THEME: INTRODUCTION TO

ALGEBRA
How does the Mathematics CAPS curriculum
describe Patterns, Functions and Algebra?

The general focus of Patterns, Functions and Algebra, for the

GET band is given as:
“Algebra is the language for investigating and communicating
most of Mathematics and can be extended to the study of
functions and other relationships between variables. A central
part of this content area is for the learner to achieve efficient
manipulative skills in the use of algebra. It also focuses on the:
 description of patterns and relationships through the use of
symbolic expressions, graphs and tables
 identification and analysis of regularities and change in
patterns, and relationships that enable learners to make
predictions and solve problems.”
DBE (2011) Mathematics National Curriculum Statement Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement. Page 10
Mathematics is the science and language of
patterns. Thinking about patterns helps children
make sense of mathematics. They learn that
mathematics is not a set of unrelated facts and
procedures; instead, recognizing and working with
patterns helps young children predict what will
happen, talk about relationships, and see connections
between mathematics concepts and their world.
(Copley, 2000, p. 83)
Many people say that mathematics is the search for pattern.
Sometimes people refer to mathematics as the science of pattern.
When people say mathematics is the search for pattern, they are
not talking about patterns in the limited sense of number sequences
and diagrams showing patterns in stages. They are rather referring
to structural features of mathematics: to the properties of numbers
and operations and relationships between them. The aim is to focus
learners attention on the patterns and structure unpinning arithmetic
“This transforms mathematics in the primary school from a focus on
finding one numerical answer to arithmetic problems to providing
opportunities for pattern-building, conjecturing and generalising
mathematical facts and relationships” Siemon, Beswick, Brady, Clark,
Faragher and Warren (2011) Teaching Mathematics Foundation to
Middle Years. South Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press
page 249.
So what is algebra?
 “…. algebra is not “arithmetic with letters.” At the
most fundamental level, arithmetic and algebra are
two different forms of thinking about numerical
issues.”
Devlin, K (2011)
So what is algebra?
 Many people find arithmetic hard to learn, but most of us
succeed, or at least pass the tests, provided we put in enough
practice. What makes it possible to learn arithmetic is that the
basic building blocks of the subject, numbers, arise naturally in
the world around us, when we count things, measure things,
buy things, make things, use the telephone, go to the bank,
check the baseball scores, etc. Numbers may be abstract —
you never saw, felt, heard, or smelled the number 3 — but
they are tied closely to all the concrete things in the world we
live in.
 With algebra, however, you are one more step removed from
the everyday world. Those x’s and y’s that you have to learn to
deal with in algebra denote numbers, but usually numbers in
general, not particular numbers.
So, what is algebra?
 The important thing to realize is that doing algebra is
a way of thinking and that it is a way of thinking that
is different from arithmetical thinking. Those formulas
and equations, involving all those x’s and y’s, are
merely a way to represent that thinking on paper.
There are several ways to come to an understanding of the
difference between arithmetic and (school) algebra:

 First, algebra involves thinking logically rather than

numerically.
 In arithmetic, you reason (calculate) with numbers; in algebra,
you reason (logically) about numbers.
 Arithmetic involves quantitative reasoning with numbers;
algebra involves qualitative reasoning about numbers.
 In arithmetic, you calculate a number by working with the
numbers you are given; in algebra, you introduce a term for
an unknown number and reason logically to determine its
value.
 The above distinctions should make it clear that algebra is not
doing arithmetic with one or more letters denoting numbers,
known or unknown.
Professor Mason (1996:10) writes
 “Algebra is not a single thing. The word algebra resonates
(brings into awareness) a variety of experience, some
culturally shared, some idiosyncratic. It is derived from
problems of al-jabr (literally, adding or multiplying both sides
of an equation by the same thing in order to eliminate
negative/fractional terms), which were paralleled by problems
of al-muqabala (subtracting the same thing from or dividing
the same thing into both sides). The root meaning is to
equate, to compare, to pose opposite. It is purely chance that
we are discussing Algebra rather than Almukabala, or even
Mukjabra! Van der Waerden, [1980] suggests that for a
while, historically, the combination of the two words, al-jabr
wal-muqabala was sometimes used in the more general sense
(sic) of performing algebraic operations.”
 Kaput, Carraher and Blanton (2007) refer to three
strands of algebra; namely:
 Generalising from arithmetic or quantitative
reasoning
 Generalising towards the idea of a function
 Modelling as a language.
 Strand 1, generalising from arithmetic or
quantitative reasoning, is the primary focus of this
course: Introducing Algebraic thinking skills in the
Intermediate Phase by using number sentence
 Strand 2, generalising towards the idea of a
function, is the primary focus of both the courses on
Geometric Pattern and Number Patterns.
 We focus on strand 3 Modelling as a language, in
the courses on Problem solving with whole numbers
and Problem Solving in Measurement
 A key issue with patterning is being able to predict beyond what is
given. This is the generality that needs to be expressed. With
regular repeating patterns, this involves only seeing what is there,
understanding how the repetition works, and repeating the pattern.
This involves copying and extending the pattern. It is also useful to
train learners to describe the pattern: for learners not only to
extend the pattern, but to talk about how the pattern is formed or
what is the basis for the repetition. In the Foundation Phase and
Intermediate Phase we train learners in there four basic skills when
working with regular patterns:
 copy patterns
 continue or extend patterns
 talk about or describe patterns
 make own patterns
Regular patterns
 In regular patterns we can see how the pattern is made. You can
predict how to fill in the missing parts or carry on the pattern. You
can see what is repeated.
Repeating patterns
Here the same basic element is repeated e.g.
1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3
Increasing or expanding pattern e.g.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
2, 4, 6, 8, 10 …
Decreasing patterns e.g.
10, 8, 6, 4, ….

