CHAPTER # 09 (NATURE OF LIGHT ) SOHAIL ASIF#0341-0345559

(GOLDEN POINTS)
THEORIES OF LIGHT :
Any theory regarding propagation of light must explain the properties
of light. Light is a form of energy. To explain the nature of light, different theories were
proposed. Newton’s Corpuscular theory, Huygen’s Wave theory, Maxwell’s electromagnetic
theory and Max-Planck’s Quantum theory.
Newton’s corpuscular theory : According to Newton’s corpuscular theory light consists of tiny
invisible particles, moving with velocity of light. They are known as corpuscles. They are highly
elastic and gravitational effects on them can be neglected. The colour of the light depends on the
size of corpuscles.
This theory suggests that velocity of light is more in denser medium. Rectilinear propagation of
light is the strong basis of this theory. However this theory could not explain interference,
diffraction and polarization of light.
Huygen’s wave theory : According to Huygen’s light propagates in the form of longitudinal
mechanical waves. For the propagation of these mechanical waves, Huygen’s proposed the
existence of medium called ether which is present everywhere. The colour of the light depends
upon the wavelength of these waves. According to Huygen’s theory velocity of light is more in
rarer medium. That is later verified by Focault’s experiment. This theory could explain
interference, diffraction and polarization. But the properties of photoelectric effect, Compton
effect could not be explained on the basis of this theory.
Electromagnetic theory : Maxwell proposed that light is an electromagnetic wave but not
mechanical. So it does not require a material medium. According to this theory electromagnetic
wave is composed of electric and magnetic fields, varying at right angles. These variations
propagate in vacuum perpendicular to the field. This theory could not explain photoelectric and
Compton effects.

Newtons Huygen’s
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Planck’s quantum theory : Max Planck proposed his quantum theory to explain the black body
radiation. According to this theory light consists of photons which are quantized energy packets.
The energy of a photon is known as Quantum

Maxwell’s EM Einstein’s de-Broglie’s

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corpuscular wave theory wave theory quantum dual theory of
theory theory light
(i) Based on (i) Light travels (i) Light travels in (i) Light is (i) Light
Rectilinear in a hypothetical the form of EM produced, absorbed propagates both as
propagation of light medium ether waves with speed in and propagated as particles as well as
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(high elasticity free space packets of energy waves

very low density) 1 called photons
as waves c
0 0
(ii) Light propagates in (ii) He proposed (ii) EM waves (ii) Energy (ii) Wave nature of
the form of tiny that light waves consists of electric associated with each light dominates
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particles called are of and magnetic field hc when light interacts

Corpuscles. Colour of longitudinal oscillation and they photon E  h   with light. The

light is due to different nature. Later on do not require particle nature of
h = planks constant
size of corpuscles it was found that material medium to light dominates
they are travel  6.6  10 34 J - sec when the light
transverse  = frequency interacts with
 = wavelength matter (micro-
scopic particles )
S. No. Phenomena Theory
Corpuscular Wave E.M. Quantum Dual
wave
(i) Rectilinear     
Propagation
(ii) Reflection     
(iii) Refraction     
(iv) Dispersion   
× ×
(v) Interference   
× ×
(vi) Diffraction   
× ×
(vii) Polarisation   
× ×
(viii) Double refraction   
× ×
(ix) Doppler’s effect   
× ×
(x) Photoelectric effect  
× × ×
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Wavefront : Wavefront is defined as the locus of the particles of the medium which are in the
same state or same phase of vibration is called wavefront.
The line along which energy is propagated is called a ray. It is perpendicular to wavefront at any point.
Types of wavefront :
Spherical wavefront : A wavefront due to a point source in a three dimensional isotropic space is
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called spherical wavefront. In case of spherical wavefront intensity varies as 1/r .
Cylindrical wavefront : If the source is a linear source of light, the wavefront is a cylindrical
wavefront. In case of cylindrical wavefront intensity varies as 1/r.
Plane wavefront : When the source is at infinite distance, the radius of curvature of wavefront will
be very large. A small portion of spherical wavefront with source at infinite distance is a plane
wavefront. In case of plane wavefront intensity is constant.light from Sun reaches earth in plane

