parallel to vec-
Note: If straight line is parallel to plane, then 𝐪⃗ ∙ 𝒏⃗ = 0
tor c⃗.)
 155 156

2. Cartesian form: 2. Cartesian form:

𝒂𝒍 𝒃𝒎 𝒄𝒏
cos (90 – θ) = sin θ = ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d = 0 and al + bm + cn = 0
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝒍𝟐 𝒎𝟐 𝒏𝟐

(Here line = = make an angle θ with the plane ax+ by + cz + d = 0.) [Where line = = lies on a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0]

Note: If straight line is parallel to plane, then; al + bm + cn = 0 ● Condition of co-planarity of two lines:

● Angle between two planes: 1. Vector Form: (𝐚𝟐⃗ – 𝐚𝟏⃗) ∙ (𝐛𝟏⃗ × 𝐛𝟐⃗) = 0

or 𝐚𝟐⃗ ∙ (𝐛𝟏⃗ × 𝐛𝟐⃗) = 𝐚𝟏⃗ ∙ (𝐛𝟏⃗ × 𝐛𝟐⃗) or [𝐚𝟐⃗ 𝐛𝟏⃗ 𝐛𝟐⃗] = [𝐚𝟏⃗ 𝐛𝟏⃗ 𝐛𝟐⃗]

(Where r⃗ = a1⃗+ λb1⃗ and r⃗ = a2⃗ + μb2⃗ are two lines.)

𝐱𝟐 – 𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝟐 – 𝐲𝟏 𝐳𝟐 – 𝐳𝟏
2. Cartesian form: 𝐚𝟏 𝐛𝟏 𝐜𝟏 = 0.
𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟐
|𝒏𝟏⃗ ∙ 𝒏𝟐|⃗
1. Vector form: cos θ = (Where = = and = = are two lines.)
𝒏𝟏⃗ 𝒏𝟐⃗

(Here θ is angle between planes r⃗ ∙ 𝑛1⃗ = d1 and r⃗ ∙ 𝑛2⃗ = d2.) ● Condition that three planes intersect in a line:
i. For perpendicular planes: 𝒏𝟏⃗ ∙ 𝒏𝟐⃗ = 0 Three planes will intersect in a line if,
ii. For parallel planes: 𝒏𝟏⃗ × 𝒏𝟐⃗ = 0. 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟏 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒅𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐 = 0 and 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒅𝟐 = 0
𝐚𝟏𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟏𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟏𝐜𝟐 𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑 𝒄𝟑 𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑 𝒅𝟑
2. Cartesian form: cos θ = | |
𝐚𝟏𝟐 𝐛𝟏𝟐 𝐜𝟏𝟐 𝐚𝟐𝟐 𝐛𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝟐𝟐 (Where a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0, a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 and a3x + b3y + c3z
+ d3 = 0 are three planes.)
(Two planes a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0 make an
angle θ with each other.) ● Necessary & Sufficient condition that four planes meet in a
common point:
i. For perpendicular planes: cos θ = a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0.
𝐚𝟏 𝐛𝟏 𝐜𝟏 𝐝𝟏
𝐚𝟏 𝐛𝟏 𝐜𝟏 𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟐 𝐝𝟐
ii. For parallel planes: = = . =0
𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟐 𝐚𝟑 𝐛𝟑 𝐜𝟑 𝐝𝟑
𝐚𝟒 𝐛𝟒 𝐜𝟒 𝐝𝟒
● Condition for a line to be parallel to a plane but not lying in it:
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d ≠ 0 and l + bm + cn = 0 (Where four planes a1x+ b1y+ c1z+ d1= 0, a2x+ b2y+ c2z+ d2= 0,
a3x+ b3y+ c3z+ d3= 0 and a4x+ b4y+ c4z+ d4= 0 are meeting at a point.)
[Where = = is a line and ax + by + cz + d = 0 is a plane.] Note:
The equations of two intersecting planes give us non-symmetrical equation
● Condition for a line to lie in a plane: of a line. Thus, the condition for two lines given by
⃗ ∙ 𝐧⃗ = 0 & and 𝐚⃗ ∙ 𝐧⃗ = d.
1. Vector form: 𝐛 l1 ≡ a1x+ b1y+ c1z+ d1= 0; a2x+ b2y+ c2z+ d2= 0,
and l2 ≡ a3x+ b3y+ c3z+ d3= 0; a4x+ b4y+ c4z+ d4= 0
[where line r⃗ = a⃗+ λb⃗ lies on the plane r⃗ ∙ n⃗ = d]
to be coplanar will be same as condition for 4 planes to intersect at a point
given earlier.
 157 158

● Ratio in which a plane divides a line joining two points: ● Projection of area on another plane:
(ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d): (ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d) Let area A has the unit vector n̂ normal to the surface and 𝒎⃗ is the nor-
[Where a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 divides the line joining two points (x1, y1, z1) and mal vector to the plane. Then the projection of area A on a plane is given
(x2, y2, z2) in the given ratio.] by, Ap = 𝐦⃗· n̂ A.
If α, β and γ are the angles made by area A with coordinate planes then the
● Point of intersection of a line with a plane: projection of the area A on XY, YZ, XZ plane is given by,
1. Vector form: ⃗ ) ∙ 𝐧 = d.
(𝐚⃗ + λ𝐛 AXY = A cos α, AYZ = A cos β, AXZ = A cos γ.

(The point of intersection of a line vector r⃗ = a⃗ + λb⃗ and a plane r⃗ ∙ n = d, ● Area of the triangular plane with vertices (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2)
may be found for appropriate value of λ from equation.) and (x3, y3, z3).
𝐱 𝐱𝟏 𝐲 𝐲𝟏 𝐳 𝐳𝟏 𝐀𝐱𝟏 𝐁𝐲𝟏 𝐂𝐳𝟏 𝐃 ∆ = √[∆12 + ∆22 + ∆32]
2. Cartesian form: = = =
𝐚𝟏 𝐛𝟏 𝐜𝟏 𝐀𝐚𝟏 𝐁𝐛𝟏 𝐂𝐜𝟏
[Where ∆1, ∆2, ∆3 are the orthogonal projections of ∆ on three coordinate planes.]
(Where a line = = intersects with a plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0.)
● Reflection or image of a line on a plane:
● Foot of perpendicular from a point on to the plane (or Projec- 1. The equation of reflected line or image on a parallel plane:
tion of a point on a plane)
𝐱 (𝐱𝟏 𝟐𝐚𝛌) 𝐲 (𝐲𝟏 𝟐𝐛𝛌) 𝐳 (𝐳𝟏 𝟐𝐜𝛌)
Coordinates of foot of perpendicular drawn on a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 = =
𝛂 𝛃 𝛄
from a point (x1, y1, z1) is given by,
(𝐚 𝐱𝟏 𝐛𝐲𝟏 𝐜𝐳𝟏 𝐝)
𝐱 𝐱𝟏 𝐲 𝐲𝟏 𝐳 𝐳𝟏 𝐚 𝐱𝟏 𝐛𝐲𝟏 𝐜𝐳𝟏 𝐝 Where λ = –
= = =– 𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐜 𝟐
𝐚 𝐛 𝐜 𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐜 𝟐
(The line = = is parallel to a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0)
● Image of a point w.r.t. a plane mirror:
2. The equation of reflected line or image on an inclined plane:
Coordinates of image of a point (x1, y1, z1) in a plane mirror ax + by + cz + d
= 0 is given by,
𝐱 (𝐱𝟏 𝛂𝛌) 𝐲 (𝐲𝟏 𝛃𝛌) 𝐳 (𝐳𝟏 𝛄𝛌)
𝐱 𝐱𝟏 𝐲 𝐲𝟏 𝐳 𝐳𝟏 𝐚 𝐱𝟏 𝐛𝐲𝟏 𝐜𝐳𝟏 𝐝 = =
𝟐𝐚𝐫 𝛂𝛌 𝟐𝐛𝐫 𝛃𝛌 𝟐𝐜𝐫 𝛄𝛌
= = = – 2. ( )
𝐚 𝐛 𝐜 𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐜 𝟐
(𝐚 𝐱𝟏 𝐛𝐲𝟏 𝐜𝐳𝟏 𝐝) (𝐚 𝐱𝟏 𝐛𝐲𝟏 𝐜𝐳𝟏 𝐝)
Where, λ = – and r = – .
𝐚𝛂 𝐛𝛃 𝐜𝛄 𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟐
● Projection of a Line onto a Plane:
(Here line = = is inclined to plane ax + by + cz + d = 0)

Reflection or image of a plane on another plane:

2(aa1 + bb1 + cc1) (a1x + b1y + c1z + d1)
= (a12 + b12 + c12) (ax + by + cz + d)

Projection of line BA on plane = BA′ = AB cos θ. (This is reflection of a plane a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 on another plane given
by ax + by + cz + d = 0.)
 159 160

● Length of perpendicular from a point to a plane: ● Equation of bisector planes

1. Vector form: 𝐚𝟏𝐱 𝐛𝟏𝐲 𝐜𝟏𝐳 𝐝𝟏 𝐚𝟐𝐱 𝐛𝟐𝐲 𝐜𝟐𝐳 𝐝𝟐
=±
𝐚𝟏𝟐 𝐛𝟏𝟐 𝐜𝟏𝟐 𝐚𝟐𝟐 𝐛𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝟐𝟐
| 𝒂⃗ ∙ 𝐍⃗ – 𝒅|
p= . (Where the bisector plane, bisecting the angle between the two planes
| 𝐍⃗ |
a1 x + b1 y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0,)
(p is perpendicular drawn from a given point with p.v. 𝑎⃗ on a plane 𝑟⃗∙ N⃗ = d)
Note:
Note. The length of the perpendicular from origin O to the plane 𝑟⃗ ∙ N⃗ = d 1. Take signs so that: d1d2 > 0, i.e., write-down the equations of two given
|𝐝|
is given by p = ⃗ (since a⃗ = 0). planes (with RHS = 0) in which d1, d2 are positive, then taking positive
|𝐍| sign in (i), we get equation of that plane which bisects that angle between
two given planes in which origin lies.
|𝐚 𝐱𝟏 𝐛𝐲𝟏 𝐜𝐳𝟏 𝐝|
2. Cartesian form: p= 2. If d1d2 > 0 and a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 > 0, then equation of plane bisecting
| 𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐜 𝟐 | the acute angle between the planes will have negative sign and plane bi-
secting the obtuse angle will have positive sign.
(p is perpendicular from a point (x1, y1, z1) on to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0.)
3. If d1d2 > 0 and a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 < 0, then equation of plane bisecting
|𝐝𝟏 𝐝𝟐| the acute angle between the planes will have positive sign and plane bisect-
● Distance between two parallel planes: d = ing the obtuse angle will have negative sign.
| 𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐜 𝟐 |
(Where d is the distance between two parallel planes ax + by + cz + d1 = 0
and ax + by + cz + d2 = 0.) ● Condition that homogeneous equation of second degree to
represent two planes through origin.
● Direction ratio of line of greatest slope: 𝐚 𝐡 𝐠
𝐥 𝐦 𝐧 𝐡 𝐛 𝐟 =0 i.e., abc + 2fgh – af2 –bg2 – ch2 = 0
= = 𝐠 𝐟 𝐜
𝐛𝐧 𝐜𝐦 𝐜𝐥 𝐚𝐧 𝐚𝐦 𝐛𝐥

(Where ax + by + cz + d = 0 is a plane inclined at an angle to horizontal [Here ax2 + by2 + cz2 + 2fzy + 2gzx + 2hxy = 0 is a homogeneous equation
plane and (l, m, n) are direction cosines of the line of intersection of two of second order which represents two planes passing through origin]
planes. And the direction ratios of any line on given plane which is per-
pendicular to line of intersection is (l′, m′, n′).) ● Angle between planes represented by homogeneous equation
of second degree:
● Position of two points w.r.t. a plane: 𝟐 𝐟 𝟐 𝐠 𝟐 𝐡𝟐 𝐛𝐜 (𝐜𝐚 𝐚𝐛)
tan θ =
Given a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 and two points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2). 𝐚 𝐛 𝐜
Following are two cases,
i. When points are on same side: (Where ax2+ by2+ cz2+ 2fzy+ 2gzx+ 2hxy = 0 represents two pairs of
planes and θ is angle between them.)
Then (ax1+by1+cz1+d) and (ax2+by2+cz2+d) have same sign.
● Condition for the quadratic planes to be perpendicular:
ii. When points are on opposite sides:
a + b + c = 0. (As tan θ = tan = ∞ at this value.)
Then (ax1+by1+cz1+d) and (ax2+by2+cz2+d) have opposite signs.

𝟏
● Volume of a tetrahedron: V =𝟔 [𝒂⃗ 𝒃⃗ 𝒄⃗ ].

(Where a⃗, b⃗, c⃗ are coterminal edges of a tetrahedron.)

 162

⁕ Congruent arcs: Arcs of same circle (or congruent circles) which have
A circle is a set of points in the plane that are equidistant from a given same degree measure at the centre.
point called the Centre.
● Basic theorems on circle:
⁕ Radius (r): It is the distance from centre of circle to any point on it.
1.a If two arcs of a circle (or of congruent circles) are congruent, the corre-
sponding chords are equal.
⁕ Diameter (D): It is the longest distance from one end of a circle to the
other. D = 2r Converse: If two chords of a circle are equal then their corresponding
arcs are congruent.
⁕ Circumference: It is the distance around the circle.
Circumference of circle = π D = 2 πr (π= 3.141592...) 1.b. Equal chords of a circle (or of congruent circles) subtend equal angles
at the centre.
⁕ Arc of the Circle: It is a curved line that is part of the circumference of Converse: If the angle subtended by two chords of a circle (or of congru-
a circle. If θ is angle subtended by arc at centre, then, ent circles) at the centre are equal, the chords are equal.

𝛉 2.a. The perpendicular from the centre of a circle to a chord bisects the
⁕ Length of arc = (2πr) (θ in degrees) = r θ (θ in radians) chord.
𝟑𝟔𝟎
Converse: The line joining the mid-point of a chord to the centre of a
⁕ Sector of a Circle: Let θ is the central angle subtended by arc.
circle is perpendicular to the chord.

2.b. Perpendicular bisectors of two chords of a circle intersect at its cen-

tre.

3.a. There is one and only one circle passing through three non collinear
𝛉 𝛉 points.
⁕ Area of sector = πr2 (θ is in degrees) = r2 (θ is in radians)
𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝟐
3.b. If two circles intersect in two points, then the line joining the centres
is perpendicular bisector of common chords.
⁕ Area of circle = π × r2
4.a. Equal chords of a circle (or of congruent circles) are equidistant from
⁕ The Least and Greatest distance of a Point from a Circle:
the centre.
The least and the greatest distances of a given point from a circle are,
(d - r) and (d + r) respectively, where r is radius of circle and d is the Converse: Chords of a circle (or of congruent circles) which are equidis-
distance of the given point from its centre. tant from the centre are equal in length.

4.b. If two equal chords are drawn from a point on the circle, then the
centre of circle will lie on angle bisector of these two chords.
4.c. Of any two chords of a circle larger will be near to centre.

5.a. The degree measure of an arc or angle subtended by an arc at the cen-
tre is double the angle subtended by it at any point of alternate segment.
⁕ Chord of a circle: It is a line segment within a circle that touches two See fig. (i).
points on the circle. Diameter is the longest chord.

⁕ Concentric circles: Circles having same centre.

⁕ Congruent circles: Circles having equal radius.

 163 164

5.b Angle in the same segment of a circle are equal. See fig. (i). 3. If a side of a cyclic quadrilateral is produced, then the exterior angle is
equal to the interior opposite angle.
5.c. The angle in a semi- circle is right angle. See fig. (ii).
Converse: The arc of a circle subtending a right angle in alternate seg-
ment is semi-circle.

6. Any angle subtended by a minor arc in the alternate segment is acute

and any angle subtended by a major arc in the alternate segment is obtuse.

7. If a line segment joining two points subtends equal angles at two other
points lying on the same side of the line segment, the four points are 4. If two sides of a cyclic quadrilateral are parallel, then the remaining two
concyclic, i.e. lie on the same circle. sides are equal, and the diagonals are also equal.
i.e., A cyclic trapezium is isosceles, and its diagonals are equal.
● Cyclic Quadrilaterals:
Converse: If two non-parallel sides of a trapezium are equal, then it is
A quadrilateral with all 4 vertices lying on a circle is called cyclic quadrilat- cyclic. i.e., An isosceles trapezium is always cyclic.
eral. The 4 points (A, B, C, D) are called con cyclic points and
5. The angle bisectors of the angles formed by producing opposite sides of
AP. BP = CP. DP
a cyclic quadrilateral (Provided they are not parallel) intersect at right an-
gle.

● Basic Theorem on Cyclic Quadrilaterals:

1. The sum of pair of opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 180°.
i.e., The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.

Converse: If the sum of any pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral is

180°, then the quadrilateral is cyclic.

