ASNT

Level II
Study
Visual al
Testin
by
Douglas Krauss

The American Society for Nond

2

Copyright© 1998 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (ASNT) is not responsible for the authenticity or accuracy of
information herein. Published opinions and statements do not necessarily reflect the opinions of ASNT. Products or
services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of ASNT.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, by means electronic or mechanical
including photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the expressed prior written permission of The American
Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

IRRSP, NDT Handbook, The NDT Technician and www.asnt.org are trademarks of The American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ACCP, ASNT, Level Ill Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, Nondestructive Testing
Handbook, Research in Nondestructive Evaluation and RNDE are registered trademarks of The American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

first printing 1998

second printing 04/01
third printing with revision 04/04
fourth printing 09/06
fifth printing 09/08
sixth printing I 0/10
seventh printing 09/12
eighth printing 10/13
ninth printing 04/14

Errata, if available for this printing, may be obtained from ASNT's web site, www.asnt.org.

ISBN: 1-57117-064-2
ISBN-13: 978-1-57117-064-4

Printed in the United States of America.

Published by: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

1711 Arlingate Lane
Columbus, OH 43228-0518
www.asnt.org

Edited by: Cynthia M. Leeman, Educational Materials Supervisor

Tim Jones, Senior Manager of Publications

ASNT Mission Statement:

ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing.
 3

Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Overview of the Study Guide ...................................................................................................... 5
Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................... 5
Recommended References .......................................................................................................... 5
Resource Materials ...................................................................................................................... 5

Chapter 1 - Overview of Visual and Optical Testing .................................................................. 7

Fundamentals of Visual Testing ........................................................................................................ 7
Vision ........................................................................................................................................... 7
Visual Perception ......................................................................................................................... 8
Lighting ....................................................................................................................................... 8
Fundamentals of Light .......................................................................................................... 8
Measurement of Light ........................................................................................................... 9
Recommended Lighting Levels .......................................................................................... 10
Lighting Techniques ............................................................................................................ 10
Light Sources ............................................................................................................................. 10
Incandescent Lighting ......................................................................................................... 10
Fluorescent Lighting ........................................................................................................... 11
Discharge (Arc) Lighting .................................................................................................... 11
Factors That Affect Visual Testing .................................................................................................. 11
Material Attributes ..................................................................................................................... 11
Surface Conditions .............................................................................................................. 1 I
Cleanliness .................................................................................................................... 11
Color .............................................................................................................................. 12
Texture ........................................................................................................................... 12
Physical Conditions ............................................................................................................. 12
Specimen Conditions .................................................................................................... 12
Shape ............................................................................................................................. 12
Size ................................................................................................................................ 12
Temperature ................................................................................................................... 12
Environmental Factors .............................................................................................................. 12
Atmosphere ......................................................................................................................... 12
Cleanliness .......................................................................................................................... 12
Humidity and Temperature ................................................................................................. 13
Safety................................................................................................................................... 13
Physiological Factors ................................................................................................................ I 3
Physical Comfort ................................................................................................................. 13
Health .................................................................................................................................. 13
Mental Attitude ................................................................... :............................................... 13
Fatigue ..............................................................,_.................................................................. 14
Test Item Position ............................................................. , ................................................. 14
Equipment ....................................................................................................................................... 14
Borescopes ...............................................-.................................................................................. 14
4 Contents

Fiberscopes ........................................................................................... , .................................... 15

Visual Inspection Instruments ................................................................................................... 15
Rules .................................................................................................................................... 16
Calipers ............................................................................................................................... 16
Gages ................................................................................................................................... 17
Magnifiers ........................................................................................................................... 19
Mirrors (reflectors) .............................................................................................................. 20
Automated Systems ................................................................................................................... 20
Computer-based Systems .......................................................................................................... 20
Imaging Systems ....................................................................................................................... 20
Special Optical Systems ............................................................................................................ 21
Optical Flats ........................................................................................................................ 21
Optical Comparators ........................................................................................................... 21
Closed-circuit Television ........................................................................................................... 21
Discontinuities................................................................................................................................. 22
Castings ..................................................................................................................................... 22
Forgings ..................................................................................................................................... 22
Machining Processes ................................................................................................................. 22
Welds ......................................................................................................................................... 22
Visual Testing Documents .............................................................................................................. 23
Welding Specifications .............................................................................................................. 23
Acceptance/Rejection Criteria ................................................................................................... 23
Examination Resu1ts .................................................................................................................. 23