What are repeating patterns?

 A repeating pattern is a cyclical repetition of an

identifiable core. The core is the shortest string of
elements that repeat. For example:
This is a repeating pattern in the form AB, since it
has two elements -- square, circle as the core.
Definition take from:
http://www.learner.org/courses/teachingmath/gradesk_2/session_04/section_03_c.html

e.g.
       
A B A B A B A B
         
 A B B A B B A B B
         
 A B C A B C A B C
         
  
 A A B B A A B B A
A B B
 The easiest patterns are those involving two colours or
variables (for example, red, blue, red, blue), referred to as
an AB,AB pattern. More complex patterns include ABC,
ABC; AABB,AABB; AAB,AAB; ABB, ABB; and ABCD,ABCD.
Irregular patterns
 Some examples of irregular patterns are:
 patterns on bark,
 patterns made by wind on rocks, sand or clouds
 patterns made by water on sand or rocks,
 finger prints.
 Here we can see that there is a pattern and that
something is repeated, but you can’t tell how the
repetition works. You can extend an irregular pattern,
but there is usually more than one way to do this.
 Pattern is at the heart of mathematizing, but not regular
repeating patterns. In mathematics the most common
form of pattern are growing patterns. These can be
increasing/expanding patterns and
decreasing/diminishing patterns. With growing patterns
learners need to ask what is different about each stage
in the pattern. A useful way to focus their thinking on this
is to copy and extend the pattern. So learners are still
practicing the same skills, namely:
 copy patterns
 continue or extend patterns
 talk about or describe patterns
 make own patterns
Patterns lay a basis for algebraic thinking.

 If learners only work with regular repeating

patterns, it can hold back learners’ creativity both
mathematically and culturally. It is important that
learners are exposed to all kinds of patterns
(irregular and all kinds of regular) right from the
start.
The early algebra approach
...shifts learners’ attention to underlying patterns
and properties in this case of the operation. This can
be done by asking the questions suggested above:
 What is the same?
 What is different?
 Will it work for all cases?
 Will it work for all numbers and operations?
The early algebra approach
The fundamental purpose of algebra during the
early years is to provide young children with a set
of experiences that enable them to see patterns in
Mathematics as something they can make sense of,
and to provide them with the habits of mind to think
algebraically.
(Bosman, 2014 p. 143)
Developing algebraic thinking
 When learners work with algebra they use a
number of algebraic laws. These are in fact
properties of arithmetic. They are properties of
numbers and properties of operations. They are at
the heart of the structuring of the number system.
This means that pupils can learn to use these
properties before they are introduced to the
symbols of formal algebra.
Properties of numbers and operations