2. The internal angle bisectors of a cyclic quadrilateral form a quadrilat- ● Intersection of a line y = mx + c and a circle x2 + y2= a2 :
eral which is also cyclic.
𝟐𝐦𝐜 ± 𝟒𝐦𝟐 𝐜 𝟐 𝟒(𝟏 𝐦𝟐 )(𝐜 𝟐 𝐚𝟐 )
x=
𝟐(𝟏 𝐦𝟐 )

1. Point of intersection are real and distinct for D > 0.

|𝐜|
i.e., a > (a > perpendicular from centre of circle to line)
𝟏 𝐦𝟐
|𝐜|
2. Points are coincident if, a =
𝟏 𝐦𝟐
|𝐜|
3. Points are imaginary when, a <
𝟏 𝐦𝟐
 165 166

⁕ The length of intercept cut off from the line y = mx + c by the circle 3. Diametric form: (x−x1) (x – x2) + (y − y1) (y – y2) = 0
𝐚𝟐 (𝟏 𝐦𝟐 ) 𝐜𝟐 Here (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are coordinates of ends of diameter.
x2+ y2 = 0 is, = 2 .
(𝟏 𝐦𝟐 )
4. Equation of circle passing through 3 non collinear points:
⁕ Tangent of Circle: It is a line perpendicular to the radius that touches
Let the three points on circle be (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3).
only one point on the circle.
𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 𝒙 𝒚 𝟏
● General equation of circle: x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 𝒙𝟏𝟐 + 𝒚𝟏𝟐 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏 𝟏
Then equation of circle is given by, =0
𝒙𝟐𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝟏
Centre: (– g, – f) and Radius r = 𝐠 𝟐 + 𝐟 𝟐 − 𝒄 (g, f, c are constants).
𝒙𝟑𝟐 + 𝒚𝟑𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑 𝟏
Note:
a. Since radius r of circle = g + f − 𝑐 , therefore, ● Notations used:
- Radius is real if g2 + f2 > c. S ≡ x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
- Radius is imaginary if g2 + f2 < c (for imaginary circle). {or S ≡ xx + yy + g (x + x) + f (y + y) + c}
- Radius is zero if g2 + f2 = c, (for point circle). S11≡ x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c
{or S11≡ x1x1 + y1y1 + g (x1 +x1) + f (y1 +y1) + c}
b. The intercepts made by circle x2+ y2+ 2gx+ 2fy + c= 0 on axes are,
x- intercept = 2 𝐠 𝟐 − 𝒄 and S12≡ x1x2 + y1y2 + g (x1 + x2) + f (y1 +y2) + c
S21≡ x2x1 + y2y1 + g (x2 + x1) + f (y2 + y1) + c
y- intercept = 2√𝐟 𝟐 − 𝒄
(Therefore, S12 = S21)
c. Circles x2+ y2+ 2gx+ 2fy + c= 0 and x2+ y2+ 2gx 2fy + c1= 0 are concen- S22≡ x22 + y22 +2gx2 + 2fy2 + c
tric circles with same centre (– g, – f) but different radii.
{or S22≡ x2x2 + y2y2 + g (x2 + x2) + f (y2 + y2) + c}
d. Equation ax2 + by2 + 2hxy + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 will represent a cir- T1 ≡ xx1 + yy1 + g (x + x1) + f (y + y1) + c
cle, if and only if, T2 ≡ xx2 + yy2 + g (x + x2) + f (y + y2) + c
i. a = b, (Coefficients of x2 and y2 are equal)
● Theorems regarding tangent and secant to a circle:
ii. h = 0 (coefficient of xy term is zero) and
1. A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point of
iii. abc + 2fgh − af2 − bg2 − ch2 ≠ 0. contact.
Converse: A line drawn through the end point of a radius and perpendic-
● Different forms of equation of circle: ular to it is a tangent to the circle.
1. Centre-radius form: (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2 Here (h, k) is centre
2. If a chord is drawn through the point of contact of a tangent to a circle,
and radius is r.
then the angles which this chord makes with the given tangent are equal
Equation of point circle at (h, k) is (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = 0 respectively to the angles formed in the corresponding alternate segments.
∠ BAQ = ∠ ACB and ∠BAP = ∠ADB
2. Parametric form:
i. x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ. (0 ≤ θ < 2π) (Centre is (0, 0),
radius is r)

ii. x = h + r cos θ, y = k + r sin θ

(Centre is (h, k), radius is r and θ, in both cases, is angle made by r
with positive direction of x-axis)
 167 168

Converse: If a line is drawn through an end point of a chord of a circle so ● Equation of tangent to a circle:
that the angle formed with the chord is equal to the angle subtended by the
chord in the alternate segment, then the line is a tangent to the circle. 1. Point form of tangent at point (x1, y1): T1 = 0

3. If two tangents are drawn to a circle from an external point, then: T1 ≡ xx1+ yy1+ g (x + x1) + f (y + y1) + c= 0.
i. they are equal.
(Here S ≡ x2+ y2+ 2gx+ 2fy + c= 0)
ii. they subtend equal angles at the centre,
iii. they are equally inclined to the segment, joining the centre to 2. Parametric form:
that point.
i. x cos θ + y sin θ = a
4. If two chords of a circle intersect at a point P (inside or outside the cir-
cle when produced), then PA × PB = PA1 × PB1. Tangent to circle x2+ y2– a2= 0 at point (a. cos θ, a. sin θ).

i.e., The rectangle formed by the two segments of one chord is equal in ● The point of intersection of the tangents drawn from two points
area to the rectangle formed by the two segments of the other chord.
(a. cos θ, a. sin θ) and (a. cos Φ, a. sin Φ) of a circle x2+ y2= a2 is,
𝛉 𝜱 𝛉 𝜱
𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧
( 𝟐
𝛉 𝜱 , 𝛉 𝜱
𝟐
)
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝟐 𝟐

ii. (x – a) cos θ + (y – b) sin θ = r

Tangent to circle (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r2 at point (a. cos θ, a. sin θ).

3. Slope Form:
5. If PAB is a secant to a circle intersecting the circle at A and B and PT is
(i) y – b = m (x – a) ± r (𝟏 + 𝐦𝟐 ).
tangent segment, then PA. PB = PA1. PB1 = (PT)2 =√𝐒𝟏𝟏 (constant).
i.e., Area of the rectangle formed by the two segments of a chord is equal to The tangents to circle (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r2 with slope m.
the area of the square of side equal to the length of the tangent from the
point on the circle. ⁕ The coordinates of the point of contact of T with circle are,
𝐦𝐫 𝐫
For number of secants PA. PB = PA1. PB1 = ...... = PT2 = S11. (a ± ,b∓ )
𝟏 𝐦𝟐 𝟏 𝐦𝟐

Note: PA × PB is also called Power of point P with respect to Circle. (ii) y + f = m (x + g) ± (𝐠 𝟐 + 𝐟 𝟐 − 𝐜)(𝟏 + 𝐦𝟐 )

The tangents to circle x2+ y2+ 2gx+ 2fy + c= 0 with slope m.

● Power of a point (x1, y1) with respect to a circle S = 0 is: S11.
● Normal to a circle:
A point (x1, y1) lies outside the circle if S11 > 0, on the circle if S11 = 0 or
inside a circle if S11 < 0. The normal of a circle at any point is a straight line, perpendicular to the
tangent and passing through the centre of the circle.

● Equation of the chord joining point (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) on the
circle S = 0:
T1 + T2 – S12 = 0

For circle, x2+ y2– a2= 0, equation of chord PQ is,

{xx1+ yy1– a2} + {xx2 +yy2– a2} – {x1x2 +y1y2– a2} = 0
 169 170

(a) Point form of normal at a point (x1, y1) on a circle: ● Condition for a line (lx + my + n = 0) to be tangent to a circle:
𝐱 𝐱𝟏 𝐲 𝐲𝟏 (Key: -Perpendicular distance from centre of circle to the tangent line is
(i) =
𝐱𝟏 𝐠 𝐲𝟏 𝐟
(For S ≡ x2+ y2+ 2gx+ 2fy + c= 0) equal to radius of circle.)

[Normal passes through (x1, y1) and centre (-g, -f)] i. n2 = r2 (l2 + m2) (For circle S ≡ x2 + y2 - r2 = 0)

𝐱 𝐲 𝐥𝐫 𝟐 𝐦𝐫𝟐
(ii) =
𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝟏
(For circle x2 + y2 = a2) * Point of contact of tangent line with circle is (–
𝐧
,–
𝐧
)

(b) Parametric form of normal at (a cos θ, a sin θ): ii. (lg + mf – n)2 = (l2 + m2) (g2 + f2 – c)

y = x tan θ or y = mx (For circle x2 + y2 = a2) (For circle S ≡ x2+ y2+ 2gx+ 2fy + c= 0)

[Normal through point and centre (0,0)] ● Length of intercept on the line L = 0 by a circle S= 0.

● Equation of Chord of contact: T1 = 0. = 2 𝐫 𝟐 − (⊥ 𝐭𝐨 𝐋 = 𝟎 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐎)𝟐 (r is radius of circle)

● Length of tangent from a point (x1, y1) to the circle S = 0:

L = √𝐒𝟏𝟏 = 𝐱𝟏𝟐 + 𝐲𝟏𝟐 + 𝟐𝐠𝐱𝟏 + 𝟐𝐟𝐲𝟏 + 𝐜
(For S ≡ x2+ y2+ 2gx+ 2fy + c= 0)

● Equation of Chord with midpoint at (x1, y1):

T1 = S11
If two tangents PA & PB are drawn from the point P (x1, y1) to the circle S≡ i.e., x (x1 + g) + y (y1 + f) = x12 + y12 + gx1 + fy1
x2+ y2+2gx +2fy + c = 0, then line joining points of contact A and B is
called chord of contact. (Equation of chord for x2+ y2+ 2gx+ 2fy + c= 0)

i.e., xx1 + yy1 + g (x + x1) + f (y + y1) + c = 0. ● Equation of common chord of two circles:
● Angle between the pair of tangents from a point (x1, y1) to a S1 – S2 = 0
circle S = 0 is: i.e., 2x (g1 – g2) + 2y (f1 – f2) + c1 – c2 = 0
𝟐𝐑𝐋 𝑹
tan-1 (or 2tan-1 ) (Common chord for two intersecting circles x2 + y2 + 2g1 x + 2f1 y + c1 = 0
𝐋𝟐 𝐑𝟐 √𝑺𝟏𝟏
and x2 + y2 + 2g2 x + 2f2 y + c2 = 0).
where L is length of tangent from a point to a circle of radius R.

( )
[Now tan 2θ = = = ⇒ ∠ APB = 2θ = tan–1
( )

⇒ tan θ = = ⇒ ∠ APB = 2θ = 2tan–1 ]

√ √

𝟐𝐋𝐑
● Length of chord of contact = Notes:
𝐑𝟐 𝐋𝟐
1. Length of common chord = AB = 2AO
(L is length of tangent from an external point to a circle of radius R)
= 2 𝐫 𝟐 − (⊥ 𝐭𝐨 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐨𝐧 𝐜𝐡𝐨𝐫𝐝 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐎)𝟐
 171 172

2. Maximum length of common chord = Dia. of smaller circle. Transverse common tangent through (γ, δ): y– δ = m (x – γ)
𝐫𝟏𝒙𝟐 𝐫𝟐𝒙𝟏 𝐫𝟏𝒚𝟐 𝐫𝟐𝒚𝟏
3. If the length of common chord becomes zero then the two circles touch Where (γ, δ) = ( , )
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
each other, and the common chord will become common tangent.
Case 2: |C1C2 | = r1 + r2.
● Pair of tangents from an outside point (x1, y1) to circle S = 0 is
Direct common tangent through (α, β): y– β = m (x – α)
given by: T12 = SS11
Transverse common tangent: S1 – S2 = 0 (Common chord)

Case 3: When |C1C2 | > r1 – r2 and |C1C2 | < r1 + r2.

In such cases direct common tangents are real and transverse common
tangents are imaginary.

Case 4: |C1C2 | = r1 – r2. Common tangent equation: S1 – S2 = 0.

Common tangents to two circles S = 0 and S′= 0: Case 5: |C1C2 | < r1 – r2. In this case no real tangents.
Equation of direct common tangents from point (x1, y1):
T12 = SS11 or T12 = S ′S ′11. ● Angle of intersection between the circles:
Equation of transverse common tangents from (x2, y2): The angle between two intersecting circles is defined as the angle between
T22 = SS22 or T22 = S ′S ′22. tangents at the point of intersection.

● Number of common tangents to two circles having centres at ⁕ If θ is the angle of intersection between the circles x2 + y2 + 2g1x + 2f1y +
C1 and at C2 respectively: c1 = 0 and x2 + y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2 = 0, then the angle between the radii
joining point of intersection is (𝜋- θ) and value of cos θ is,
(𝐜𝟏 𝐜𝟐) 𝟐(𝐠𝟏.𝐠𝟐 𝐟𝟏.𝐟𝟐)
cos θ =
𝟐 𝐠𝟏𝟐 𝐟𝟏𝟐 𝐜𝟏. 𝐠𝟐𝟐 𝐟𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝟐

● Orthogonal Circles:

When the angle between tangents on two circles at point of intersection is

a right angle, then the two circles are said to be orthogonal circles.

● Condition for two circles to cut orthogonally: d2 = r12 + r22

(Square of distance between centres of two circle is equal to sum of squares of their
radii)
Case 1: When |C1C2 | > r1 + r2. i.e., 2g1g2 + 2f1f2 = c1 + c2
Direct common tangent through (α, β): y– β = m (x – α) (For x2 + y2 + 2g1x + 2f1y + c1 = 0 and x2 + y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2 = 0 to cut
𝒓𝟏𝐱𝟐 𝐫𝟐𝐱𝟏 𝐫𝟏𝐲𝟐 𝐫𝟐𝐲𝟏 orthogonally).
Where (α, β) = ( , )
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
 173 174

* If two circles with their radii r1 and r2 cut each other orthogonally. then 4. Radical axis of two circles is perpendicular to the line of centres.
𝟐𝐫𝟏.𝐫𝟐
length of their common chord is given by
𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟐

● A circle bisecting the circumference of another circle:

[From equation of radical axis its slope is = – . Slope of line joining

centres (–g1, –f1) and (–g2, –f2) = . The product of these slopes = –1.
So, they are perpendicular.]
If a circle bisects the circumference of another circle, then their common
chord is the diameter of the circle which is being bisected.
5. Radical axis will pass through the mid-point of the line joining the cen-
tres of the two circles only if the two circles have equal radii.
⁕ Condition for the circle + + 2g1x + 2f1y + c1 = 0 to bisect the circum-
x2 y2
ference of circle x2 + y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2 = 0 is,
6. Concentric circles do not have radical axis.
2g2(g1 - g2) + 2f2 (f1 - f2) = c1 - c2.

● Radical Axis: S1 – S2 = 0
i.e., 2(g1 – g2) x + 2(f1 – f2) y + (c1 – c2) = 0
(For circles x2 + y2 + 2g1x + 2f1y + c1 = 0 and x2 + y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2 = 0)
7. Radical axis of three circles, whose centres are not collinear, are concur-
rent. The point of concurrency is called Radical Centre.

The radical axis of two circles is defined as the locus of points from which
equal tangents can be drawn to the two circles.
● Important points on Radical Axis: [Let R1 = 0, R2 = 0 and R3 = 0 be the radical axes respectively, of the pairs
1. If two circles intersect, then the radical axis is the common chord of the of circles (S1= 0 and S2= 0); (S2= 0 and S3 = 0); (S3 = 0 and S1 = 0).
two circles.
∴ R1 ≡ S1 – S2 = 0; R2 ≡ S2 – S3 = 0 and R3 ≡ S3 – S1 = 0
2. Radical axis bisects a common tangent between the two circles. But R1 + R2 + R3 ≡ (S1 – S2) + (S2 – S3) + (S3 – S1) ≡ 0
3. If two circles touch each other, then the radical axis is the common tan- Hence the three radical axes are concurrent. The point of concurrency is
gent of the two circles at the common point of contact. called radical Centre. Tangents drawn from O to three circles will be of
equal length.]

8. A system of circles, every pair of which have the same radical axis, are
called coaxal system of circles.
 175 176

● Family of circles:
1. Family of circles having a fixed centre: (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2
Radius is r is the only one parameter which decides the family of circles.

● Condition for two circles to touch:

i. Condition for 2 circles to touch externally: C1C2 = r1 + r2.
ii. Condition for 2 circles to touch internally: C1C2 = r1 – r2. 2. Family of circles passing through the point of intersection of two circles
iii. Equation of Tangent at P: S1 – S2 = 0. S1 = 0 and S2 = 0 is:
S1 + λ S2 = 0 (λ ≠ -1).

3. Family of circles passing through the point of intersection of circle S = 0

and a line L = 0 is:
S + λ L=0.
● Director Circle:
The locus of the point of intersection of two perpendicular tangents drawn
to a circle is called director circle.

6. Family of circles passing through two given points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is:
𝒙 𝒚 𝟏
(x−x1) (x – x2) + (y − y1) (y – y2) +λ 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏 𝟏 = 0.
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝟏
⁕ Circle Director circle
(Where λ is a parameter).
i. x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, x2 + y2 = 2 (g2 + f2 – c).

ii. x2 + y2 = a2, x2 + y2 = 2a2.