Plane WF
Spherical WF
Cylindrical WF

Light ray Light rays

Point source
Line source

Huygen’s principle :
Every point on the given wave front acts as a source of new disturbance called secondary wavelets.
A surface touching these secondary wavelets tangentially in the
forward direction at any instant give s the new wave front at that
instant. This is called secondary wave front
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 Light rays is always normal to the wave front.
 The phase difference between various particles on the wave front is zero.
Non coherent and coherent sources of light :
Point source

Primary wave front

Non coherent sources – Two sources of light, whose frequencies are not same and phase difference
Secondary
wavelets

Secondary
wave front
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between the waves emitted by which does not remain constant with respect to time, are defined as
non coherent sources.
The light emitted by two independent sources (candles, bulbs etc.) is non-coherent and interference
phenomenon cannot be produced by such two sources.
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Coherent sources – The two sources of light, whose frequencies (or wavelength λ ) are same and
the phase difference between the waves emitted by which remains constant with respect to time are
defined as coherent sources.
They are obtained from the same single source.
Laser light is highly coherent and monochromatic.
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Young’s Double Slit Experiment (YDSE)

Monochromatic light (single wavelength) falls on two narrow slits S 1 and S 2 which are very close
together acts as two coherent sources, when waves coming from two coherent sources (S 1 , S 2 )
superimposes on each other, an interference pattern is obtained on the screen. In YDSE alternate bright
and dark bands obtained on the screen. These bands are called Fringes.
Screen
4 Dark
3 Bright
3 Dark
2 Bright
d = Distance between slits S1
2 Dark
D = Distance between slits and screen 1 Bright
1 Dark
 = Wavelength of monochromatic S d Central bright
1 Dark fringe
light emitted from source S2 1 Bright
2 Dark (or Central
2 Bright maxima)
3 Dark
3 Bright
4 Dark
D

The interference of light was demonstrated for the first time with the help of this experiment.
In this experiment a single slit is exposed to two slits.
This experiment verifies the wave nature of light.
The slit S1 and S 2 behave as coherent sources.
The bright and dark fringes are obtained alternately.
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Path difference between the interfering waves meeting at a point P on the screen

xd P
is given by    d sin 
D
x
where x is the position of point P from central maxima. S1
 
d
For maxima at P :   n  ; where n = 0,  1,  2, ……. C
M
S2
(2n  1)
and For minima at P :  ; where n =  1,  2, …….
2 Screen
D
nD
Position of nth bright fringe from central maxima x n   n ; n  0, 1, 2 ....
d
(2 n  1)  D (2 n  1) 
Position of nth dark fringe from central maxima x n   ; n  1, 2,3 ....
2d 2
D
(i) All fringes are of equal width. Width of each fringe is  
d
Dependence of fringe width :
β depends on the wavelength of light used. i.e., β α λ .
1
β depends on the distance between two coherent sources i.e., β α .
d
β depends on the distance of screen from the source i.e., β α D

In YDSE, if n 1 fringes are visible in a field of view with light of wavelength 1 , while n 2 with light

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of wavelength  2 in the same field, then n1 1  n 2  2 .

Condition for observing sustained interference

(i) The initial phase difference between the interfering waves must remain constant : Otherwise the
interference will not be sustained.
(ii) The frequency and wavelengths of two waves should be equal : If not the phase difference will not
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remain constant and so the interference will not be sustained.
(iii) The light must be monochromatic : This eliminates overlapping of patterns as each wavelength
corresponds to one interference pattern.
(iv) The amplitudes of the waves must be equal : This improves contrast with I max  4 I0 and I min  0.
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(v)The distance between two light sources must be small and the distance between the source and the
screen must be large.
(vi)The two coherent sources must be narrow.
Changes observed in the interference pattern obtained in Young’s double slit experiment :
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If the experiment is repeated in water instead of air, then λ decreases and consequently β decrease.
When one of the slits of S1 and S2 is close, in this state interference does not
take place and uniform illumination is obtained on the screen.
When one slit is fully open and another one is partially open the contrast between the fringes decreases.
If one slit is illuminated with red light and the other slit is illuminated with blue light, no
interference pattern is observed on the screen.