 The order of operations

 Commutative Property
 Associative Property
 Distributive Property
 Identity element for addition
 Identity element for multiplication
 Inverse operations
 The equals sign as a representation of equivalence
 Carpenter and Levi (2000: 5, 6) cited in Jacobs, Franke, Carpenter, Levi and Battey
(2007) report on a teacher who asked a combined Standard I and Standard II class
whether the following statement was true or false: 78 – 49 = 78. The following
discussion ensued:
 “Children: False!
 No, no, false!
 No way!
 Teacher: Why is it false?
 Jenny: Because it is the same number as in the beginning, and you already took away
some, so it would have to be lower than the number you started with.
 Mike: Unless it was 78 – 0 = 78. That would be right.
 Teacher: Is that true? Why is that true? We took something away.
 Steve: But that something is, there is nothing. Zero is nothing.
 Teacher: Is that always going to work?”
 After discussion of related number sentence, the pupils hypothesized
the following rule: “Zero subtracted from another number equals that
number” Carpenter and Levi (2000: 7). The pupils made a
hypothesis based on an example, then tested it on other examples
and eventually came up with a generalisation. A large number of
studies indicate that young pupils do generalise about many
everyday things, but also that they can make mathematical
generalisations using language. Studies have also shown that even
young pupils can be taught to express these generalisations using
variables.
 Most of the algorithms and procedures that primary school pupils
learn do contain the properties of operations. However, these are
mostly hidden. So, pupils often begin formal algebra without an
awareness of these properties. This is one reason why pupils find the
transition from arithmetic to algebra difficult.
 Caspi and Sfard (2012, p. 46) suggest that “algebraic
thinking occurs whenever one scrutinizes numerical
relations and processes in search of generalization.”
Similarly, Carraher, Martinez and Schliemann (2008
focus on algebra as generalized arithmetic of numbers
an quantities, thus moving from computations on
particular numbers and measure toward thinking about
relations among sets of numbers and measures,
especially functional relations.
Describe a pattern
 Describing a pattern involves identifying:
a) The changing attribute
b) The number of elements in the pattern core
c) The kinds of elements in the pattern core.
 To prompt learners to describe the pattern ask
questions like the following:
 Describe what you see in this pattern?
 What are the elements of the pattern?
 What part of this pattern is repeated? What do we call
the part that is repeated?
 Can you identify the core? Show me! Are you sure?
Explain your reasoning.
Copying a pattern
For copying a pattern, ask probing questions such as:
 Can you copy this pattern? Show me!
 Describe what part you see in this pattern?
 What are the elements of this pattern?
 What part of this pattern is repeated?
 Use shape pieces to she what the core of this pattern looks like
 What shape comes next in the pattern? How do you know that?
 What group of movements or sounds is repeated in this pattern?
 How do you know that?
 What do you mean by that?
Extending a pattern
 A pattern is not a pattern until is repeated.
 We should not present children with    and
ask them to extend the pattern because there is not
yet a pattern in the series.
 It is important for the core to be repeated at least
3 times
Extend and predict
 Grade R and 1 learners can be required to predict the
following near elements (what comes next), and to
provide a rationale for their reasoning.
 In extending patterns, ask questions that will focus
learners attention on:
 Identifying the core in a repeating pattern
 Communicating their understanding of the core by
highlighting the unit of repetition with string or their hands,
and
 Developing reasoning skills when justifying and explaining
their choices and thinking.
Triarchy of knowledge in Learning about patterns,
functions and algebra

Physical knowledge Touching, feeling and manipulating mathematical objects

that develop algebraic concepts, exploring equality on a
balancing scale, etc
Social knowledge Learning the rules of patterns as well as the algebraic
vocabulary to ‘read’ and describe patterns; mathematical
relationships; equality;variables; and symbols used in
mathematical sentences.
Conceptual knowledge Conceptual knowledge relating to patterning
Representing and describing mathematical relationships
Understanding equality and the true meaning of the equal
sign
Understanding the use of variables and open sentences to
express relationships through the appropriate use of
symbols
Big ideas of patterns, functions and
algebra for the Foundation Phase:
 Patterns (recognise/identify), read, describe, extend,
create, generalise and represent a variety of patterns
 Mathematical relationships, including an informal
exploration of functional and recursive relationships
(describe, represent and make generalisations about
relationships)
 Expressions and equality (represent mathematical ideas
using simple numerical expressions and equations)
 Equivalence (understanding the equal sign as an
indication that quantities have the same value)
 Variables (explore the use of variables and open
sentences to express relationships)
Early algbera
 Rather, ‘early algebra’ is an approach to teaching and learning
arithmetic which focuses on the structure and patterns underlying
arithmetic. As an example, the observation that ‘five plus two’ results
in the same answer as ‘two plus five’, and that this happens with all
pairs of numbers reveals the commutative property of addition. So
the advocates of early algebra are not expecting the primary-
school learners to be aware that a + b = b + a (for all whole
numbers a,b), but they are expecting familiarity of the commutative
property of addition within arithmetic. As such, this notion was
deliberately referred to as ‘early algebra’ or ‘algebraic reasoning’
to distinguish it from ‘algebra’ as understood at the secondary-
school level.
PATTERNS, FUNCTIONS AND ALGEBRA IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN PRIMARY MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM: TOWARDS MORE DETAIL FOR
SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS
Nicky Roberts
University of Witwatersrand
Guidelines
 Be deliberate about, and explore when something sometimes happens and when it
always happens in mathematics.:
 When you add 3 and 5, which are both odd numbers, your get 8 which is an even number.
Does that always happen? Do you always get an even number when you add two odd
numbers together?
 Look for patterns in groups of number sentences
5+2=7
2+5=7
7–2=5
7–5=2
 Look for patterns in sequences of sums:
 A sequence of add 11:
1 + 11=
2 + 11=
3 + 11=
4 + 11=
5 + 11= …
Guidelines
 Ask about (observe, describe, talk about) how special numbers (0, 1, 5, 10 and
multiplies of 10) behave.