Chapter 1, Questions ....................................................................................................................... 25

Chapter 1, Answers ......................................................................................................................... 29

Appendix, Standard Terminology for Visual and Optical Testing and Materials
Processing ................................................................................................................................. 31
 5

Introduction

Overview of the Study Guide Recommended References

Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second
This study guide contains basic information
intended to prepare a candidate for Level II edition: Volume 8, Visual and Optical
visual and optical testing examinations Testing [ASNT order #133]
administered within the ASNT Central ASM Metals Handbook, 9th edition,
Certification Program (ACCP). This study Volume 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and
guide does not present all of the knowledge Quality Control, Ultrasonic Inspection,
necessary for certification; the candidate is
[ ASNT order # 105]
expected to supplement this guide with the
recommended references that follow.
At the end of Chapter 1, there are questions
typical of those that could appear wit�in � Resource Materials
portion of the Level II General Exammat1on. Lighting Handbook, 8th edition, Reference &
These questions contain references for further Application, Illuminating Engineering
study, and they are intended to aid candidates Society of North America: New York, 1993.
in determining their comprehension of the
material. Inspection and Gaging, 6th edition,
Following each section of Chapter I is a [ASNT order #157]
Recommended Reading box containing a list of
references where additional information on the Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-JA, 1996
subjects identified can be found. Listed under edition [ASNT order #2055]
"Reference" there is an acronym for a book ANSI/ASNT CP-189-I995: Standard for
(NDT Handbook= HB, ASM Metals Handbook
= ASM, JES Lighting Handbook= IES) Qualification and Certification of
followed by a colon and the specific page Nondestructive Testing Personnel
range where the topic is discussed. [ASNT order #2505]
At the end of the study guide is an Appendix ASNT Central Certification Program (ACCP)
of Standard Terminology for visual and Optical
Testing and Materials Processing. [ASNT order #6001]

Acknowledgments
The author acknowledges the support of
EG&G Florida, Inc., Kennedy Space Center,
and the ASNT Technical Services Department
staff.
 7

Chapter 1
Overview of Visual Testing

Fundamentals of Visual Testing Vision

Visual testing (VT) is perhaps the oldest and The inspector's eyes are the most important
most widely used inspection technique. Often, element in VT. The eye is a complex organ
the eyes of the inspector are the only composed of many structures - all of which
"equipment" used for the inspection. VT is must function properly for reliable
applicable to virtually any material, at any examinations to be performed. The components
stage of manufacture, at any point in its service of the human eye are shown in Figure 1.1.
life. To perform a successful direct visual Reflected light enters the eye through a tear
examination, adequate lighting and good film in the cornea where the majority of light
inspector eyesight is required. If access to refraction occurs. This refracted light then
specific areas of the test article is limited, passes through the iris, the thin colored
borescopes, fiberscopes, videoprobes, and membrane that controls the amount of light
closed-circuit television (CCTV) can be used to entering the eye. Past the iris is the crystalline
perform remote VT. For a thorough lens, which changes shape in order to focus the
understanding of the VT method, the listed light on the retina at the back of the eyeball. To
references and resource materials are maintain its shape, the eyeball is filled with a
recommended. clear gel called the vitreous humor. The retina

Figure 1.1: Components of the human eye

Cornea
Iris - Cover
Pupil
- Sphincter Pupillae
- Dilator Pupillae
Aqueous
Humor
.______.....,..____ Crystalline
Lens