⁕ Pair of tangents from (0, 0) to the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 are at

right angles if: g2 + f2 = 2c

⁕ If pair of tangents from a point to a circle are perpendicular to each oth- 4. The family of circles touching the circle S = 0 and a line L= 0 at point P
er, then length of tangent is equal to the radius of circle. (x1, y1) is:
S + λ L = 0.
* The locus of the point of intersection of the two tangents, which include
an angle α between them, drawn to the circle S ≡ x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c =
0 is:
𝛂
(x + g)2 + (y + f)2 = R2 cosec2 (where R2 = g2 + f2 – c.)
𝟐
 177 178

5. The family of circles touching a circle S = 0 at point P (x1, y1) is, ● Ple and Polar:
S + λ T = 0. (T is tangent at point P of circle) A pole is a point and a polar is a line that have a unique reciprocal rela-
tionship with respect to a given conic section.

⁕ Pole:
A fixed-point P (x1, y1) through which we draw variable secant PCD to cir-
cle S = 0 is called a pole.
6. Family of circles touching line y – y1 = m (x – x1) at (x1, y1) is given by,

i. (x−x1)2 + (y −y1)2 + λ {(y –y1) – m (x – x1)} = 0 when m is finite. ⁕ Polar:

ii. (x−x1)2 + (y − y1)2 + λ (x – x1)} = 0 when m is infinite. The locus of point Q, which is the point of intersection of tangents at C and
D for different positions of secant is known as polar of P with respect to
circle.
7. Family of circles circumscribing a triangle whose side are given by
L1 = 0; L2 = 0 and L3 = 0 is given by, ● Equation of Polar of a point with respect to circle: T1 = 0.
L1 L2 + λL2 L3 + μL3 L1 = 0
i.e., xx1 + yy1 + g (x + x1) + f (y +y1) + c = 0
(Where value of λ and μ can be found out by using condition that coeffi-
(Polar for x2+ y2+ 2gx+ 2fy + c= 0)
cient of xy = 0 and co-coefficient of x2 = co-efficient of y2. It may be noted
that number of circles circumscribing a triangle is only one)
● Conjugate Points:
8. Equation of circle circumscribing a quadrilateral whose sides in order If polar of P (x1, y1) w.r.t. a circle passes through Q (x2, y2) then polar of Q
are represented by the lines L1 = 0, L2 = 0, L3 = 0 & L4 = 0 are, will pass through P. Such points are called conjugate points, and they sat-
L1 L3 + λL2 L4 = 0 isfy the equation xx1 + yy1 – a2 = 0.

(Where value of λ can be found out by using condition that co-efficient of ● Conjugate Lines:
x2 = y2 and co-efficient of xy = 0.) If pole of a line lx + my + n = 0 w. r. t. a circle lies on another line ax + by +
c = 0, then pole of second line will lie on first and such lines are said to be
9. Equations of circles where common chord subtends equal angles at conjugate lines.
point of intersection of bisector line of common chord with circles,
● Important points on Pole and Polar:

1. If lx + my + n = 0 is equation of polar for circle x2 + y2 = a2 then coordi-

𝐥𝐚𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝟐
nates of pole are (– ,– ).
𝐧 𝐧

2. The distance of any two points P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) from the centre of
a circle are proportional to the distance of each point from the polar of the
(x−x1) (x – x2) + (y − y1) (y – y2) other.
± cot θ {(x−x1) (y – y2) + (x − x2) (y – y1)} = 0
3. If O be the centre of circle and P be any point, then OP is perpendicular
to the polar of P.
 179 180

4. If O be centre of circle and P be any point and OP meets the polar of P at ⁕ Length of transverse common tangent is = 𝒅𝟐 − (𝒓𝟏𝟐 + 𝒓𝟐𝟐 )
Q, then: OP. OQ = (Radius)2.
(Where d is distance between centres).
5. The locus of poles of chords of the circle x2 + y2 = a2 subtending an
𝛂
angle α at the centre is: x2+ y2= a2 sec2 . ⁕ A line meets the circle x2 + y2 = a2 in two points P and Q equidistant d
𝟐
from (x1, y1) on the circle. The equation to PQ is,
𝐝𝟐
● Important points on Circle: x x1 + y y1 = a2 –
𝟐
⁕ A point P (x1, y1) will lie- outside, on or inside the circle S = 0 according
as S11 > 0, S11 = 0 or S11 < 0. ⁕ If lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 cut the coordinate axes in
concyclic points, then a1 a2 = b1 b2.
⁕ The normal through a point P to a circle is the line through P and the
centre of the circle. ⁕ Area A of the triangle formed by the pair of the tangents from a point (x1,
y1) to a circle x2 + y2 = a2 and its chord of contact is,
⁕ Through three collinear points no circle can be drawn.
𝐑𝐋𝟑
⁕ Through two points infinite circles can be drawn. i. A = . (L is length of tangent from a point and R is radius of circle)
𝐑𝟐 𝐋𝟐
⁕ Through three non collinear points only one circles can be drawn. 𝒂(𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝒂𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐 𝒂(𝑺𝟏𝟏)𝟑/𝟐 𝒂(𝑺𝟏𝟏)𝟑/𝟐
ii. A = = 𝟐 = .
𝒙𝟏𝟐 𝒚𝟏𝟐 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟐
⁕ If three lines are not concurrent and no two lines are parallel then four
circles can be drawn which touch all the three lines. ⁕ The area of the triangle formed by tangent at a p o i nt (x1, y1) o n to
𝒂𝟒
the circle x2 + y2 = a2 and the coordinate axes is
𝟐|𝒙𝟏𝒚𝟏|

⁕ Equation of the circle, circumscribing the triangle formed by the pair of

the tangents from an external point (x1, y1) to a circle with centre at (-g, -f)
& its chord of contact is: (x − x1) (x + g) + (y − y1) (y + f) = 0.

⁕ If OA, OB are tangents from origin to the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c =

0 and C is the centre of the circle, then,
⁕ If three lines are not concurrent and two lines are parallel, only two cir- (i). O, A, B, C are concyclic.
cles can be drawn which touch all the three lines.
(ii). Equation of the circumcircle of COAB is, x2 + y2 +gx + fy = 0.

(iii). Area of the quadrilateral OACB = 𝐜(𝐠 𝟐 + 𝐟 𝟐 − 𝒄)

⁕ Locus of the mid-points of the chords of the

⁕ Two circles, with radii r1, r2 and distance between centres d, i. circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 with radius r and subtending an angle
‘α’ at the centre is,
i.. do not intersect when d > r1 + r2 (x + g)2 + (y + f)2 = r2 cos2 (α/2)
ii.. touch each other externally when d = r1 + r2
ii. circle x2 + y2 = a2 subtending a right angle at the centre is
iii.. intersect each other when |r1 – r2| < d < r1 + r2
x2 + y2 = a2/2.
iv. touch each other internally when d = |r1 – r2|
v. one circle lies inside the other when d < |r1 – r2| iii. circle x2 + y2 = a2 subtending an angle α at the centre is
𝜶
x2 + y2 = a2 cos2 .
𝟐
⁕ Length of the direct common tangent is = 𝒅𝟐 − (𝒓𝟏𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐𝟐 )
(Where d is distance between centres).
 181

⁕ If (x1, y1) is the midpoint of the chord AB of the circle S= 0, then the
length of the chord AB = 2 |𝑺𝟏𝟏| (where S11 < 0).

⁕ The middle point of the chord (lx + my + n = 0) of the circle

𝒍𝐧 𝒎𝐧
S ≡ x2 + y2 – r2 = 0 is ( , )
𝒍𝟐 𝒎𝟐 𝒍𝟐 𝒎𝟐

⁕ A tangent at a point on the circle x2 + y2 = a2 intersects a concentric circle

S at P and Q. The tangents of this circle at P, Q meet on the circle x2 + y2 =
b2. Show that equation of the concentric circle S is:
x2 + y2 = ab.

⁕ The chord of contact of tangents drawn from a point on the circle x2 + y2

= a2 to the circle x2 + y2 = b2 touches the circle x2 + y2 = c2. Show that a, b,
c are in GP. ● Conic section:
A conic section is the intersection of a plane and a cone.
⁕ The square of the lengths of the tangents from a point P to the circles x2 + It is the locus of a point which moves in a plane so that the ratio of its dis-
y2 = a2, x2 + y2 = b2 and x2 + y2 = c2 form an A.P. Then a2, b2, c2 form A.P. tance from a fixed point (called focus) to its perpendicular distance from
a fixed straight line (called directrix) is in a constant ratio e (called ec-
⁕ Slopes of tangents drawn from an external point P (x1, y1) to the circle 𝐏𝐅
centricity). i.e., = e.
x2 + y2 = a2 are given by, m 2 (x1 2 – a 2) - 2mx1y1 + y1 2 – a 2 = 0. 𝐏𝐌

⁕ The equation of tangent at 'θ' on S = 0 is ● General equation of a conic: e

(x + g) cos θ + (y + f) sin θ = r.
⁕ If two circles which touch both the axes in the first quadrant meet in (x1,
y1), then the length of the common chord is: √𝟐 |x1 – y1|

⁕ The equation of the chord joining 'α', 'β' on the circle S = 0 is

𝛂 𝛃 𝛂 𝛃 𝛂 𝛃
(x + g) cos + (y + f) sin = r. cos
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

Let the given focus be (α, β) and directrix lx + my + n = 0. Then equation

of conic is PF = e PM
(l2 + m2) [(x − α)2 + (y − β)2] = e2 (lx + my + n)2
≡ ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0

* Axis: A line passing through the focus & perpendicular to the directrix.

* Vertex: A point of intersection of a conic with its axis.

* Eccentricity (e):
It describes how much the conic section deviates from being circular. It is
defined as ratio of the distance of any point on the conic section from its
focus, divided by the perpendicular distance from that point to the nearest
directrix.
 183 184

For different conic sections the value of e is given as below: Case i: When the focus lies on the directrix.
Circle: (e = 0); Ellipse: (0 < e < 1); In this case D = 0 and the general equation of a conic represents a pair of
Parabola: (e = 1); Hyperbola: (e > 1); straight lines.
If h² = ab and e = 1: Pair of coincident lines.
* Focus:
If h² > ab and e > 1: Pair of real & distinct intersecting lines
A fixed point about which the conic section is constructed.
If h² > ab and e < 1: Pair of imaginary lines.
If h² < ab : we have a point.

Case ii: When the focus does not lie on directrix.

In this case D ≠ 0 and general equation of a conic will represent,
A circle: If h = 0, a = b and e = 0,
A parabola: If h² = ab and e = 1,
An ellipse: If h² < ab and 0 < e < 1,
A hyperbola: If h² > ab and e > 1,
In other words, it is a point about which rays reflected from the curve con-
verge. A parabola has one focus. An ellipse and hyperbola have two foci. Rectangular If h² > ab and e > √𝟐.
hyperbola: &a+b=0
* Directrix:
A fixed straight line which is used to construct and define a conic section.
● PARABOLA
Parabola has one directrix. Ellipse and Hyperbolas have two directrices. A parabola is the locus of a point which moves in a plane, such that its dis-
tance from a fixed point (focus) is equal to its perpendicular distance from
● In general equation ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 (sec- a fixed straight line (directrix).
ond degree general equation) always represents a conic section.

* Standard equation of a parabola: y2 = 4ax.

● Distinguishing between the conic:
[Vertex: (0, 0); Focus: (a, 0); Axis: y = 0; Directrix: x + a = 0]
The nature of the conic section depends upon the position of the focus (F)
w.r.t. the directrix & also upon the value of the eccentricity e. * Focal distance: It is the distance of a point on the parabola from the
focus.
The equation ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, has discriminant
* Focal chord: A chord of the parabola, which passes through the focus.
D = a b c + 2fgh − af2 − bg2 − ch2. Now following cases arise,
* Double ordinate: A chord of the parabola perpendicular to the axis of
the symmetry is called a double ordinate.
 185 186

* Latus Rectum: ● Parabolic Curves:

A double ordinate passing through the focus is called latus rectum. It is a 𝐁 𝟏 𝐁 𝟐 𝟒𝐀𝐂
(i) y = Ax2 + B x + C → (x + )2= (y + )
focal chord perpendicular to the axis of parabola. 𝟐𝐀 𝐀 𝟒𝐀

For parabola y2 = 4ax, the length of the latus rectum = 4a, End points of Vertex is (– ,– ), Latus rectum =
the latus rectum are (a, ± 2a). | |
(Curve opens upward for A > 0 & downward for A < 0.)
Note:
i. Perpendicular distance from focus on directrix = half the latus rectum. 𝐁 𝟏 𝐁 𝟐 𝟒𝐀𝐂
(ii) x = Ay2 + By + C → (y + )2= (x + )
𝟐𝐀 𝐀 𝟒𝐀
ii. Vertex is middle point of the focus & the point of intersection of direct-
rix & axis. Vertex is (– ,– ), Latus rectum =
| |
iii. Two parabolas are said to be equal if they have the same latus rectum. (Curve opens to right for A > 0 & to left for A < 0.)

● Four standard forms of the parabola: ● Line and a parabola:

(a). y2 = 4ax; (b). y2 = − 4a x; (c). x2 = 4a y; (d). x2 = − 4ay Let a line y = mx + c meet the given parabola y2 = 4ax in two points.
Then,
a. Points will be real if a < c m,
b. Points will be imaginary if a > c m,
c. Points will be coincident if a = c m,
𝐚
d. Condition of tangency is c= .
𝐦
𝐚 𝟐𝐚
e. Point of contact of tangent is ( , )
𝐦𝟐 𝐦
f. Length of the chord
𝟒
intercepted on the line is, L= 𝐚(𝟏 + 𝐦𝟐 )(𝐚 − 𝐦𝐜).
𝐦𝟐

● Parametric representation:
The parabola y² = 4ax can be represented by x = at ² and y = 2at, togeth-
● Position of a point relative to a parabola: er, t being the parameter.
The point (x1, y1) lies outside on or inside the parabola y2 = 4ax according
● Equation of Chord joining t1 and t2:
as the expression y12 − 4ax1 is positive, zero or negative.
For parabola y2 = 4ax the equation of chord joining its two points P (t1)
● Equation of parabola with vertex at (h, k): and Q (t2) is, y (t1 + t2) = 2x + 2a t1 t2
Shift vertex (h, k) to (0, 0) by putting Y = y – k and X = x – h.
Note:
(i) (y – k)2 = ± 4a (x – h) → Y2 = ± 4aX
a. If chord joining t1, t2 & t3, t4 pass through a point (c, 0) on axis, then
Directrix is x = ± (h - a) and latus rectum = 4a. t1t2 = t3t4 = − .

(ii) (x – h)2 = ± 4a (y – k) → X2 = ± 4aY b. If y1, y2 and y3 are ordinates of angular points of triangle inscribed in
𝟏
Directrix is y = ± (k – a) and latus rectum = 4a. parabola y2 = 4ax then its area is | (y1 - y2) (y2 - y3) (y3 - y1) |.
𝟖𝐚
 187 188

● Chord with a middle point (x1, y1): T = S1 e. Semi latus rectum of the parabola y² = 4ax, is the harmonic mean of FB
𝟐𝐚 and FC, where B and C are extremities of focal chord.
i.e., y − y1 = (x − x1)
𝐲𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 .
i.e., + = or 2a =
𝐅𝐁 𝐅𝐂 𝐚
Chord of the parabola y² = 4ax whose middle point is (x1, y1) is,
f. Area of triangle formed by tangents to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the
● Diameter of parabola: points whose ordinates are y1, y2 and y3 is
𝟏
The locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords of a Parabola | (y1 - y2) (y2 - y3) (y3 - y1) |.
𝟏𝟔𝐚
is called a diameter.
● Tangents to the parabola y2 = 4ax:

a. y y1 = 2 a (x + x1) at (x1, y1) i.e., T1 = 0 (Point form)

𝐚 𝐚 𝟐𝐚
b. y = mx + (m ≠ 0) at ( 𝟐, ) (Slope form)
𝐦 𝐦 𝐦
c. t y = x + at² at (at2, 2at). (Parametric form)

● Point of intersection of the tangents from two points on the

Notes: parabola y2 = 4ax,
𝟐𝐚
1. Equation to the diameter of a parabola is y = , where m is slope of
𝐦
parallel chords. 𝟐𝐚(𝐱𝟐 𝐱𝟏) (𝐱𝟐𝐲𝟏 𝐱𝟏𝐲𝟐)
a. [ , ] [Where (x1, y1) & (x2, y2) are 2 points]
𝐲𝟐 𝐲𝟏 𝐲𝟐 𝐲𝟏
2. Every diameter of a parabola is parallel to its axis.
𝐚 𝐚(𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐)
3. The tangent at the end point of a diameter is parallel to corresponding b. [ , ] [Where m1, m2 are slopes of two tangents]
𝐦𝟏𝐦𝟐 𝐦𝟏𝐦𝟐
system of parallel chords.
3. The tangents at the ends of any chord meet on the diameter which bi- c. [ at1 t2, a (t1 + t2)]. [Where t1 and t2 are two points]
sects the chord. (or, the chords bisected by any diameter are parallel to the
tangent at its extremity).
● The locus of point of intersection of the two tangents to parabola y2 =
4. There is no diameter conjugate to a given diameter because each chord 4ax, which included at a constant angle ‘α’ is
of the family of chords parallel to the given diameter is infinite in length. (x + a)2 tan2 α = y2 – 4ax.
5. A line segment from a point P on the parabola and parallel to the system
of parallel chords is called ordinate to the diameter bisecting the system of ● Slopes of the two tangents to y2 = 4ax passing through (x1 y1) are given
parallel chords and the chords are called its double ordinate. by the equation: m2 x1 – m y1 + a = 0.