The central fringe is bright with monochromatic light whereas it is achromatic (white) with white light.
Thin films :
Thin layer of oil on water surface and soap bubbles shows various colours in white light due to
interference of waves reflected from the two surfaces of the film.
Reflected rays
Air
Air Oil

t  r
r Air
Water

Refracted rays Oil film on water surface Soap bubble in air

Con dition of constructive interference (maximum intensity)


  2  t cos r  (2n  1) For normal incidence r = 0 so 2  t  (2 n  1) 
2
2
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C ondition of destructive interference (minimum intensity) SOHAIL ASIF#0341-0345559


  2  t cos r  (2n) For normal incidence 2  t  n 
2

Note: Conditions of constructive and destructive interference are reversed because one of two reflected waves suffers
a phase change of 180 0

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A
H
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Diffraction of Light.
It is the phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of an obstacle/aperture of the size of the
wavelength of light.
 Diffraction is the characteristic of all types of waves.

 Greater the wavelength of wave, higher will be it’s degree of diffraction.

 The Phenomenon of diffraction was discovered by Francesco Maria Grimaldi.
 The diffraction effects was known to Newton but he did not see in it any justification for wave theory.

 Huygens although believed in wave theory of light, but he did not believed in diffraction in light.
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 Fresnel correctly applied Huygens principle to explain diffraction in light which could not be
explained on the basis of ray optics.

(1) Types of diffraction : The diffraction phenomenon is divided into two types

Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction

(i) If either source or screen or both are at finite (i) In this case both source and screen are
distance from the diffracting device (obstacle or effectively at infinite distance from the
aperture), the diffraction is called Fresnel type. diffracting device.

(ii) The wave fronts falling on screen are not plane, (ii) The wave fronts falling on screen are plane,
and rays are not parallel. Similarly the wave fronts and rays are parallel. Similarly the wave fronts
leaving the aperture or obstacle to illuminate are leaving the aperture or obstacle to illuminate are
also not plane. also plane.

(iii) This class of diffraction is simple to treat

analytically and can be established in screen by
using two converging lenses.

(2) Diffraction of light at a single slit : In case of diffraction at a single slit, we get a central bright
band with alternate bright (maxima) and dark (minima) bands of decreasing intensity as shown

(i) Width of central maxima  0 

2 D
d
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(ii) Minima occurs at a point on either side of the central maxima, such that the path difference
between the waves from the two ends of the aperture is given by   n ; where n  1, 2, 3....

i.e. d sin   n
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(iii) The secondary maxima occurs, where the path difference between the waves from the two ends of
 ; where
the aperture is given by   (2 n  1) n  1, 2, 3....
2

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i.e. d sin  (2n  1)

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(5) Diffraction grating : Consists of large number of equally spaced parallel slits. If light is incident
normally on a transmission grating, the diffraction of principle maxima (PM) is given by d sin  n ;
where d = distance between two consecutive slits and is called grating element.
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Polarisation of Light
Light propagates as transverse EM waves. The magnitude of electric field is much larger as compared
to magnitude of magnetic field. We generally prefer to describe light as electric field oscillations.
Unpolarised light
The light having electric field oscillations in all directions in the plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation is called Unpolarised light. The oscillation may be resolved into horizontal and vertical
component.

Vertical oscillation Horizontal

Polarised or plane polarised light. oscillation

propagation
The light having oscillations only in one plane is called
Polaroids

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It is a device used to produce the plane polarised light.

(i) Polaroids allow the light oscillations parallel to the transmission axis pass through them.
(ii) The crystal or polaroid on which unpolarised light is incident is called polariser. Crystal or polaroid
on which polarised light is incident is called analyser.
A
P A P A

No light
H

Ordinary light Polarised Polarised Ordinary light Polarised

light light light
Transmission axes of the polariser and analyser are parallel Transmission axis of the analyser is perpendicular
to each other, so whole of the polarised light passes through to the polariser, hence no light passes through the
analyser

Types of polarisation
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Light can be polarized by the following methods

(i) reflection, (ii) refraction, (iii) double refraction, (iv) selective absorption, (v) scattering.

Applications and uses of polarisation

1. To determine the concentration of optically active substance such as sugar.

2. To enhance the effect of sky and clouds in photography. As light from the blue sky is partially polarised by
scattering, a suitable polarizing disc in front of camera lens will serve as a sky filter.