Vitreous
Humor

Fovea
CentralJis
Retina

Macular Lutae
----- Optic Nerve
8 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing

is covered with specialized cells, called rods object being examined should be observed with
and cones, that convert the incoming light into a series of intermittent scans, where the
nerve impulses through a photochemical inspector looks at a small area, scans a few
process. These nerve impulses travel to the degrees and looks again, repeating this
brain through the optic nerve, where they are sequence over the entire area of interest. Even
decoded. though the field of view may completely
Eyesight can be adversely affected by a encompass the entire object being examined,
malfunction of any one of these structures. only a small portion of that field is usable for
Glaucoma, an increase in the fluid pressure detailed information.
within the eye, may produce slight aberrations
or complete blindness. Myopia, hyperopia, and Lighting
astigmatism occur when light is focused on a
plane other than the retinal plane. As an To understand the importance of lighting in
individual ages, the crystalline lens loses its an inspection atmosphere, it is essential to
ability to flex for focusing, and cataracts may know the fundamentals of light, how it is
occur. measured, and the recommended lighting levels
To ensure that the eyesight of a visual for inspections.
inspector is adequate, periodic vision
examinations are performed to verify visual Fundamentals of Light
acuity, depth perception, and color There are several existing theories that
discrimination. An individual diagnosed with a describe the phenomena of radiant energy. The
deficiency that can be remedied by corrective wave theory and the quantum theory are the
lenses will be required to wear them during any two most widely-accepted theories. The wave
visual examination. theory proposes that radiation originates from
accelerating charged particles (i.e., vibrating
Visual Perception electrons) and travels through space and time
in wave-like movements. The quantum theory,
Visual perception is the comparison of what developed through modem physics, proposes
the eyes see with what the mind sees. Although that energy is emitted and absorbed in discreet
there is a tremendous amount of information quanta or packets of energy (photons). While
available in any given image that is directed to both models are based on a massless,
the retina, only a small percentage is used for chargeless transfer of energy at a speed of
detail recognition. This is due to the overall 3 x 10 10 emfs, each proposes a different
make-up of the human vision system. The eye explanation of light's interaction with matter.
is nothing more than a receptor that gathers and Visible light, the energy that stimulates the
focuses the incoming information contained in receptors of the human eye, is generally
the entering photons, while the brain takes the defined as energy in the wavelength range of
provided information and processes it into a 380 to 770 nm. Visible light exhibits properties
mental image that will be interpreted. of both the wave model and the quantum
The individual does not necessarily notice model.
all of the information available in a particular The electromagnetic spectrum is a
field of view. The portion of the image that convenient way to graphically depict
appears on the fovea is the sharpest because of electromagnetic radiation. It is based on the
the large grouping of rods and cones in this wave theory model. The electromagnetic
area. It is this information that the brain spectrum encompasses the range of energies
processes regarding the qualities of the object from extremely short wavelength cosmic rays
of attention. The parts of the image that extend to long wavelength electrical waves as shown
farther away from the fovia toward the retina in Figure 1.2.
decrease in resolution as the distance from the Visible light is produced from the electron
fovea increases due to a decrease in the number cloud of an atom when an external force
of rods and cones. Peripheral vision is not disturbs its electrons. Energy from the external
completely ignored, but it serves largely as a force removes an electron from its original
reference for orientation and motion and does energy level and, upon its return to that energy
not enhance perception. For this reason, an level, the excess energy is emitted as quanta of
 Chapter 1, Overview of Visual Testing 9

Figure 1.2: The electromagnetic spectrum

I I I
I 1.J
Gamma 1 X-rays I Ultra- � Infrared Radio
Rays 1 1 Violet �
I I 1 EHF SHF UHF VHF HF MF LF VLF
I I

0.01 0.1 1 IO 0.1 'i: ' , 10 100 0.1 10 I JO 100 1 IO 100

nm nm nm nm µm µm', µ'hi.. µm cm cm cm m m m km km km
,
', ' Wavelength

380 770
Nanometers

light. This light travels in a nearly straight line For example, a light source with a luminance
until it encounters a medium or force that of 1000 Im measured at 0.3 m (1 ft) will be
reflects, refracts, or diffracts it. reduced to 250 Im at a distance of 0.6 m (2 ft).
Visible light, known as "white" light, is The Lambert Cosine law (Equation 2) states
actually a broad spectrum of frequencies. When that the luminance of a surface varies as the
white light is passed through a prism, it is cosine of the angle of incidence.
separated into the constituent frequencies that
produce the vision sensation of color. E = I cos 0 (Eq. 2)
An important point to remember is that all
electromagnetic radiation is similar in nature where:
and that it is the specialized properties of the I source illuminance
eye that allow the visible portion of the E surface illuminance
spectrum to stimulate sight. 0 = angle of incidence