● Properties of Focal Chord: ● Equation of the pair of tangents from an external point (x1, y1)
a. If focal chord joins points (t1) and (t2) on parabola t1 t2 = –1. to parabola y² = 4ax:

b. Extremities of focal chord on parabola: (at2, 2at) & ( 𝟐,

𝐚 𝟐𝐚
) SS1 = T12
𝐭 𝐭

𝟏 i.e., (y2 − 4a x) (y12 − 4ax1) = { y y1 − 2a (x + x1)}2

c. Length of focal chord from (at2, 2at) is = a (t + )2
𝐭

d. Length of focal chord = 4 a cosec2 α (α is the angle which chord makes

with positive x- axis). Also, latus rectum is the smallest chord.
 189 190

● Properties of tangents: ● Chord of Contact:

a. Locus of foot of perpendicular from focus upon any tangent lies on tan- Equation to the chord of contact of tangents drawn from a point P (x1, y1)
gent at vertex. is, yy1 = 2a (x + x1).

b. Length of tangent from point of contact and the point where it meets Area of the triangle formed by the tangents from a point (x1, y1) to parabola
𝟏
directrix subtends a right angle at focus. y2 = 4a x and the chord of contact, (y12 − 4ax1)3/2.
𝟐𝐚
c. Tangents at extremities of focal chord intersect at right angle on direct-
rix. ● Length of Chord of Contact:
d. A circle on any focal chord as diameter touches the directrix. The chord of contact exists only if the point P is not inside.
𝟏
e. The area of the triangle formed by three points on a parabola is twice L= √[(y12+4ax) (y12+4a2)]
𝐚
the area of the triangle formed by the tangents at these points.
● Normal to the parabola (y2 = 4a x):
f. The co-ordinates of orthocentre of any triangle formed by three tangents
to a parabola y2 = 4ax is, 𝐲𝟏
1. Point form of equation at (x1, y1). y − y1 = − (x − x1)
𝟐𝐚
{− a, a (t1 + t2 + t3 + t1t2t3)} and it lies on the directrix.
2. Slope form of equation (where m = − )
g. (i). If the tangents at P and Q meet in T, then: QT and PT subtend y = mx − 2am − am3 at (am2, − 2am).
equal angles at the focus F.
3. Parametric form of equation at point (at2, 2at).
y + t x = 2at + at3
4. Point of intersection of normal at t1 & t2,
[a (t12 + t22 + t1t2 + 2); − a t1 t2 (t1 + t2)]

● Properties of Normal:
a. If the normal to the parabola y² = 4ax at the point t1, meets the parabo-
𝟐
(ii). FT2 = FP. FQ la again at the point t2, then, t2 = − (t1 + ).
𝐭𝟏
(iii). The triangles FPT and FQT are similar and hence,
∠FQT = ∠FTP and ∠FTQ = ∠FPT. b. If the normal to the parabola y² = 4ax at the points t1 & t2 intersect
again on the parabola at the point ‘t3’ then t1 t2 = 2 and t3 = − (t1 + t2)
h. The circle circumscribing the triangle formed by any three tangents to a and the line joining t1 & t2 passes through a fixed point (−2a, 0).
parabola passes through the focus.
c. On a parabola y2 = 4ax, a circle on any focal radii of a point P (at2, 2at)
j. If λ2P + λ Q + R = 0 represents a family of straight lines (λ is a parame- as diameter touches the tangent at the vertex and intercepts a chord of
ter) and P, Q and R are linear functions of x and y then the family of lines length = a √1 + t on a normal at the point P.
will be tangent to the curve Q2 = 4 PR.
d. The tangents and normal at the extremities of focal a chord form a
rectangle. If the latus rectum is the focal chord, then a square is formed.
● Director Circle:
Locus of the point of intersection of the perpendicular tangents to the pa- e. The condition for lx + my + n = 0 to be a normal to y2 = 4ax is
rabola y² = 4ax is called the director circle. It is the directrix of parabola. al3 + 2al m2 + m2 n = 0.
Its equation is x + a = 0. f. The length of sub-tangent at any point P (x, y) equals twice the abscis-
sa of the point P on the parabola y² = 4ax. The sub-tangent is bisected at
the vertex.
 191 192

g. Length of subnormal is constant for all points on the parabola & is ● Reflection property of parabola:
equal to the semi latus rectum.
Tangent & normal at any point P on the parabola bisects the angle between
h. Normal other than axis of parabola never passes through the focus. the focal chord through P and the perpendicular from P to directrix.

● Some results from calculus,

𝐝𝐱 𝟐
i. Length of Tangent: = y1 𝟏+( ) ]x1, y1
𝐝𝐲
𝐝𝐱
ii. Length of Sub tangent: = y1.
𝐝𝐲
]x1, y1
𝐝𝐲
iii. Length of Normal: = y1 𝟏 + ( )𝟐 ]x1, y1
𝐝𝐱
FP = FT = FG and ∠FPT = ∠FTP = ∠MPT
𝐝𝐲
iv. Length of Sub normal: = y1 . ]x1, y1 From this we conclude that all rays emanating from S will become parallel
𝐝𝐱
to the axis of the parabola after reflection.
● Co-normal Points:
● Polar & Pole:
In general, three normal can be drawn from a point to a parabola. The feet
i.e., points where they meet parabola are called Co-normal points. a. Equation of the Polar of the point P(x1, y1) w.r.t. the parabola y² = 4ax
is, y y1= 2a(x + x1)
a. If m1, m2, m3 are slopes of three co-normal from point (h, k) to parabola
y2 = 4ax then,
i. m1 + m2 + m3 = 0
𝟐𝐚 𝐡
ii. m1 m2 + m2 m3 + m3 m1 =
𝐚
𝐤
iii. m1 m2 m3 =
𝐚
b. Algebraic sum of the ordinates of the feet of three normal drawn to a
parabola from a point is zero. i.e., y1 + y2 + y3 = 0
c. Algebraic sum of the abscissas of the feet of three normal drawn to a
parabola from a point (h, k) is, x1 + x2 + x3 = 2(h - 2a) b. The pole of the line lx + my + n = 0 with respect to the parabola
d. If the three normal drawn to a parabola y2 = 4ax from a point (h, k) are 𝐧 𝟐𝐚𝐦
y² = 4ax is, ( , − ).
real and distinct then h > 2a. 𝐥 𝐥

e. If the three normal drawn to a parabola y2 = 4ax from a point (h, k) be Note:
real then 27ak2 < 4(h - 2a)3.
i. The polar of focus (a, 0) is x + a = 0 (the directrix). Hence, tangents at
f. Centroid of a triangle formed by three co-normal points on a parabola y2 the extremities of a focal chord meet on the directrix.
𝟐𝒉 𝟒𝒂
= 4ax lies on x- axis and is, ( , 0) ii. When the point (x1, y1) does not lie on the parabola, the equation to its
𝟑
polar is the same as the equation to the chord of contact of tangents drawn
g. A circle circumscribing the triangle formed by three co-normal points
from (x1, y1). When (x1, y1) lies on the parabola the polar is the same as the
passes through the vertex of the parabola and its equation is,
tangent at the point.
2(x2 + y2) − 2(h + 2a) x − k y = 0.
iii. If the polar of a point P passes through the point Q, then the polar of
Q goes through P.
 193

iv. Two straight lines are said to be conjugated to each other w.r.t. a pa-
rabola when the pole of one lies on the other. Definition(s):

v. The polar of a given point P w.r.t. any Conic is the locus of the harmon- 1. Locus of a point which moves in a plane such that its distance from a
ic conjugate of P w.r.t. the two points in which any line through P cuts the fixed point (Focus) is in a constant ratio from a fixed line (Directrix).
conic. This ratio is denoted by e and called eccentricity. The value of e is lesser
than 1. (e < 1)
Note:
2. An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane, the sum of whose distances
from two fixed points in the plane is a constant (=2a). The two fixed points
are called the foci of the ellipse.

PB is a secant to parabola cutting it at A and B. A point Q, between A and

B, is said to be harmonic conjugate of a point P w.r.t. A and B if;
1/PA + 1/PB = 2/PQ.

● Standard equation of an ellipse:

𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐
+ = 1.
𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐
Where a > b and b² = a² (1 − e²)
⇒ a2 − b2 = a2 e2. Where e = eccentricity & (0 < e < 1).

* Foci: S (a e, 0) & S′ (− ae, 0). Foci lie on major axis.

𝐚 𝐚
* Equation of Directrices: x= , x=−
𝐞 𝐞

* Vertices: A′ (− a, 0) & A (a, 0).

* Major Axis: A′A = 2a & (a > b).

* Minor Axis: B′B = 2b & (b < a). The y-axis intersects the ellipse in
points B′ (0, − b) and B (0, b).

* Foot of the directrix (z): Point of intersection of major axis with di-
rectrix is called the foot of the directrix.

* Principal Axis: The major & minor axis together are called Principal
Axis of the ellipse.
 195 196

* Centre: The point which bisects every chord of the conic drawn through
it is called the centre of the conic. The point C (0,0) is called the centre C of
the ellipse + = 1.

* Diameter: A chord of the conic which passes through the centre is

called the diameter of the conic.
* Focal Chord: A chord which passes through a focus is called a focal
chord.
* Double Ordinate: A chord perpendicular to the major axis is called a
double ordinate. 𝒂𝟏𝒙 𝒃𝟏𝒚 𝒄𝟏 𝟐 𝒃𝟏𝒙 𝒂𝟏𝒚 𝒄𝟐 𝟐
( ) ( )
* Latus Rectum: The focal chord perpendicular to the major axis is 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝒃𝟏𝟐 𝒃𝟏𝟐 𝒂𝟏𝟐
b. + =1
called the latus rectum. 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐

𝟐𝒃𝟐 ( ) ( )
[L1 ≡ a1x + b1y + c1 and L2 ≡ b1x + a1y + c2 are two mutually perpendicular
● Length of latus rectum: LL′ = = = coplanar lines]
𝒂 ( )
or LL′ = 2a(1−e2) c. Centre of an ellipse is the point of intersection of L1= 0 and L2 = 0.

or LL′ = 2e × (distance from focus to the corresponding directrix) d. If a > b, then L2= 0 is major axis and L1= 0 is minor axis.

Note: ● Auxiliary Circle:

If the equation of the ellipse is given as + = 1 and nothing is men- A circle described on major axis as diameter is called the auxiliary circle.
tioned, then the rule is to assume that a > b.
Let P′ be a point on the auxiliary circle x2 + y2 = a2 such that P′P produced
is perpendicular to the x-axis. Let angle CP′ make an angle θ with x- axis.
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
● Position of a point (x1, y1) w.r.t. an ellipse + :
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐

If + > 0. If + < 0. If + =0

Point lies outside, Point lies inside Point lies on the ellipse

● Equation of ellipse whose axes are parallel to co-ordinate axes

and centre is (h, k): Then point P′ on the circle is given by (a cos θ, a sin θ) and the point P on
(𝐱 𝐡)𝟐 (𝐲 𝐤)𝟐 ellipse ( + = 0) is given by (a cos θ, b sin θ).
𝐚𝟐
+ 𝐛𝟐
= 1; a > b,
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐦𝐚𝐣𝐨𝐫 𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐬 𝒃
Foci: (h ± ae, k); Directrix: x = h ± . 1. =
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐚𝐣𝐨𝐫 𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐬 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐜𝐨𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐮𝐱𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐜𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐥𝐞 𝒂

● Equation of ellipse referred to two perpendicular lines: .

i.e., = .
= =
𝐩𝟏𝟐 𝐩𝟐𝟐
a.
𝐚𝟐
+ 𝐛𝟐
=1 See figure on next page.
2. If from each point of a circle perpendiculars are drawn upon a fixed
[p1 and p2 are perpendiculars from a point P on ellipse to the two mutually diameter then the locus of the points dividing these perpendiculars in a
perpendicular lines] given ratio is an ellipse of which the given circle is the auxiliary circle.
 197 198

Eccentric Angle: The angle θ (∠NCP′) is called eccentric angle of P. The locus of the point of intersection of the tangents which meet at right
angles is called the Director Circle. Its radius is the length of the line join-
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 ing the ends of the major & minor axis.
● Parametric form of ellipse
𝒂𝟐
+ 𝒃𝟐 = 1:
x = a cos θ & y = b sin θ (θ is a parameter). ● Chord of contact: T1 = 0 (Where T1 ≡ + - 1= 0)

● Chord joining two points with eccentric angles α & β:

● Pair of tangents: T12 = SS1
𝐱 𝛂 𝛃 𝐲 𝛂 𝛃 𝛂 𝛃
cos + sin = cos
𝐚 𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝟐 (Where T1 ≡ + - 1= 0, S ≡ + - 1 = 0 and S1 ≡ + - 1 = 0)

● Chord with middle point (x1, y1): T1 = S1

● Equation of Normal:
𝐱𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝐲𝟏 𝐱𝟏𝟐 𝐲𝟏𝟐
or
𝐚𝟐
+ 𝐛𝟐
= 𝐚𝟐
+ 𝐛𝟐 i.
𝐚𝟐 𝐱
−
𝐛𝟐 𝐲
= a² − b² = a²e². at point (x1, y1)
𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝟏

● Condition for a line to be tangent on ellipse: ii. ax. sec θ − by. cosec θ = (a² − b²). at point (a cos θ, b sin θ)

i. For line y = mx + c, condition is, c2 = a2m2 + b2. (𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 )𝐦

iii. y = mx − . Slope form.
𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐦 𝟐
ii. For line lx + my + n = 0, condition is, a2l 2 + b2m2 = n2.
iv. Four normal can be drawn to an ellipse from a point.
● Equation of Tangents:
● Pole & polar:
𝐱𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝐲𝟏 Let a point ‘P’ be inside or outside the ellipse. A chord through ellipse in-
a. Point form: At (x1, y1):
𝐚𝟐
+ 𝐛𝟐
=1
tersecting it at points A and B. Then the locus of point of intersection Q (h,
k) of tangents at A and B is called polar of P with respect to ellipse and
b. Slope form: At (x1, y1) having slope m: y = mx ± √𝐚𝟐 𝐦𝟐 + 𝐛 𝟐
point P is called pole.
𝐱.𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 𝐲.𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
c. Parametric form: Through (x1, y1) with angle θ:
𝐚
+ 𝐛
=1

d. The eccentric angles of point of contact of two parallel tangents differ

by π. Conversely if the difference between the eccentric angles of two
points is p then the tangents at these points are parallel.

● Point of intersection of the tangents at the point α & β is, a. If the polar of P (x1, y1) passes through Q (x2, y2), then the polar of Q
(x2, y2) goes through P (x1, y1) and such points are said to be conjugate
𝛂 𝛃
𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝛂 𝛃
𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧
points.
( 𝟐
𝛂 𝛃 , 𝟐
𝛂 𝛃 )
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐜𝐨𝐬 b. If the pole of a line l1x + m1y + n1= 0 lies on another line, l2x + m2y + n2
𝟐 𝟐
= 0, then the pole of the second line will lie on the first and such lines are
● Director Circle: x² + y² = a² + b² said to be conjugate lines.
c. The pole of a given line is same as point of intersection of tangents at its
extremities.

● Equation of polar of P (x1, y1) is: T1 = 0.

𝒙𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝒚𝟏
i.e.,
𝒂𝟐
+ 𝒃𝟐
–1=0
 199 200

● Coordinates of pole of a given line: b. Semi-latus rectum is harmonic mean of segments of focal chord.
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 i.e., + = (Where a > b and PQ is focal chord)
For the ellipse
𝒂𝟐
+ 𝒃𝟐 = 1, if P is the pole of line lx + my + n = 0, then co-
𝐥𝐚𝟐 𝐦𝐛𝟐 c. Circle described on focal length as diameter always touches auxiliary
ordinates of P (– ,– ). circle.
𝐧 𝐧
𝐛𝟐 d. Locus of feet of perpendiculars Y and Y′ from foci upon any tangent to
● Diameter of ellipse: y = − x ellipse is an auxiliary circle.
𝐚𝟐 𝐦
The diameter of the ellipse is the locus of the middle points of a system of e. If tangents drawn from feet of perpendiculars Y and Y′ on auxiliary cir-
parallel chords (having slope ‘m’) of an ellipse through the centre of the cle meet at R, then R lies on the ordinate through P and the locus of R is
ellipse. another ellipse having the same eccentricity as original ellipse.
f. Line joining centre to the feet of perpendicular from one focus to any
tangent at P and the line joining the other focus to point P are parallel.
g. Product of perpendiculars from foci upon any tangent of ellipse is b2.
h. The tangents at the extremities of a focal chord PSQ intersect at corre-
sponding directrix at T and ST is perpendicular to PQ.