 Properties of 1:
 What happens when you add 1 to any number?
 What happens when you subtract 1 from any number?
 Divide any number by 1?
 Multiply any number by 1?
 What kind of sums are guaranteed to (always) give me an answer of 1?
 1 = …?
 How do I make 1’s?

 Why are 1’s helpful to me?


Roberts, N. (2012) Patterns, functions and algebra in the South African curriculum: Towards more detail for South African teachers. In S. Nieuwoud

Guidelines
 Properties of 0:
 What happens when you add 0 to any number?
 What happens when you subtract 0 from any number?
 What happens when you divide any number by 0?
 What happens when you multiply any number by 0?
 What kind of sums are guaranteed (always) give me an
answer of 0?
 0 = …?
 How do I make zeros?
 Why are zeros helpful to me?
 Expect and ask for descriptions of what is observed.
 What do you notice?
 Can you tell me the story of what you notice?

 Can you draw a picture to explain what is going on?

 Explain to a friend what you see.

 Imagine we are about to get a visitor to this class. How

would you tell them about what you have done and noticed?
 What words can help up with this description? Call out some
useful words so that I can write them on the board for you to
use when you are explaining or describing.
 Ask for explanations to show if something is always true
(basis of mathematical proof).
 Does that always happen?
 Are you sure it always happens?
 What happens with other types of numbers? Have you
tried odd numbers, or very big numbers, what about
with fractions?
 Do you think this is always true? How can you be sure?
 Don’t just give me more examples, convince me, so I
know for sure.
 Tell me a story to convince me this is always true
 Explore and talk about equivalence (what does the
equal sign mean?)
 Avoid only asking problems like 4 + 5 = and rather also include
problems like + 4 = 9 or 9 - = 4.
 Remember that equivalence (being the same) refers to both number
expressions and to number sentences:
 The expression 4 + 5 is equivalent to the expression 10 – 1.
This can be written as a number sentence:
4 + 5 = 10 – 1.
 Emphasise that adding and subtracting fit together,
they are inverses. Adding can be used to check
subtracting, and vice versa
 Example 3: Is 3 + 4 = the same as -4=3
and the same as - 3 = 4? Does that work with
other numbers? What about big numbers?
The job of primary school teachers is to help children be aware of AND constantly move
between the concrete, iconic and symbolic to understand mathematics and explain their
reasoning. 3. PART 3 MODELLING as a
language for mathematics

Pictures, drawings, graphs,

manipulatives, counters,

Iconic

Real and Concrete Abstract

Number
imagined sentences and
situations expressions,
equations

When moving from the abstract to the concrete, ask learners to imagine or invent
problem contexts that might give rise to the abstract mathematical calculation.
Support learners to model a mathematical problem and communicate this using all
the different representations available to them to explain this process. This means
teachers must ask for explanations: How did you work that out? Explain how you did
that? Is your way the same as … or different? Is there another way of doing this?
 The role of the teacher is to move children between these realms –
in both directions.
‘Algebrafy’ any word problem and turn it into an investigation, to model
the process of solving the problem, when one or more of the
parameters is relaxed.
Example 1: A tin of beans costs R9. How many tins can I buy for R100?
How much change will I get?
By relaxing the price parameter, learners can investigate and model
the process of working with this problem. What happens if the tin of
beans costs R8, or R7 or R6? Investigate…
You can also relax the amount of money. What happens if I have R200,
or R300 or R400 to buy the beans? Investigate…
What happens if I must have at least R15 change, so that I can buy
bread on the way home? How does this change the problem?
Algebra eyes and ears!!
Blanton and Kaput’s (2003)