•
Measurement of Light
Photometry, the measurement of light, is a Figure 1.3: The inverse square law
means of quantifying the radiant energy of
visible light. Measurements are obtained with a
photometer, which converts the radiant energy I ' \

of the light into a measurable electrical signal. I

I I
I
\
'
When measuring visible light, the inverse I
I \
\ d
square law and the Lambert Cosine law are I
I
\

frequently used. The inverse square law I

(Equation 1 and Figure 1.3) states that the

illumination of a surface varies inversely as the
the distance between the light source and
surface is squared. /
I
I
I
,<S>' '\ I
I
\
\
\
\
'
(Eq. 1)

where:
I luminous intensity
E illuminance
d = distance between the point and source
10 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing

Combining the inverse square law with the during VT, flashlights, portable shop lights, and
Lambert Cosine law (Figure 1.4) allows high-intensity lamps should be considered.
illuminance at angles other than normal to be Another option would be to move the test piece
calculated. to a brighter inspection area if possible.
Measurements of visible light are made in In addition to the illumination intensity at
reference to primary standards established by the inspection site, the color of the light is also
national physical laboratories. In the United important. Color plays a significant role in
States, the National Institute of Standards and increasing contrast in the inspection area. For
Technology (NIST) maintains most physical example, the inspection of chromium plating
standards. From these primary standards, over nickel may be enhanced by using a bluish
working standards are prepared for use in light such as that provided by "daylight"
calibrating photometry equipment. Using the fluorescent lamps.
basic laws of photometry with readings from Surfaces and the detectability of indications
photometric or photoelectric instruments, can vary greatly due to the characteristics of
measurements of unknown light sources may the light source; therefore, the characteristics of
be made. the light source used during an inspection
should be as close as practical to the light
Recommended Lighting Levels source used to examine reference standards.
Adequate lighting at the inspection surface is Whatever illumination source is chosen,
essential for the proper identification of consideration should be given to its location.
indications. Often, the general illumination of The distance of the light source from the test
the work area is sufficient for visual piece and its angular position determine the
examination; however, the governing code or intensity of the light and the amount or absence
specification should be referenced for the of glare. As with the lighting characteristics,
minimum lighting level required. the physical configuration of the equipment
should closely approximate the conditions that
Lighting Techniques were used during the examination of the
When the illumination level at the inspection reference standard.
surface is determined to be inadequate, every
effort should be made to provide the necessary Light Sources
lighting. To provide the necessary illumination
As mentioned previously, light sources used
Figure 1.4: The Lambert Cosine law to provide adequate illumination range from
the penlight flashlight to the brilliant high­
\ intensity sources that are used with
videoprobes. Although a candle will provide
light (its luminance used to be the standard
measure of light), candles are inadequate for
\�' \
the purpose of visual examination. Electric
light sources are generally used to enhance
visual examinations. There are three types of
artificial light - incandescent light, fluorescent
light, and discharge (arc) light.
Incandescent Lighting
Incandescent light is produced by passing a
current through a tungsten filament that is
heated to incandescence. The common tungsten
incandescent lamp is basically a thin coiled
tungsten wire surrounded by a vacuum in a
sealed envelope. As a current is passed through
the wire, it heats and glows. The halogen lamp
is a refinement of the tungsten lamp, which
uses an inert gas with an active halogen
 Chapter 1, Overview of Visual Testing 11