● Properties of diameter:
a. The necessary and sufficient condition that diameter y = m1x bisects all
𝐛𝟐 i. Length of tangent between the point of contact and the point where it
chords parallel to slope m is, mm1 = − .
𝐚𝟐 meets the directrix subtends right angle at the corresponding focus.
b. If the diameter y = m1x bisects all chords parallel to y = m x, then due to j. The sum of the square of chords intercepted by auxiliary circle on two
symmetry diameter y = m x bisects all chords parallel to y = m1x. Such perpendicular tangents on an ellipse is constant and is equal to the square
diameters of an ellipse are said to be conjugate. of the line joining foci. If l1, l2 are the intercepted chords, l12 + l22 = SS′2.
c. The eccentric angles of the ends of a pair of conjugate diameters differ
k. The tangent and normal at point P on ellipse bisects the external and
by a right angle.
internal angles between the focal distances of P. Therefore, incident ray
d. The sum of the squares of the conjugate semi-diameter of an ellipse is from focus S after reflection from ellipse at point P passes through the
constant and is equal to the sum of squares of the semi axes of the ellipse. other focus S′. (Reflection property)
e. The product of the focal distance of a point on the ellipse is equal to the l. The straight lines joining each focus to the foot of perpendicular from
square of the semi diameter which is conjugate to the diameter through other focus upon the tangent at any point P, meet on the normal PG and
the point. i.e., S′ P. SP = CD2. bisect it.
f. The area of the parallelogram formed by the tangents at the extremities m. Perpendiculars from centre upon all chords which join the extremities
of the two conjugate diameters of an ellipse is constant. of perpendicular diameter are of constant length.
g. Two conjugate diameters are said to be equi- conjugate if they have n. If the tangent at any point P on the ellipse meets the major axis in T and
equal lengths. i.e., ay = ± bx. minor axis in t and PN, PM are perpendicular from P on major and minor
axis respectively then, CN. CT = a2 and CM. Ct = b2.
𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐
● Properties of ellipse
𝐚𝟐
+ 𝐛 𝟐 = 1:
a. If P be any point on the ellipse with S & S′ as its foci then,
SP + S′P = 2a.
 201

o. The perpendicular from the focus upon any tangent to ellipse and the
line joining the centre to the point of contact meet on the corresponding
directrix. 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
● Standard equations of hyperbola:
𝒂𝟐
− 𝒃𝟐 = 1.
p. If the tangent at the point P of a ellipse meet axes at T and t and CY is
perpendicular on it from centre then, Hyperbola is the locus of a point P which moves such that its distance from
a fixed- point S (the focus) is equal to e times (e > 1) its distance from a
(i) Tt. PY = a2 − b2. fixed line l called its directrix, i.e., SP = e PM where PM is perpendicular
(ii) Least value of Tt is a + b. from P on l.
q. If the normal at any point P on the ellipse with centre C meet the major
& minor axes in G & g respectively, & if CF be perpendicular upon this
normal, then,

x = a sec θ & y = b tan θ together represents the hyperbola

r. Ratio of any triangle PQR inscribed in ellipse + = 1 and that of tri- − = 1, where θ is a parameter.
angle formed by corresponding points on the auxiliary circle is b/a. (x = a cosh φ, y = b sinh φ also represents the same hyperbola).

* Focal Property:
The difference of the focal distances of any point on the hyperbola is con-
stant and equal to transverse axis.
* Transverse axis = |PS − PS′|
[|PS − PS′| = |e.PM − e.PM′|
= |e. ZZ′| = | e. (CZ + CZ′) | = |e.( + )| = 2a]

● Equation of hyperbola from focal property.

* Equation of hyperbola whose axes are parallel to coordinate

axes and centre is (h, k):
(𝐱 𝐡)𝟐 (𝐲 𝐤)𝟐
𝐚𝟐
− 𝐛𝟐
= 1 (a > b)

* Foci: (h ± ae, k);

* Directrices: x=h±
 203 204

Then the locus of point P (x, y) denotes a hyperbola in the plane of given
lines such that,
i. Centre of parabola is the point of intersection of lines L1 = 0 and L2 = 0.
ii. The transverse axis lies along L2, and conjugate axis lies along L1.
iii. The length of transverse axis is 2a and conjugate axis is 2b.

● Conjugate Hyperbola:

In conjugate hyperbola BB′ is transverse axis and AA′ is conjugate axis. To

get its equation, interchange x & y and a & b in − = 1. So conjugate

hyperbola of − = 1 is − = 1 or vice-versa.

* If e1 and e2 are the eccentricities of the hyperbola and its conjugate then
● Hyperbola referred to two perpendicular lines:
e1−2 + e2−2 = 1.
Let the hyperbola be − = 1.
* The foci of a hyperbola and its conjugate are con-cyclic and form the ver-
tices of a square.
[Hint: In a square, adjacent sides are equal and diagonal ends are equidis-
tant from centre and hence vertices are con-cyclic.]

● Auxiliary Circle: x2 + y2 = a2.

From figure-1; − = 1.

In Fig-2, L1 ≡ a1x + b1y + c1 and L2 ≡ b1x − a1y + c2 are two mutually per-
pendicular lines and p1, p2 are perpendicular distance of a moving point P
(x, y) from L1 and L2 respectively.
[A circle drawn with centre C and Transverse axis as a diameter is called
the Auxiliary Circle of the hyperbola.
Then if point P satisfies the equation; − =1
P is a point on the hyperbola. Line PN is perpendicular on the axis of hy-
( ) ( ) perbola. NQ is tangent from N on auxiliary circle touching it at Q.
√( ) √( )
i.e., − = 1.
The X-coordinate of point P = CN = a sec θ.
 205 206

● Equation of Director Circle of Hyperbola:

Putting this in − = 1 we get Y- coordinate = b tan θ. Choosing posi-
tive value from ± b tan θ. Director circle is the locus of the point at which tangent intersect at right
angles. x2 + y2 = a2 − b2.
Hence, the parametric form of hyperbola − = 1 which can also be If b2 < a2 this circle is real.
given as x = a sec θ, y = b tan θ.
If b2 = a2 the radius of the circle is zero & it reduces to a point circle at the
The points P & Q are called the "Corresponding Points" on the hyper- origin. In this case the centre is the only point from which the tangents at
bola & the auxiliary circle. 'θ' is called the eccentric angle of the right angles can be drawn to the curve.
point 'P' on the hyperbola. (0 ≤ θ < 2π).] If b2 > a2, the radius of the circle is imaginary, so that there is no such cir-
cle & so no tangents at right angle can be drawn to the curve.
● Equation of Chord of Hyperbola
* Locus of point of intersection of tangents when they have constant angle
a. Chord joining two points with eccentric angles α & β: β.
𝐱 𝛂 𝛃 𝐲 𝛂 𝛃 𝛂 𝛃
⇒ cos − sin = cos (x2 + y2 + b2 − a2)2 = 4 cot2 β (a2y2 − b2x2 + a2b2)
𝐚 𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝟐

b. Equation of chord with given middle point (x1, y1): T1 = S1 ● Tangents to hyperbola

𝐱𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝐲𝟏 𝐱𝟏𝟐 𝐲𝟏𝟐 a. Tangents to hyperbola (Slope form): y = mx ± √𝐚𝟐 𝐦𝟐 − 𝐛 𝟐

or
𝐚𝟐
− 𝐛𝟐
= 𝐚𝟐
− 𝐛𝟐 [Hint: Condition for y = mx + c to be tangent is c = ±√a m − b . Thus,
there are two parallel tangents, y = mx ± √a m − b having the same
(Where T1 ≡ − − 1= 0 and S1 ≡ − = 1). slope m.]

● Condition for line to be tangent on hyperbola: b. Tangents to hyperbola (Point form):

𝐱𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝐲𝟏
a. (i) Condition for y = mx + c to be tangent on − = 1: 𝐚𝟐
− 𝐛𝟐
= 1. i.e., T1 = 0

(Where T1 ≡ − − 1 = 0)
c2 = a2m2 − b2 or c = ± √𝐚𝟐 𝐦𝟐 − 𝐛 𝟐
c. Tangents to hyperbola (Parametric form):
Note:
𝐱 𝐲
At c2 = a2m2 − b2, D = 0 and line is a tangent. sec θ − tan θ = 1.
𝐚 𝐛
If c2 > a2m2 − b2 then D > 0 and line is secant.
If c2 > a2m2 − b2 then D < 0 and line is neither a secant nor a * Point of intersection of the tangents at the point α & β:
tangent. 𝛃 𝛂 𝛃 𝛂
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐 𝟐
(a. 𝛃 𝛂 , b. 𝛃 𝛂 )
(ii). Point of contact of tangent y = mx + c on − = 1 is: 𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝟐

𝐦𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 ● Pair of tangents on hyperbola S = 0. T12 = SS1

( , ) i.e., (± ,± )
𝐜 𝐜 𝐚𝟐 𝐦𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐚𝟐 𝐦 𝟐 𝐛𝟐
(T1 ≡ − − 1= 0; S ≡ − − 1 = 0 & S1 ≡ − − 1 = 0)
b. Condition for lx + my + n = 0 to be tangent on hyperbola is:
a2l 2 − b2m2 = n2.
● Chord of contact of hyperbola from a point (x1, y1): T1 = 0.
[Hint: Write given line in form y = mx + c and apply condition c2 = a2m2 − b2]
𝐱𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝐲𝟏
or
𝐚𝟐
− 𝐛𝟐
−1=0
 207 208

● Normal to hyperbola: 8. A simple method to find the coordinates of the centre of the hyperbola
𝐚𝟐 𝐱 𝐛𝟐 𝐲 expressed as a general equation {f (x, y) = 0} of degree 2 is to find and
a. Point Form:
𝐱𝟏
+ 𝐲𝟏
= a² + b² = a²e². [∵ b² = a² (e² − 1)]
. Point of intersection of = 0 and = 0 gives the center of the hy-
b. Parametric Form: ax. cos θ + by. cot θ = (a² + b²) = a2e2.
perbola.
(𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 )𝐦
c. Slope Form: y = mx ∓ .
𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐦 𝟐 ● Polar of Hyperbola: T1 = 0.
𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐦 𝐱𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝐲𝟏
and Foot of normal (± ,∓ ) a. Polar of − = 1 from pole (x1, y1):
𝐚𝟐
– 𝐛𝟐
= 1.
𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐦𝟐 𝐚𝟐 𝐛 𝟐 𝐦𝟐
𝐥𝐚𝟐 𝐦𝐛𝟐
d. Four normal can be drawn to a hyperbola from a point. b. If polar of hyperbola is lx + my + n = 0, then its pole is: (– , ).
𝐧 𝐧

● ASYMPTOTES: [Hint: Polar – = 1 and given line represents same line]

An asymptote of a curve is a line to which the curve converges but they

never meet. ● Diameter of Hyperbola
𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐 It is the locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords (having
● Equations of asymptotes:
𝐚𝟐
± 𝐛 𝟐 = 0. slope 'm') of a hyperbola and passes through the centre of the hyperbola. It
is a straight line.
(The asymptotes are + = 0 and − = 0.)
𝐛𝟐
a. Equation of Diameter of hyperbola − = 1: y=
𝐚𝟐 𝐦
x
● Particular case of asymptotes:
b. Necessary and sufficient condition that the diameter y = m1x bisects all
When b = a, the asymptotes of the rectangular hyperbola x2 − y2 = a2 are, 𝒃𝟐
chords parallel to slope m is, mm1 =
y = ± x which are at right angles. 𝒂𝟐

Notes:
[Slope of diameter (y = x) is m1 = . ⇒ mm1 = ]
1. Equilateral hyperbola ⇔ Rectangular hyperbola.
c. Coordinates of extremities of the conjugate diameter when one extremi-
2. If a hyperbola is equilateral then its conjugate is also equilateral. 𝒂 𝒃 𝒂 𝒃
ty of diameter is given: D ( y′, x′) and D′ (− y′, − x′).
𝒃 𝒂 𝒃 𝒂
3. A hyperbola and its conjugate have the same asymptote.
[If P (x′, y′) be one extremity of a diameter of − = 1, then coordi-
4. The equation of the pair of asymptotes differ the hyperbola & the conju- nates of other extremity will be P′ (− x′, − y′)]
gate hyperbola by the same constant only.
d. The difference of the squares on two conjugate semi-diameters is con-
5. The asymptotes pass through the center of the hyperbola & the bisectors stant. i.e., CP2 − CD2 = a2 − b2.
of the angles between the asymptotes are the axes of the hyperbola.
e. If PP′ is any diameter on hyperbola then square of semi-conjugate di-
6. The asymptotes of a hyperbola are the diagonals of the rectangle formed ameter is equal to product of focal distances of P. i.e., CD2 = SP. S′P
by the lines drawn through the extremities of each axis parallel to the other
axis. f. The area of parallelogram formed by the tangents at the end of conju-
gate diameters is constant (4ab) and vertices lie on the asymptotes.
7. Asymptotes can be considered as the tangent to the hyperbola from the
centre which meet the curve at infinity.
 209 210

● Highlights on Tangent and Normal: ● Rectangular or Equilateral Hyperbola (x2 – y2 = a2):

a. The locus of the feet of the perpendicular drawn from focus of a hyper- a. In rectangular hyperbola the lengths of the transverse & conjugate axis
are equal. Here a = b.
bola − = 1 upon any tangent is its auxiliary circle (i.e., x2 + y2 = a2)
and product of the feet of these perpendiculars is b2. b. The equation of rectangular hyperbola is, x2 – y2 = a2.

b. The portion of tangent between the point of contact & the directrix sub- c. Asymptotes of rectangular hyperbola are, y = ± x
tends a right angle at the corresponding focus.
d. Combined equation of asymptotes is, x2 – y2 = 0.
c. The tangent & normal at any point of a hyperbola bisect the angle be-
tween the focal radii. ⇒ Asymptotes of rectangular hyperbola are perpendicular.

e. The eccentricity e = √𝟐. [e = √(1 + ) = √𝟐.]

d. The ellipse + = 1 and the hyperbola − =1
(a > k > b > 0) are confocal and therefore orthogonal. f. The conjugate of rectangular hyperbola is x2 – y2 = – a2.
e. The foci of the hyperbola and the points P and Q in which any tangent
meets the tangents at the vertices are con-cyclic with PQ as diameter of the ● Rect. Hyperbola (xy = c2) with asymptotes as axes:
circle.
a. Parametric representation of hyperbola x y = c2 is:
f. Tangent at any point P on the hyperbola − = 1 intersects axes at ‘T’ x = c t, y = c/t, [t ∈ R – {0}].
and ‘t’ and perpendicular on axes from P meet axes at ‘M’ and ‘N’ and C is
centre of hyperbola, then (i) CM. CT= a2 and (ii) CN. Ct = b2. b. Eccentricity: e = √𝟐

c. Asymptotes: x = 0, y = 0.
● Highlights on Asymptotes:
a. The product of the perpendicular distances of any point on a hyperbola d. Transverse axis (T.A): y = x.
from asymptotes is constant.
e. Conjugate axis (C.A.): y=–x
b. If from any point P on the asymptote a straight line be drawn perpen-
dicular to the transverse axis which cuts curve at Q and R, then f. Centre: (0, 0)
PQ.PR = b2. g. Vertices are: (c, c) & (– c, – c)
i.e., The product of the segments of this line PQ and PR, intercepted be-
tween the point & the curve is always equal to the square of the semi con- h. Foci are: (c√𝟐, c√𝟐) and (− c√𝟐, − c√𝟐)
jugate axis.
j (i). Coordinates of ends of latus rectum PQ:
c. Perpendicular from foci on either asymptote meet it in the same points
as the corresponding directrix & the common points of intersection lie on P {(√2 + 1) c, (√2 − 1) c} & Q {(√2 − 1) c, (√2 + 1) c}
the auxiliary circle.
(ii). Length of Latus rectum: 2√𝟐 c
d. The tangent at any point P on a hyperbola − = 1 with centre C, k. Equation of the directrices: x + y = ± √𝟐 c
meets the asymptotes in Q and R and cuts off a ∆ CQR of constant area
equal to ab from the asymptotes & the portion of the tangent intercepted
between the asymptote is bisected at the point of contact.

e. If angle between the asymptote of a hyperbola − = 1 is 2θ then

e = sec θ. (Hint: tan 2θ = = = )

.
 211 212

● Auxiliary circle for Rectangular Hyperbola (x y = c2). ● A rectangular hyperbola circumscribing a triangle passes through the
orthocentre of this triangle.
x2 + y2 = 2c2
● A circle intersects a rectangular hyperbola at four points, then show that,
[A circle drawn with centre C & Transverse Axis as a diameter is called the
Auxiliary Circle of the hyperbola. The extremities of diameter are (c, c) and a. The mean value of the points of intersection is the mid-point of the line
(− c, − c) & equation of diameter is, (x − c). (x + c) + (y − c). (y + c) = 0] joining the centres of both circle and hyperbola.
b. t1t2t3t4 = 1
● Chord of Hyperbola x y = c2
c. The centre of the circle through the points t1, t2 & t3 is,
a. Chord joining the points (ct1, ) & (ct2, ) in hyperbola, x y = c2 is 𝐜 𝟏 𝐜 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 { (t1 + t2 + t3 + ), ( + + + t1 t2 t3)}
x + t1t2 y = c (t2 + t1) and slope m = – 𝟐 𝐭𝟏𝐭𝟐𝐭𝟑 𝟐 𝐭𝟏 𝐭𝟐 𝐭𝟑
𝐭𝟏𝐭𝟐
d. (OP)2 + (OQ)2 + (OR)2 + (OS)2 = 4r2 (Where r = g2 + f2 − d.)
b. Chord with given middle point (x1, y1) in hyperbola xy = c2:
𝐱 𝐲
𝐱𝟏
+ 𝐲𝟏 = 2
c. Condition for y = mx + c1 to be tangent on x y = c2 is,
c1 = ± 2c √𝐦.