compound within the envelope instead of a range. The powder coating on the inside
vacuum. The halogen lamp design maximizes surface of the tube is excited by the ultraviolet
the service life of the filament because the inert radiation, and in turn emits visible light.
gas minimizes the evaporation of tungsten from
the filament and its subsequent deposition on Discharge (Arc) Lighting
the lamp wall, and any tungsten that does Discharge (arc) lamps use an electric arc to
evaporate is combined with the halogen and produce light. This lamp type is used in some
redeposited on the filament when the lamp is videoprobe imaging systems as a source of
de-energized. This also minimizes the high-intensity illumination. The electrodes are
blackening of the lamp as is commonly housed in a vacuum or gaseous filled envelope
observed with incandescent lamps. and a reflector focuses the light on a specific
exit point. Sapphire and quartz are commonly
Fluorescent Lighting used at the exit point because of their light
Fluorescent light is produced by a gas within transmission and thermal properties. The
a glass envelope that fluoresces when it is electrode gap, arc voltage, reflector shape, and
excited by an electron discharge. Electrons are material used at the light exit point determine
discharged by filaments at one or both ends of the intensity and efficiency of this type of
the tube and their interaction with the gas lamp. When a sufficient voltage is applied, a
atoms causes the gas atoms to emit radiation in rapid transfer of electrons crosses the electrode
the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet frequency gap and produces the visible light.

,<JR�c:ommended Reading
. ::);:�i;�-i/H1nfi:::ii:i;:; ;,<
•. :ti;i! i'!:!i!:};J Subject 1
;::: ililiWmmm11tij�rerence*
.:)vis.100
)i•;;:-,,!i,,·'•'<(J
i-IB':''9n6';]ES: 69-86
'·,·.··,... ·.,'<·a>··' ..-·.. ·H',S,;; .. • ".-:, ·,·,•, , ••

:f'.vi�'ual perception
'l{fop�amentals of light HB: 30-34l(rn's�:,j:,9 ::'fr•:; , i•:fd1•<1•li if;'.':: , :

m,easurement of light HB: 35_44;/i:E��fi2:7�64 7-;;,,;.;•s,� f'S ;.,:, ,,,;,\

• .lighting techniques
light sources
: *S'ee lntroduction for explanation of references.

Factors that Affect Visual Testing Surface Conditions

Factors that affect VT include material Some surface conditions that affect VT
attributes, the inspection environment, and include cleanliness, color, condition, shape,
physiological factors that affect the inspector. size, temperature, and texture.

Material Attributes Cleanliness

One basic requirement for an effective visual
The physical size and condition of the examination is a clean test item. Unwanted
object(s) to be examined play a significant role foreign material such as dirt, oil, grease, etc.
in the outcome of an examination. Knowledge can mask the surface of actual discontinuities
of how each variable influences the or present false indications. A clean inspection
examination will aid the inspector in alleviating surface helps to prevent the possibility of
the possibility of missed indications. missed indications.
12 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing

Color hinder an examination and care should be taken

The color of the incident light relative to the in these areas.
color of the object being examined can play a
significant role in the detection of Size
discontinuities. The color of the light can be When examining objects of substantial size,
used to increase contrast by intensifying or certain precautions should be taken to ensure
subduing certain colors. To intensify a color, that a complete examination has been
the light source should be strong in that color. performed.
Conversely, to subdue a color, the light source
should have a relatively low output of the Temperature
color. For example, as previously mentioned, Elevated temperatures limit the service life
when examining chromium plating over nickel of many metal components. Using metal
plating, a blue light such as that provided by components in high temperatures can result in
daylight fluorescent lamps can enhance any creep, thermal fatigue, and overload failure.
imperfections in the chromium. Creep is the deformation of a metal under
stress, generally at higher temperatures than
Texture normal. Thermal fatigue cracks are the result of
The surface of a material is important in repeated thermal cycles that cause expansion
relation to the amount and quality of light and contraction within the metal. If thermal
reflected from it to the examiner's eye. A cycles are caused by friction, as in the case of
surface that is reflective can produce brake components, thermal fatigue cracks
unacceptable glare, which may interfere with called heat checking can occur. Engine exhaust
the examination of the test surface. In this case, manifolds that are restrained during repeated
light applied during the examination should be heating and cooling cycles may develop fatigue
considered carefully. Conversely, an extremely cracks due to residual tensile stress. Repeated
rough surface may also require special lighting thermal cycles of certain materials in an
to sufficiently illuminate the area without oxidizing atmosphere can create scaly oxide
masking. Glare can be reduced by increasing layers over the material. These flaky layers
the angle between the glare source and line of may mask surface discontinuities and care
sight or by dimming the light source. should be taken when inspecting areas of this
Decreasing the angle between the light source nature.
and the line of sight is also helpful when
examining rough surfaces because it decreases Environmental Factors
the shadow effect of surface irregularities.
Environmental factors that can affect a
Physical Conditions visual inspection include atmosphere,
Physical conditions such as specimen cleanliness of the object being inspected, and
condition, shape, and size can act as limiting the position of object in relation to the
factors during VT. inspector.