● Tangent to rectangular hyperbola xy = c2:

a. When slope m is given, y = mx ± 2c √𝐦

𝐱 𝐲
b. At point (x1, y1): y1x + x1y = 2c2 or
𝐱𝟏
+ 𝐲𝟏 = 2
𝐱
c. At point P (c t, ): x + t2y = 2tc or + ty =2c.
𝐭

d. Point of intersection of tangents at ‘t1’ and ‘t2’:

𝟐𝐜𝐭𝟏𝐭𝟐 𝟐𝐜
x= , y=
𝐭𝟏 𝐭𝟐 𝐭𝟏 𝐭𝟐

● Normal to rectangular hyperbola x y = c2

a. At point (x1, y1): xx1 − yy1 = x12 − y12
𝐜
b. At point P (c t, ): y − = t2 (x −c t).
𝐭
or t 3 x− y − ct4 + c = 0

c. When normal at point (c√m , ) which has a slope m:

√
𝐦𝟐 𝟏
y = mx − ( ) c.
√𝐦
 214

Remarks:
(a) f(x) = e log e f(x) and f(x) = a log a f(x)
(CONTUNITY & DIFFERENTIABILITY)
[∵ loge f(x) = loge f(x). loge e = loge eloge f(x) ⇒ f(x) = eloge f(x)
and log a f(x) = log a f(x). log a a = log a a log a f(x) ⇒ f(x) = a log a f(x)]

(b). Natural log of x is to the base e and written as ln x or log e x or simp-

ly log x.

(c) Common log of x is to base 10. i.e., log 10 x.

● Exponential and Logarithmic functions:

Logarithmic function is inverse of the exponential function. If we do one
operation (say ax), and then do the other operation log a (ax), we get back
to where we started.

Doing a x then log a give us x back again: log a (a x) = x

● Logarithm formulae:
Doing loga then a x gives us x back again: a log a (x) = x
Let bx = N. ⇒ log b(N) = x (b, N are +ve numbers and b ≠ 1) Hence log a (ax) = x = a loga (x). Similarly, loge (ex) = x = e loge (x).

Log e m n = loge m + loge n. Thus, ax and log a x are inverse functions. Similarly, ex and loge x are in-
verse functions.
loge = loge m − loge n. In general, as shown in figure, for any base a > 0, a ≠ 1, the function
log a (x) is symmetric about the line y = x with the function f(x) = ax.
log e m n = n. log e m.

log n m. log m n = 1

log a 1 = 0 (∵ a0 = 1) and log a a = 1 (∵ a1 = a)

log a e. loge a = 1

log a x = (log b x) / (log b a) = (log b x). (log a b) (Changing the base) The graph of one of these is a mirror image of the other one in the line

log a ax = x = a log ax y = x. i.e., their graphs are symmetric about the line y = x.
 215 216

● Graph of some important functions:

1(a). Graph of xn for even n:

1(b). Graph of xn for odd n:

 217 218

● Limit of a function:
As x → a, if f (x) → l, then l is called limit of function f (x).
i.e., lim f(x) = l
→
The limit of a function exists at a point ‘a’ if and only if both the left-
hand and right-hand limits exist and are equal.

i.e., lim f(x) = lim f(x) = l.

→ →

● Algebra of limits:

1. lim [(k f) (x)] = k lim f(x) [k is a constant]

→ →

2. lim [f(x) ± k] = lim f(x) ± k.

→ →

3. lim [f(x) ± g(x)] = lim f(x) ± lim g(x).

→ → →

4. lim [f(x). g(x)] = lim f(x). lim g(x).

→ → →

( ) ( )
5. lim = → provided lim g(x) ≠ 0.
→ ( ) ( ) →
→

6. lim log (f(x)) = log (lim f(x))

→ →

7. lim (f(x)) g(x) = {lim f(x)} lim x → a g(x).

→ →
● Left hand limit (LH limit):
8. lim b f(x) = b lim x → a f(x) provided it is not of 1∞ form.
LH limit of a function f (x) at a point a is the expected value of function f at →
x = a, as it approaches from the left-hand side of a. It is represented by
9. lim f{g(x)} = f { lim g(x)}.
writing lim f(x). → →
→

i.e., lim f(x) = lim f(a − h) [x = a − h and h > 0] * If f (x) ≤ g (x) in same domain then lim f(x) ≤ lim g(x) provided both
→ → → →
limits exist for some a.
● Right hand limit (RH limit):
i.e., If f(x) ≤ g(x) for x ∈ (a+ h, a - h) - {a}, h > 0, here f and g are two real
RH limit of a function f (x) at a point a is the expected value of function f at valued functions.
x = a, as it approaches from the right had side of a. It is represented by
writing lim f(x).
→

i.e., lim f(x) = lim f(a + h) [x = a + h and h > 0]

→ →
 219 220

● Sandwich (or Squeeze) Theorem: 5. By using expansion formula of functions:

* ex = 1 + x + + + ... up to ∞.
! ! !

* e −x = 1 − x + − + ....
! ! !

* ax = ex.log a = 1 + x. loge a + (x. loge a)2 + (x. loge a)3... ∞.

! !
For real valued functions: f, g and h; if f (x) ≤ g( x) ≤ h(x) for all x in same
domain (e.g., ∀ x ∈ (a + h, a - h) - {a}, h > 0), * log e (1 + x) = x − x2 + x3− x4 + ... ∞. [where −1 < x < 1]

and if lim f(x) = L = lim h(x) exists, then for some a, lim g(x) = L.
→ → → * log e (1 − x) = − x − x2 − x3− x4 − ...

* If lim f (x) = + ∞ then lim = 0.

→ → ( ) * sin x = x −
!
+ !
− !
+ !
−…

● Methods of evaluation of limits:

* cos x = 1 −
!
+ !
− !
+…
1. Factorisation Method:

If lim
( )
is of form, then factorise numerator and denominator to can- * tan x = x + + + +… [− < x < ]
→ ( )
cel common factors. ( ) ( )( )
* (1 + x) n = 1 + nx + x2 + x3 + ...
! !
2. Rationalisation Method:
6. Using L' Hospital’s rule for evaluation of indeterminate
If we have fractional powers on the expression of numerator or denomina-
forms:
tor or in both then rationalize the factor and simplify.
If as x →a, both f(x) and g(x) → 0 or ∞,
3. When x → ∞:
( ) ( )
Divide numerator and denominator by highest power of x present in the Then lim = lim subjected to following conditions,
→ ( ) → ( )
expression and then after removing the indeterminate form, replace ,
a. There are four indeterminate forms: ∞/∞, (−∞)/∞, ∞/(−∞) and
, ... by 0.
(−∞)/(−∞). L’ Hospital’s Rule can be applied to each of these forms.
4. By substitution: b. Numerator and denominators are differentiated separately.
(a) If x → a then put x = a + t so that when x → a, then t → 0.
c. If the R.H.S. exists or does not exist because value approaches ∞, then
(b) If x → − ∞ then put x = − t so that when x → − ∞, then t → ∞. L-Hospital rule can be applied. But if R.H.S.’s value fluctuates then this
rule can’t be applied.
(c) If x → ∞ then put x = so that when x → ∞, then t → 0+.
d. If it is applied continuously then at each step 0/0 or ∞/∞ should be
checked.
 221 222

( ) ( )
* Another form of L’ Hospital’s Rule states that if the lim ( )
produces * lim = n.
→± →
( ) ( )
the indeterminate form 0/0 or ∞/∞, then, lim = lim . 𝐚
→± ( ) →± ( ) * 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (1 + )bx = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (1 + ax) b/x = e ab
𝐱→ 𝐱 𝐱→𝟎
L’ Hospital’s Rule cannot be applied unless direct substitution produces
the indeterminate form 0/0 or ∞/∞. [Note: From this formula we get following direct results,

Sometimes it is necessary to apply L’ Hospital’s Rule more than once to

i. lim ( )x = =
remove an indeterminate form. → ( )
→

7. By using standard results on limits:

ii. lim (1 + )x = lim (1 + x)1/x = e (Putting a = b = 1)
→ →
(a). Function involving x and its powers,
iii. lim (1 + )x = lim (1 + ax)1/x = ea. (Putting b = 1)
* lim x 1/a = c 1/a → →
→

∞ if a > 1 iv. lim (1 – )bx = e− ab = (Replacing a by – a)

→
* lim xa = 1 if a = 0
→
0 if a < 0
v. lim (1 – ax) b/x = .]
→
* lim x 1/a =∞
→
⋯.
* If L = lim , then.
* lim x 1/x = 1 → ⋯.
→
i. L = if m = n.
* lim xx = 1
→
ii. L = 0 if m < n and
* lim =∞
→ iii. L = ∞ if m > n and > 0.

−∞ if n is odd and L = − ∞ if m > n and < 0.

* lim =
→ +∞ if n is even.

*
−∞ if n is odd, a > 0.
lim a xn = +∞ (b). Exponential functions:
→ if n is even, a > 0.
* lim ex = e c. [Hint: Expand ex and take limits]
∞ if a > 0 →
* lim = does not exist if a = 0
→
−∞ if a < 0 * lim ex = 1. [Hint: Expand ex and take limits]
→

* lim = 0 for any real a. * lim ex = ∞.

→ →

* lim = n an−1 * lim ex = 0.

→ →
 223 224

* lim e–x = 0. * lim log e x = 1.

→ →

* lim e–x = ∞. * lim = log e a.

→ →

* lim xe– x = 0. [Hint: Expand e-x and take limits]

→ * lim = 1. [Hint: Solve as above. Here a = e and loge e = 1]
→

* lim xe– x = 0. [Hint: lim is of form. Use L’ Hospital’s rule]

→ → * lim = 1. (Use L’ Hospital’s rule for 0/0 indeterminate form)
→

* lim =a
* lim
( )
= 1.
→
→

* lim = 1 (Here a = 1) ( )
→ * lim = loga e. (a > 0 and a ≠ 1)
→
( ( )) ( )
* lim {1+a (e−x − 1)} −1/x = e a [or lim = a] * lim = 1. [Hint: Put x - 1= y, lim = lim = 1]
→ → → → →

(c). Functions of type a f(x) ( )

* lim = −1.
→
* lim = loge a. (a > 0)
→
* lim x. ln x = 0 [L= lim /
is of form ∞/∞, use L’ Hospital’s rule]
→ →
∞ if a > 1
* lim a x= 1 ifa = 1
→
0 if 0 < a < 1 * lim = 0. [This is of form ∞/∞, use L’ Hospital’s rule]
→
0, if a > 1
* lim a – x = 1, ifa = 1 (e). Trigonometric functions:
→ ∞, if 0 < a < 1
* lim sin x = 0. [Hint: – x ≤ sin x ≤ x ∀ x ≥ 0 ⇒ – 0 ≤ sin 0 ≤ 0]
→
1, if a > 0
* lim a 1/x = 0, ifa = 0
→ does not exist, if a < 0 * lim cos x = lim = 1. [Hint: cos x = 1 −
!
+ !
− !
+ …]
→ →

(d). Logarithmic functions: →

* lim tan x = 0. [Hint: lim tan x = = = 0]
→ →
* lim log x = log c →
→
* lim =1
* lim loga x = −∞ if a > 1 (In particular lim log x = – ∞) →
→ ∞ if a < 1 →

* lim loga x = ∞ if a > 1 (In particular lim log x = ∞.) * lim =1 [Hint: lim = = = 1]
−∞ if a < 1 → →
→ → →

* lim log ex = 0. [ lim x loge e = lim x = 0]

* lim = (b ≠ 0)
→ → →
→
 225 226

* lim =1 (a ≠ 0) ● Continuity of a function at a point:

→
If the left-hand limit, right hand limit and the value of the function at x = a
exist and are equal, then f is said to be continuous at x = a.
* lim =a
→ A real valued function is continuous at a point ‘a’ in its domain if the fol-
lowing conditions are true.
* lim = (x in radians) [Hint: x0 = rad] 1. The function is defined at x = a. (i.e., f(a) is defined).
→
2. lim f(x) exists.
→
* lim =0
→ 3. lim f(x) = f(a) = lim f(x)
→ →
* lim =0
→ ● Discontinuous function:

* lim x. sin ( ) = 0 [Put h = changes limit to lim = 0.] A function is said to be discontinuous in any of the following cases:
→ →
1. lim f(x) and lim f(x) exist but are not equal.
→ →
* lim x. sin ( ) = 1 [Put h = changes limit to lim = 1.]
→ → 2. lim f(x) and lim f(x) exist and are equal but not equal to f(a).
→ →

→
3. f(a) is not defined.
* lim =1 [Hint: L = = 1]
→ → 4. At least one of the limits does not exist.

* lim =1 ● Removable Discontinuity:

→
A removable discontinuity is one at which the limit of the function exists
* lim =0 but does not equal the value of the function at that point; this may be be-
→ cause the function does not exist at that point.

* lim = If lim f(x) exists but lim f(x) ≠ f (a), or

→ → →

(f). Inverse Trigonometric functions:

If lim f(x) = lim f(x) ≠ f (a) then this is removable discontinuity.
→ →

This is so named because one can “remove” this point of discontinuity by

* lim = lim =1 redefining an almost everywhere identical function.
→ →
f(x) for x ≠ a
lim f(x) =
* lim = lim =1 → f(a) for x = a .
→ →
● Non removable Discontinuity:
* lim sin–1 x = sin–1 a, |a| ≤ 1
→
1. If anyone or both limits {i.e., lim f(x) & lim f(x)} do not exist then
→ →
* lim cos–1 x= cos–1 a, |a| ≤ 1 there is non-removable discontinuity, or
→

* lim tan–1 x = tan–1 a, – ∞ < a < ∞. 2. If lim f(x) ≠ lim f(x) then this is non-removable discontinuity.
→ → →
 227 228

● Continuity of a function over an interval: ● Derivative and Differentiability of a function:

A function is said to be continuous if it is continuous on the whole of its The process of finding the derivative of a function is called differentiation.
domain. i.e., If a function f is defined on a closed interval [a, b], then for f A function f is differentiable at c if its derivative exists at c.
to be continuous, it needs to be continuous at every point in [a, b] includ- A function f is differentiable at point c in its domain, if, Left hand side
ing the end points ‘a’ and ‘b’. limit at c = Right hand side limit at c.

Continuity of ‘f’ at end point ‘a’ means lim f(x) = f (a), 𝐟(𝐜 𝐡) 𝐟(𝐜) 𝐟(𝐜 𝐡) 𝐟(𝐜)
→ i.e., 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =L
𝐡→𝟎 𝐡 𝐡→𝟎 𝐡
Continuity of ‘f’ at end point ‘b’ means lim f(x) = f (b).
→
𝐟(𝐜 𝐡) 𝐟(𝐜)
The graph of a continuous function can be plotted on a paper without lift- ● If 𝐥𝐢𝐦 does not exist ⇒ f is not differentiable at c.
𝐡→𝟎 𝐡
ing the pencil.
A function f is differentiable on an open interval (a, b) if it is differentiable
● Properties of continuous function: at every point in (a, b). i.e., excluding at points a and b.
If f and g are continuous functions, then
A function f is differentiable in the closed interval [a, b] if it is differentia-
1. Sum & difference: (f ± g) (x) = f (x) ± g(x) is continuous. ble in open interval (a, b) and at the end points ‘a and b’.

2. Product: (f. g) (x) = f (x). g(x) is continuous. i.e., Function f is differentiable in [a, b] if,

( ) 𝐟(𝐜 𝐡) 𝐟(𝐜) 𝐟(𝐜 𝐡) 𝐟(𝐜)

3. Quotient: ( )(x) = wherever g(x) ≠ 0 is continuous. 1. At any point c in (a, b), 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = L,
( ) 𝐡→𝟎 𝐡 𝐡→𝟎 𝐡
𝐟(𝐚 𝐡) 𝐟(𝐚)
4. λ. g(x) is also continuous, where λ is a constant. 2. At point a, f ′ (a) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = L (h > 0) and
𝐡→𝟎 𝐡
(If λ = – 1, then continuity of f implies continuity of – f.)
𝐟(𝐛 𝐡) 𝐟(𝐛)
3. At point b, f ′ (b) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = L (h > 0).
𝐡→𝟎 𝐡
5. is also continuous, where λ is a constant and g(x) ≠ 0.
( ) If f is a real function and c is a point in its domain, then the derivative of
(Hence the continuity of g implies continuity of 1/g) function f at c is defined by,
( ) ( )
* If f(x) is continuous and g(x) is discontinuous at x = a, then at x = a, the f ′( c) or (f(x)) = lim provided this limit exists.
→
product function φ = f(x). g(x) is not necessarily discontinuous.
Note: A differentiable function is always continuous but if a function is
* If f(x) and g(x) both are discontinuous at x = a, then the product func- continuous, it may or may not be differentiable.
tion φ = f(x). g(x) is not necessarily discontinuous at x = a. ● Reasons when a continuous function is not differentiable or
when a function does not have derivative:
* If (f o g) is defined at c for real valued functions f and g and if g is con-
tinuous at c and f is continuous at g(c), then (f o g) is continuous at c. i. A corner: Where function is continuous and L.H. limit and R.H. limit
are finite but not equal.
● Differentiation from first principle: ii. A cusp; Where the slope approaches ∞ from one side and - ∞ from other
If function f(x) is finitely differentiable at every point on the real number side.
line, then its derivative is given by, iii. A vertical tangent; Where the slope approaches either ∞ or - ∞ from
( ) ( ) both sides.
f ′(x) or (f(x)) = lim .
→ iv. A discontinuity.
 229 230

● Rolle’s Theorem: ● Differentiation of composite function:

If f: [a, b] → R is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) such that If f and g are differentiable functions in their domain, then fog(x) or f(g(x))
f (a) = f (b), then there exists some c in (a, b) such that f ′(c) = 0. is also differentiable, and (fog)′ (x) = f ′{(g(x)} g′ (x).

● Method of differentiation:
● Mean Value Theorem:
* Chain rule:
If f: [a, b] → R is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Then
( ) ( )
there exists some c in (a, b) such that, f ′(c) =
( ) If f = v o u, and t = u (x) Then, = = .
provided all derivatives in the statement exist.
● Increasing function:
Similarly, if f = (w o u) o v and t = v(x) and s = u(t),
A function f is said to be increasing on an interval (a, b)
( )
if for all x1, x2 ∈ (a, b), x1 < x2 in (a, b) ⇒ f (x1) ≤ f (x2). Then, = . = . .
or provided all the derivatives in the statement exist.
A function f is said to be increasing on an interval (a, b)
if f ′(x) ≥ 0 for each x in (a, b). ● Differentiation of a function w.r.t. another function:
𝐝𝐲 𝐝𝐲 𝐝𝐳 𝐟 (𝐱)
● Decreasing function: If y = f(x) and z = g(x), Then, = / =
𝐝𝐳 𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱 𝐠 (𝐱)

A function f is said to be decreasing on (a, b) ● Fundamental rules for differentiation

if for all x1, x2 ∈ (a, b), x1 < x2 in (a, b) ⇒ f (x1) ≥ f (x2).
1. {k} = 0 (where k is a constant function).
or
A function f is said to be decreasing on an interval (a, b) if f ′(x) ≤ 0 for 2. {k.f(x)} = k. f(x)
each x in (a, b).
Notes: 3. {f(x) ± g(x)} = f(x) ± g(x)
1. Polynomial, exponential, sine, cosine functions are everywhere continu-
ous and differentiable. or [(u ± v)′ = u′ ± v′]

2. Logarithmic function is continuous and differentiable in its domain. 4. {f(x). g(x)} = f(x). g(x) + g(x). f(x)

( ) (𝐮𝐯) 𝐮 𝐯
3. tan x is not continuous and differentiable at x = ± or [ = + ]
𝐮𝐯 𝐮 𝐯
(for n = 0,1,2….).
[Generalization: If u1, u2, …, un be a function of x, then,
4. | x | is not differentiable at x = 0.
(u1, u2, …, un) = ( ).(u2, u3, …, un) + ( )(u1, u3, …, un) + …
5. If f ′ (x) → ± ∞ as x → k, then f(x) is not differentiable at x = k.
…+( )(u1, u2, …, un-1)
(𝐮𝟏.𝐮𝟐.𝐮𝟑…..𝐮𝐧) 𝐮𝟏 𝐮𝟐 𝐮𝟑 𝐮𝐧
or = + + + …. + ]
𝐮𝟏.𝐮𝟐.𝐮𝟑…..𝐮𝐧 𝐮𝟏 𝐮𝟐 𝐮𝟑 𝐮𝐧
 231 232

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 𝐮 𝐮𝐯 𝐯 𝐮 (sec x) = sec x. tan x. [x ≠ (2n+1) ]

5. { ( )
} =
{ ( )}
or [(
𝐯
)′ =
𝐯𝟐
, and v ≠ 0]

(cosec x) = – cosec x. cot x. [x ≠ nπ]

6. If {f(x)} = φ (x), then, {f(ax + b)}= a φ(ax + b)

(sin u) = cos u.
● Derivatives of functions:

(k) = 0 (Where k is constant) (cos u) = – sin u.

(xn) = n xn–1 Particularly, (x) = 1. (tan u) = sec2 u.

(ax) = ax loge a [a > 0 and a ≠ 1] (cot u) = – cosec2 u.

(e x) = e x. [ (e x) = ex.log e = e x.] (sec u) = sec u. tan u.

(log e x) = [x > 0] (cosec u) = – cosec u. cot u.

(log a x) = log a e = ● Inverse Trigonometric Functions:

(sin–1 x) = . [– 1< x < 1]

√
(log a u) = log a e.

(cos –1 x) = . [– 1< x < 1]

√
(au) = au log e a.

(tan–1 x) = .
(e u) = e u.

(cot–1 x) = .
● Trigonometric Functions:

(sin x) = cos x. (sec–1 x) = . [|x| > 1]

√

(cos x) = – sin x. (cosec–1 x) = . [|x| > 1]

√

(tan x) = sec2 x. [x ≠ (2n+1) ] ● Hyperbolic functions:

(cot x) = – cosec2 x. [x ≠ nπ] (sinh x) = cosh x.

 233 234

(cosh x) = sinh x. ● Differentiation using substitution:

Some complicated expressions involving inverse trigonometric functions
(tanh x) = sech2 x. are easily solved using this method.

* For function √a − x (Put x = a sin θ or x = a cos θ.)

(coth x) = – cosech2 x.
* For function √a + x (Put (i) x = a tan θ or x = a cot θ
(sech x) = – sech x. tanh x. or (ii) x = a sec θ or x = a cosec θ)

* For function √x − a (Put x = a sec θ or x = a cosec θ)

(cosech x) = – cosech x. coth x.
* For function √a + x or √a − x (Put x = a cos 2θ.)
● Inverse hyperbolic functions:
* For function √x − α or β−x (Put x = α sin2 θ + β cos2 θ.)
(sinh–1 x) = . [For all real x]
√ * For function √2ax − x (Put x = a (1 − cos θ).)

(cosh –1 x) = . [For all real x > 1] * For function a sin x + b cos x (Put a = r cos θ, b = r sin θ.)
√
* For function √b x − a (Put x = (a/b).sec θ.)
(tanh–1 x) = . [For all real |x| < 1]
* For function √a − b x (Put x = (a/b). sin θ.)

(coth–1 x) = . [For all real |x| > 1] * For function √a + b x (Put x = (a/b). tan θ.)

(sech–1 x) = . [For all real x ∈ (0, 1)] * For function or (Put x = a tan θ.)
√

(cosech–1 x) = . [For all real x, except 0] * For function (Put x = a cos θ.)
√

(sinh–1 u) = .
√ * For function (Put x = a cos θ.)

(cosh –1 u) = .
√
* For function or (Put x2 = a2 cos θ.)
(tanh–1 u) = .
● Finding differential coefficient using trigonometrical substitu-
(coth–1 u) = . tions:
𝟐𝐱
* For function , put x = tan θ.
(sech–1 u) = . 𝟏 𝐱𝟐
√
[As = 2sin θ. cos θ = sin 2θ]
 235 236

𝟏 𝐱𝟐 * sin−1(–x) = – sin–1 x,
* For function , put x = tan θ.
𝟏 𝐱𝟐
cos−1(–x) = π – cos-1 x.
[As = 2cos2 θ –1= cos 2θ]
tan−1(–x) = – tan–1 x,

* For function 2x2 –1, put x = cos θ. [As 2cos2 θ –1= cos 2θ]
* sin−1 ( ) = cosec–1 x, cosec−1 ( ) = sin–1 x.
𝟐𝐱
* For function , put x = tan θ. [As = tan 2θ]
𝟏 𝐱𝟐 cos−1 ( ) = sec–1 x, sec−1 ( ) = cos–1 x,
* For function 3x– 4x3, put x = sin θ. [As 3sin θ – 4sin3 θ = sin 3θ]
tan−1 ( ) = cot–1 x, cot−1 ( ) = tan–1 x,
* For function 4x3– 3x, put x = cos θ. [As 4cos3 θ – 3cos θ = cos 3θ]
* sin−1 (cos θ) = sin−1 (sin ( – θ)) = – θ,
𝟑𝐱 𝐱 𝟑
* For function , put x = tan θ [As = tan 3θ]
𝟏 𝟑𝐱 𝟐
cos−1 (sin θ) = cos−1 (cos ( – θ)) = – θ,
* sin−1 (2x √1 − x ) = 2sin−1 x.
tan−1 (cot θ) = tan−1 {tan ( – θ)} = – θ.
* cos−1 (2x2−1) = cos−1 (1−2x2) = 2cos−1 x.

● Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms:

* sin−1 = cos−1 = tan−1 = 2tan−1x.
A relation expressed between two variables x and y in the form x = f(t), y
* sin−1 (3x−4x3) = 3sin−1 x. = g(t) is said to be parametric form with t as a parameter.
( )
* cos−1 (4x3−3x) = 3cos−1 x. From chain rule: = / i.e., = [provided f ′(t) ≠ 0]
( )

* tan−1 = 3tan−1x.
● Logarithmic differentiation:
It is used to differentiate the following forms of functions where we first
* sin−1 x + cos−1 x = For x ∈ [1, 1]
take logarithm and then differentiate.

* tan−1 x + cot−1 x = 1. f (x) = [u (x)]v(x) . Here both f (x) and u(x) need to be positive.
( ). ( ). ( )…
2. f(x) = .
* sec−1 x + cosec−1 x = ( ). ( ). ( )…

● Differentiation of implicit functions:

* sin−1 [x 1 − y ± y√1 − x ] = sin−1 x ± sin−1 y.
If f (x, v) = 0, differentiate w.r.t. x and collect terms containing at one
* cos−1 [x y ∓ y (1 − x )(1 − y )] = cos−1 x ± cos−1 y.
side.
±
* tan−1 = tan−1 x ± tan−1 y.
∓
 237 238

● Shortcut for implicit functions: ● Derivative of special type of functions:

Put {f(x, v)}= − / where is a partial differential of give function ( )

1. If y = f(x){ f(x) }…∞, then =
( ){ . ( )}
w.r.t. x and is partial differential of function w.r.t. y.
( )
2. If e g(y) – e−g(y) = 2f(x), then =
( )
.
{ ( )}
● Differential of a function:
Differential represents change in function y = f(x) with respect to changes ( ) ( ) ( )
in the independent variable. 3. If y =
( )
, then =
[ ( )]
. ( )
Differential dy is defined by, dy = f’(x). dx [f’(x) = ]

( )
● Table of Differentials: 4. If y = f(x) + f(x) + f(x) + ⋯ ∞ , then =

d (c u) =c du d (uv) =v. uv−1. du + un. (ln u). dv

d (u + v) =du + dv d (uu) =uu. (1 + ln u). du ( ) ( )
5. If {f(x)}g(y) = e{f(x) – g (y)}, then =
( ){ ( )}
d (u + v + w) =du + dv + dw d (eu) =eu. du
d (u v) =u dv + v du d (bu) =bu. (ln b). du ( ) ( ) ( ) { ( )} ( )
d (u v w) =u.v. dw + u.w. dv + v.w. du 6. If {f(x)} g (y) = {g(y)}f(x), then = . .
d (ln u) = . du ( ) ( ) ( ) { ( )} ( )

d (un) =nun−1du d (log b u) = . (lo gb e). du

● Differentiation of a determinant:
. . . . p q r p q r
d( )= d( )= p q r
If y = u v w then, = u v w + + u v w
d sin u = cos u. du d sin−1 u = (1 − u2) −1/2. du l m n l m n l m n
d cos u = − sin u. du d cos−1 u = − (1 − u2) −1/2. du
d tan u = sec2 u. du d tan−1 u = (1 + u2) −1. du
q r p r p q
d cot u = − cosec2 u. du d cot−1 u = − (1 + u2) −1. du
or = v w + u w + u v
d sec u = sec u. tan u. du d sec−1 u = . (u2 − 1)1/2. du
m n l n l m
d cosec u = − cosec u. cot u. du d cosec−1 u =− . (u2 − 1) −1/2. du
d sinh u = cosh u. du d sinh−1 u = (u2 + 1) −1/2. du ● Successive Differentiation (Higher order derivatives):
d cosh u = sinh u. du d cosh−1 u = (u2 − 1) −1/2. du
If y = f(x) then = f ′ (x) is called 1st derivative of y with respect to x.
d tanh u = sech2 u. du d tanh−1u = (1 − u2) −1. du
d coth u = − cosech2 u. du d coth−1 u = − (u2 − 1) −1. du
and = ( ) = f ″ (x) is 2nd derivative of y w.r.t. x.
d sech u = − sech u. tanh u. du d sech−1 u = − . (1 − u2) −1/2. du
: : :
d cosech u = − cosech u. coth u. du d cosech−1u= − .(u2 + 1) −1/2. du
: : :
d( ) = x. dx + y. dy d tan−1 ( ) =
Thus = f n(x) is nth derivative of y w.r.t. x.
 239 240

● Geometric meaning of derivative at a point on curve y = f(x):

● Leibnitz Theorem:
If u and v are two functions of x such that their nth derivative exist, then, The derivative of the function y = f(x) at a point, when exists, is equal to
the slope (or gradient) of the tangent line to the curve y = f(x) at that point.
D n (u, v) = nC0 (D n u) v + nC1(Dn-1u) (D v) + nC2(Dn-2u) (D2v) + …
+ nCr (Dn- ru) (Dr v) + … + nCn (D n v).

● nth derivative of some functions:

* If y = (a. x + b) m, then
!
i. y n = an (ax + b) m–n (When m > n)
( )!
[y n = m (m – 1) (m – 2) … (m – n + 1). (ax + b) m – n.an ]
ii. y n = n! an (When m = n)
iii. y n = 0 (When m > n) The slope of the tangent to the curve y = f(x) at the point {a, f(a)}.
( ) ( )
( ) . ! f ′ (a) = f(x)}x=a = lim = lim = tan θ.
2. If y = then y n = an → →
( )

● The equation of the tangent at (x1, y1) to the curve y = f (x):

* e mx = m n e mx
𝐝𝐲
y – y1 = (x – x1).
𝐝𝐱
* a mx = m n a mx (loge a) n
* If tangent to a curve y = f (x) at x = x1 is parallel to x-axis,

* sin (ax + b) = an sin (ax + b + ) then θ = 0 and ] x = x1 = 0.

* If the tangent at point (x1, y1) is parallel to the y-axis,

* cos (ax + b) = an cos (ax + b + )
then θ = and → ∞. We say tangent does not exist at this point.
( ) ( )!
* log (ax +b) =
( )
* If the tangent at point (x1, y1) makes equal angles with axes, then = ±1.
( ) ( )!
* loga x = ● Length of the tangent, sub-tangent, Normal and sub-normal:
.

* [e ax sin (bx +c)] = r n e ax sin (bx + c + n φ)

* [e ax cos (bx +c)] = r n e ax cos (bx + c + n φ) Where r = √a + b and

φ = tan–1
 241 242

𝐝𝐱 * If at the point (x1, y1) does not exist, then the normal is parallel to x-
1. Length of the tangent: TP = y1 𝟏 + (𝐝𝐲)𝟐
axis and its equation is y = y1.

[TP = MP cosec θ. = y1 √1 + cot θ = y1 1 + ( ) .] ● Local maximum:

A local maximum or relative maximum value for f(x) is said to occur at
𝐝𝐱
2. Length of the sub-tangent: TM = y1 those points where in moving from left to right the height of the curve in-
𝐝𝐲
creases, then stops and begins to decrease.
[TM = MP cot θ. = y1 ]
* f(x) is said to have a local- maxima at a point (x0, f(x0)) if, f(x0) ≥ f(x).

𝐝𝐲 (for all values of x in some open interval containing the point x0)
3. Length of the normal: GP = y1 𝟏 + (𝐝𝐱)𝟐 .
● Local minimum:
[GP = MP sec θ. = y1 √1 + tan θ = y1 1 + ( ) .] A local minimum or relative minimum value of f(x) is said to occur at
those points where in moving from left to right the height of the curve de-
𝐝𝐲 creases, then stops and begins to increase.
4. Length of the sub-normal: MG = y1 .
𝐝𝐱
* f(x) is said to have a local- minima at a point (x0, f(x0)) if, f(x0) ≤ f(x).
[MG = MP tan θ. = y1 .]
(for all values of x in some open interval containing the point x0)
𝐝𝐱
5. x- Intercept of tangent: OT = x1 - y1 .
𝐝𝐲

[OT = OM - TM = x1 - y1 .]

𝐝𝐱
6. y- Intercept of tangent: OS = (x1 - y1)
𝐝𝐲

[OS = OT tan θ = (x1 - y1 ) = (x1 - y1) 1. In the above figure the points x1, x3, x5, x8 are where the function f(x) has
local maximum values.
● Length of perpendicular from origin to the tangent to the
2. The points x2, x4, x6 are where f(x) has local minimum values.
curve y = f (x) at a point (x1, y1):
3. The end points, where x = a and x = b, are always tested separately for
the existence of a local maximum or minimum value.

● Absolute Maximum:
Absolute maximum or global maximum value (M) is the highest of all the
local maximum values for f(x) in its domain. In figure, M = f(x5).
● Equation of the normal to the curve y = f (x) at a point (x1, y1),
𝟏
● Absolute Minimum:
is y – y1 = 𝐝𝐲 (x – x1)
𝐝𝐱
Absolute minimum or global minimum value (m) is the lowest of all the
local minimum values for f(x) in its domain. In figure, m = f(x2).
* If = 0 at the point (x1, y1), then equation of the normal is x = x1.
Therefore, m ≤ f(x) ≤ M in the domain of function.
 243 244

Note: For functions defined on a closed interval [a, b], the end points ‘a’ ● Notes on Local Maxima and Minima:
and ‘b’ must be tested separately for a maximum or minimum value.
1. At a local maximum or local minimum value, the tangent line to the
curve is parallel to one of the coordinate axes.
● Critical point:
In the domain of a function f if there is a point ‘x0’ at which either f ′(x0) = 2. A local maximum or local minimum value is associated with those
0 or f is not differentiable then ‘x0’ is called a critical point of function f. points x where f ′(x) = 0. The roots of the equation f ′(x) = 0 are called
critical points.

● Point of inflection:

After finding the critical points test them to see if they correspond to a
local maximum, local minimum or neither, such as the point x7 in figure.
3. Continuous curves which have abrupt changes in their derivative at a
1. A point (x0, f(x0)) is called an inflection point if the concavity of the
single point are said to have cusps at these points. e.g., the points x1 and x2
curve changes at that point. The second derivative f″(x0) may or may not
in the figure are called cusps.
be equal to zero at an inflection point.
At these cusps one finds that either f ′(x) = ± ∞ or f ′(x) has a jump discon-
2. A point (x0, f(x0)) is an inflection point associated with the curve y = f(x) tinuity. These points must be tested separately to determine local maxi-
if there exists a small neighbourhood of the point x0 such that, mum or minimum values for y= f(x).

i. for x < x0, we get f ″(x) > 0 and for x > x0, we get f ″(x) < 0. 4. The end points of the interval i.e., a and b must be tested separately to
determine if a local maximum or minimum value exists.
or
ii. for x < x0, we get f ″(x) < 0 and for x > x0, we get f ″(x) > 0. 5. f ′(x) = 0 or f ′(x) = ± ∞ at a point x0 are not sufficient conditions for
maximum/ minimum value for the function y = f(x) as these conditions
3. No local minimum value or maximum value occurs at an inflection may produce an inflection point or an asymptotic line. So additional tests
point. for local maximum and minimum values are needed.
6. If the function y = f(x) is continuous, then between two equal values for
4. A horizontal inflection point is characterized by a tangent line parallel the function, where f ′(x) is not zero everywhere, at least one maximum or
with the x-axis with f ′(a) = 0 and f ″(a) = 0 as shown by point A. one minimum value must exist.

5. A vertical inflection point is characterized by a tangent line parallel with i.e., Between two maximum values there is at least one minimum value or
the y-axis with f ′(b) = ± ∞ as shown by the point B. between two minimum values there is at least one maximum value.
7. In the neighbourhood of a local maximum value, as x increases the func-
6. Point C illustrates a point of inflection where we get f ′(c) = 0 and f ″(c) tion increases, then stops changing and starts to decrease. Similarly, in the
= 0 and the concavity changes from concave up to concave down as x in- neighbourhood of a local minimum value, as x increases the function de-
creases across the inflection point. creases, then stops changing and starts to increase.

7. If the curve is continuous with continuous derivatives, those points 8. In terms of a particle moving along the curve, one can say that the par-
where the concavity changes, from upward to downward or from down- ticle change becomes stationary at a local maximum or minimum value of
ward to upward, are inflection points with a zero second derivative. the function. Hence stationary points term is often used when referring to
maxima and minima.
 245 246

● First Derivative Test: ● Working rule for finding absolute maxima/ minima:
To test a function y = f(x) for maximum and minimum values,
1. First calculate f ′(x) and
2. Then solve the equation f ′(x) = 0 to find the critical points. (The roots
of the equation f ′(x) = 0 are called critical points.)
3. If x0 is a critical point, then examine how f ′(x) changes as x moves from
left to right across the point x0. In this figure function f(x) is plotted for a ≤ x ≤ b.
Step 1: Find all critical points of ‘f’ in the interval, i.e., where either f ′(x) =
● Slope changes in neighbourhood of critical point:
0 or f is not differentiable.
If the slope f ′(x) changes the sign from (i.e., Find f ′(x) and then solve the equation f ′(x) = 0 to get the critical
1. ‘+’ → ‘0’ → ‘−’, then a local maximum occurs at the critical point. points say x1, x2, …. x8 etc.).

2. ‘−’→ ‘0’ → ‘+’, then a local minimum occurs at the critical point. Step 2: Take the end points of the interval ‘a’ and ‘b’.
3. ‘+’ → ‘0’ → ‘+’, then a point of inflection is said to exist at the critical
point. Step 3: At all these points (listed in step 1 and 2), calculate the values of f.
Tabulate these values as shown in figure on next page.
4. ‘−’ → ‘0’ → ‘−’, then a point of inflection is said to exist at the critical
point. Step 4: Out of the values calculated in Step 3, identify the maximum and
For a curve y = f(x), where x ∈ [a, b], the values of f(x) at the end points ‘a’ minimum values of function f.
and ‘b’ must be tested separately to determine if they represent local or In the figure the critical points including end points and corresponding
absolute extreme values for the function. values of f(x) are tabulated below,
Also points where the slope of the curve changes abruptly, such as the
point x1 in figure, must also be tested separately for local extreme values of
the function.

● Second Derivative Test:

Let f be a function defined on an interval I and x0 ∈ I. Let f be twice differ-
entiable at x0 (i.e., f ″(x) is continuous in the neighbourhood of a critical
point). Different cases observed are;
1. If f ′(x0) = 0 and f ″(x0) < 0, then x = x0 is a point of local maxima. The
values f (x0) is local maximum value of f.
2. If f ′(x0) = 0 and f ″(x0) > 0, then x = x0 is a point of local minima. In
this case, f (x0) is the local minimum value of f.
3. If f ′(x0) = 0 and f ″(x0) = 0, then the test fails. In this case, we go back This maximum value will be the absolute maximum value of f and the min-
to the first derivative test and find whether x0 is a point of maxima, mini- imum value will be the absolute minimum.
ma or a point of inflection.
 248

● Properties of indefinite integral:

1. The process of differentiation and integration are inverses of each other

in the sense of the following results:
Sl. Derivatives Integrals 𝐝
No
∫ f (x) dx = f (x) and ∫ f ′ (x) dx = f(x) + C,
𝐝𝐱
(Where C is any arbitrary constant).
1 ∫ x n dx = + C, n ≠ – 1
( )=xn
∫ dx = x + C. 2. Two indefinite integrals with the same derivative lead to the same fami-
Particularly, (x) = 1
ly of curves and so they are equivalent.
2 (sin x) = cos x. ∫ cos x. dx = sin x + C
3. ∫ [ f (x) + g (x)] dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ g (x) dx
3 (– cos x) = sin x. ∫ sin x. dx = – cos x + C
4. For any real number k, ∫ k f (x) dx = k ∫ f (x) dx
4 (tan x) = sec2 x. ∫ sec2 x. dx = tan x + C
5. Properties (3) and (4) can be generalised to a finite number of functions
5 ∫ cosec2 x. dx = – cot x + C f1, f2, ..., fn and the real numbers, k1, k 2, ..., k n giving,
(– cot x) = cosec2 x.
∫ [k1 f 1(x) + k2 f 2(x) + ..., k n f n (x)] dx
6 (sec x) = sec x. tan x. ∫ sec x. tan x. dx = sec x + C
= k1 ∫ f 1(x) dx + k2 ∫ f 2(x) dx + ... + k n ∫ f n (x) dx
7 (– cosec x) = cosec x. cot x. ∫cosec x. cot x. dx =– cosecx + C
● Methods of Integration
8 (sin–1 x) = . ∫ = sin–1 x + C
√ √ 1. Integration by Substitution
9 (– cos –1 x) = . ∫ =– cos –1 x+C
√ √ Consider I = ∫ f (x) dx

10 (tan–1 x) = . ∫ = tan–1 x + C Put x = g (t). So that = g′ (t).

11 (– cot–1 x) = . ∫ = – cot–1 x + C Now writing dx=g′ (t) dt.

12 Thus, I = ∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (g (t)) g′ (t) dt.

(sec–1 x) = . ∫ = sec–1 x + C
√ √

13 1. Using substitution method integration of trigonometric func-

(–cosec–1 x) = . ∫ = – cosec–1 x + C
√ √ tions
14 (e x) = e x. ∫ e x. dx = e x + C
(a). ∫tan x dx =log | sec x | + C

15 (log | x |) = ∫ = log | x | + C (b). ∫cot x dx =log | sin x | +C

16 ( ) = ax ∫ a x. dx = +C (c). ∫sec x dx =log | sec x + tan x | +C

(d). ∫cosec x dx = log | cosec x - cot x | + C

 249 250

● Integrals of some particular functions. ( ) ( )

* I=∫ =∫ dx + ∫ dx.
√ √ √
* ∫ = log | | + C.
Now we can proceed as in (i) and transform the integral into known stand-
ard forms.
* ∫ = log | | + C.
2. Integration using Partial Fractions
dx ( )
* ∫ = tan-1 + C. A rational function , Q(x) ≠ 0, is called proper if the degree of P(x) is
( )
less than the degree of Q(x) otherwise, it is called improper.

* ∫ = log | x + √x − a | + C. The improper rational functions can be reduced to the proper rational
√ functions.
The rational functions considered here for integration purposes will be
* ∫ = sin-1 + C. those whose denominators can be factorised into linear and quadratic fac-
√
tors.

* ∫ = log | x + √x + a | + C. In the following, A, B and C are real numbers to be determined suitably.

√
( ) . .
i. I = ∫ , (a ≠ b) = ∫ +∫ .
( )( ) ( ) ( )
* ∫ = ∫
±
( ) . .
ii. I = ∫ =∫ +∫ .
(Where x + = t. So dx = dt. and writing − = ± k2) ( ) ( ) ( )

Depending upon the sign of ( − ) it can be evaluated. . . .

iii. I = ∫ =∫ +∫ +∫ .
( )( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

* ∫ = ∫ . . .
√ ± iv. I = ∫ =∫ +∫ +∫ .
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(Where x + = t. So dx = dt. and writing − = ± k2)
. ( . ).
v. I = ∫ =∫ +∫ .
Depending upon the sign of ( − ) it can be evaluated. ( )( ) ( ) ( )

3. Integration by Parts
( )
* I=∫ dx = ∫ dx + ∫ dx. This method of integration is found quite useful in integrating products of
functions. If u and v are any two differentiable functions of a single varia-
(where p, q, a, b, c are constants, we are to find real numbers A, B such ble x (say). Then, by the product rule of differentiation, we have
that, p x + q = A. (ax2 +bx +c) + B = A (2ax +b) + B) 𝐝 𝐝𝐯 𝐝𝐮
(u. v) = u +v … (i)
𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱
To determine A and B, we equate from both sides the coefficients of x and
the constant terms. A and B are thus obtained and hence the integral is Integrating both sides the equation (i), we get
reduced to one of the known forms.
u. v = ∫u dx + ∫v dx
 251 252

or ∫u
𝐝𝐯
dx = u. v - ∫v
𝐝𝐮
dx … (1) ● Special type of Integral:
𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱
I = ∫ex [ f (x) + f ′ (x)] dx = ex f (x) + C.
Let u = f (x) and = g (x)
[We have I = ∫ ex [ f (x) + f ′ (x)] dx
Then = f ′(x) and v = ∫ g (x) dx. = ∫ ex. f (x) dx + ∫ ex. f ′ (x) dx = I1 + ∫ ex. f ′ (x) dx ... (1)

Therefore expression (1) can be rewritten as (Where I1 = ∫ ex. f (x) dx)

∫ f (x). g (x) dx = f (x). ∫ g (x) dx – ∫ [∫ g (x) dx.] f ′ (x) dx. Taking respectively f(x) and ex as the first and second function in I1 and
integrating it by parts, we have
or ∫ f (x). g (x) dx = f (x). ∫ g (x) dx – ∫ [ f ′ (x) ∫ g (x) dx.] dx I1 = f (x) ∫ ex. dx – ∫ [ f ′ (x) ∫ ex. dx] dx + C
… (2) = ex. f (x) – ∫ ex. f ′ (x) dx + C … (2)
If we take f as the first function and g as the second function, then this Substituting this value of I1 in equation (1), we get
formula may be stated as follows: I = ex. f (x) – ∫ ex. f ′ (x) dx + ∫ ex. f ′ (x) dx + C = ex f (x) + C]
“The integral of the product of two functions =
● Integrals of some more types:
(first function) × (integral of the second function) – Integral of
[(differential coefficient of the first function) × (integral of the * ∫√x − a dx = √x − a - a2. log | x + √x − a | + C
second function)]”
* ∫√x + a dx = √x + a + a2. log | x + √x + a | + C
Remarks
(i) Integration by parts is not applicable to product of functions in all cas- * ∫√a − x dx = √a − x + a2. sin-1 + C.
es. e.g., this method does not work for ∫ (√x. sin x) dx. as there does not
exist any function whose derivative is (√x. sin x) ● Definite integral as the limit of a sum:
(ii) Here constant of integration has not been added. If we write the inte- 𝐛 𝟏
∫𝐚 𝐟(𝐱)dx = (b – a) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 [f (a) + f (a + h) ... + f (a + (n – 1) h)]
gral of the second function cos x as (sin x + k), where k is any constant, 𝐧→ 𝐧
then,
where h = → 0 as n → ∞
∫x cos x dx = x (sin x + k) – ∫ [1. (sin x + k)] dx
= x (sin x + k) – ∫sin x dx – ∫k dx ● First fundamental theorem of integral calculus:
= x sin x + k. x – (– cos x) – k. x + C Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b] and let A (x) be
= x (sin x + k) + cos x + C. 𝐱
the area function. A(x) = ∫
𝐚
𝐟(𝐱)dx
Hence adding a constant to the integral of the second function is super-
Then A′ (x) = f (x), for all x ∈ [a, b].
fluous so far as the final result is concerned while applying the method of
integration by parts.
● Second fundamental theorem of integral calculus:
(iii) Usually, if any function is a power of x or a polynomial in x, then we Let f be continuous function defined on the closed interval [a, b] and F be
take it as the first function. However, in cases where the other function is an anti-derivative of function f.
inverse trigonometric function or logarithmic function, then we take them 𝐛 𝐛
as first function. ∫𝐚 𝐟(x)dx = [F(x)] = F (b) – F(a).
𝐚
 253

● Some properties of definite integrals

P0. ∫ f(x) dx = ∫ f(t) dt

P1. ∫ f(x) dx = – ∫ f(x) dx (In particular ∫ f(x) dx = 0)

P2. ∫ f(x) dx = ∫ f(x) dx + ∫ f(x) dx

P3. ∫ f(x) dx = ∫ f(a + b – x) dx

P4. ∫ f(x) dx = ∫ f(a - x) dx (Note that P4 is a particular case of P3)

P5. ∫ f(x) dx = ∫ f(x) dx + ∫ f(2a – x) dx

P6. ∫ f(x) dx = 2∫ f(x) dx if f (2a – x) = f (x)

∫ f(x) dx = 0 if f (2a – x) = – f (x)

P7. (a) ∫ f(x) dx = 2∫ f(x) dx if f is even function.

(For even function f (- x) = f (x))

𝐚
(b) ∫ 𝐚 𝐟(x) dx = 0 if f is an odd function.
(For odd function f (- x) = − f (x))