Specimen Condition Atmosphere

The stages of the manufacturing process, Atmosphere in this context refers to the
service environment, and applied surface portion of the environment that has a physical
coatings, all influence the condition of the item or psychological influence on the examiner. An
being examined. Mill scale and weld slag atmosphere free of high noise levels, dust,
remaining after manufacture can mask smoke, and other distractions is more
discontinuities, and painted or plated surfaces conducive to the performance of the examiner.
can mask other surface defects.
Cleanliness
Shape As previously mentioned, the cleanliness of
The shape of an object also affects the the item to be examined is important when
outcome of an examination. Complex-shaped performing a visual examination. Of equal
objects, such as keyways and splines, may importance is the cleanliness of the
examination environment. The primary source
 Chapter 1, Overview of Visual Testing 13

of contamination in the inspection environment Physiological Factors

is the movement of parts from one area to
another. While the movement of parts during Physiological variables that may influence
an examination is necessary, dirt and other the outcome of an examination are the physical
contaminants can be transferred to the part comfort, health, and mental attitude of the
surface if the surrounding area is not inspector, fatigue, and the position of the test
reasonably clean. An examination environment item to be examined in relation to the inspector.
can become contaminated in many different
ways. One such way would be smoke and Physical Comfort
vapors in the air that settle on reflective Although physical comfort is determined by
surfaces and reduce the contrast needed to the tolerance of the person involved, a
locate potential discontinuities. comfortable arrangement for the inspector will
result in greater attention to detail and less
Humidity and Temperature attention to distractions and annoyances. An
Humidity and temperature are environmental inspection performed from an awkward
factors that affect the proper performance of position, or from the same position for an
visual examinations. While people differ in extended period of time, may result in missed
their ability to tolerate heat and humidity, it is indications, because the inspector will tend to
known that increased body core temperature hurry the examination in order to return to a
decreases the mental ability of an inspector. more comfortable position.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH) recommends a wet globe Health
bulb (WGB) temperature of 32 ° C (90 °F) as a Many physical conditions can affect one's
maximum for the typical amount of time eyesight. Some perceptual problems are
between work breaks (approximately 2 hours). inherited, some are affected by one's emotional
If a WGB temperature is not available and the state or circulation, and others may be the
combined temperature and humidity seem result of ocular structure deterioration due to
excessive, sound judgment should be exercised tumors, cataracts, glaucoma, or hemorrhaging.
regarding the length of time that an individual Age also plays a role in vision. As one gets
is exposed to the conditions. older, the accommodation response of the eye
decreases due to a stiffening of the lens. This
Safety condition is called presbyopia, the inability to
Of all environmental factors relating to focus on near objects. Other factors that
examinations, safety is the key issue. There are compromise inspection integrity include
very few truly safe places in any industry; blurring, light sensitivity, watery eyes, pain,
however, precautions can be taken to minimize burning, or other discomfort. If these
potential hazards and risks involved. symptoms occur, a thorough eye examination is
Information obtained before the work is to necessary.
begin can be used by inspection personnel to
prepare for and lessen the potential risks. Mental Attitude
Knowledge about the actual item or component The inspector's mental attitude may affect an
(i.e., physical size and shape), the location of inspection because preconceived mental images
the inspection, time of the inspection, and may be formed prior to the inspection.
accessibility can help the inspection personnel Preconceived mental images may alter the way
gather the appropriate equipment to perform in which an image entering the eye is perceived
the task or have arrangements made for the and interpreted, therefore, affecting inspection
necessary equipment to be provided. results.
Inspection personnel should also have Vision is a selective sense that is strongly
knowledge of or access to the appropriate guided by what the observer wants and expects
regulations concerning safety and all necessary to see. The intent of the inspector can affect
personal protective equipment should be issued perception if the inspector is looking only for
to them or it should be accessible. certain aspects of a particular scene. Even
though there is a large amount of information
available at the time of viewing, many new
14 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing

characteristics may not be recognized until (24 in.) of the object and positioned at an angle
another viewing is petformed. For example, a not less than 30 ° to the inspection sutface as
person may walk into a crowded room and shown in Figure 1.5. If the examination sutface
immediately recognize a familiar face across is immovable and situated so that the eye
the room while completely missing another cannot be placed within this region, suitable
familiar face that was not expected to be visual aids, such as mirrors, must be used.
present. The same holds true for visual Elevated objects present another obstacle to
inspection. If an inspector is prepared to only proper examination. A component elevated to a
find porosity on the sutface of a weldment, point beyond the reach of the inspector cannot
fusion problems at the weld toes may be be thoroughly examined without adequate
inadvertently ignored. means to provide access except in cases such
as component location or object verification.
Fatigue
The effect that the general well being of the
inspector has on VT cannot be overstated. Figure 1.5: The Lambert Cosine law
Fatigue not only affects the overall physical
feeling of the inspector, but it reduces the Viewing Angle Range
efficiency and accuracy of the interpretation of
the visual data. Fatigue of the eye muscles,
caused by poor illumination and awkward body
positions, leads to oscillation of the eye and Eye ,. Eye
eyelids and causes ineffective examinations.
Test Item Position
The position of the item and its distance 30 Degrees 30 Degrees
from the inspector has an effect on the
inspection outcome. Again, the recommended
viewing distance and angle for visual Test Surface Test Site
examination is to have the eye within 610 mm

i
Equipment Borescopes
Visual inspection equipment includes Rigid borescopes allow visual inspection to
borescopes, fiberscopes, rules, calipers, be petforrned on areas inside assemblies, on
mechanical gages, weld gages, magnifiers, remote objects that' are out of the normal
mirrors, automated systems, computer-based inspection environment, or on remote objects
systems, imaging systems, special optical or assemblies with restricted physical access.
systems, and closed-circuit television. Using a system of lenses and prisms,
borescopes can magnify the image of the area
 Chapter 1, Overview of Visual Testing 15

of interest while permitting examination. Light glass or quartz. This bundle is called the image
at the inspection site is provided by a bulb at guide. The flexible nature of the image guide
the distal end of the scope or through a fiber gives the fiberscope the ability to negotiate
optic bundle or liquid light guide from a bends and corners while the more rigid
remote, high-intensity light source. Borescopes borescope can only travel in a straight path.
are available in many diameters and working The fiberscope collects the image with an
length combinations. objective lens and relays the light through a
Borescopes can use a convex lens relay bundle of extremely thin fibers, some as small
system, a hybrid rod and convex lens relay as 8 µm (0.0003 in.). These fibers transmit
system, or a rigid glass rod, plus objective and light along their entire length by total internal
ocular lenses. The convex lens relay system reflection of the light within the fiber. This is
transmits images by relaying them from one possible because the fibers are coated with a
lens to another along the length of the thin layer of glass, which has a lower refractive
borescope. index than that of the fiber. This causes the
The hybrid rod lens consists of a series of light to reflect within the strand without
rod lenses to relay the image. Rod lens trains escaping into the air or into other adjacent
have an advantage over simple lens trains in fibers. Because each fiber transmits only a
that there are fewer refraction points resulting small portion of the image, the bundle must be
in less light scattering, and they may be made arranged so that each fiber ends at the ocular
in smaller diameters, which in tum reduces the lens in the same position it originates in at the
borescope diameter. objective lens. This is called coherent
The slimmest borescope available uses a alignment, which allows for a cohesive image
single rod to transmit the image along the at the eyepiece. If the fibers were randomly
length of the scope without the need for lenses. placed at each end, the resultant image would
The image refracts within the rod at certain be an unrecognizable jumble of dots or pixels.
intervals similar to that with lenses. Because Also, a fiberscope can be focused by a
the diameter of the rod is minimized, the moveable objective lens, or fixed focus where
effective aperture is small and results in an the objective lens cannot be moved.
infinite depth of field - eliminating the need Light for the inspection area is generally
for focusing. provided by another bundle of fibers that
Regardless of the light transmitting system transmits light produced by an external, high­
used internally, borescopes also have lenses at intensity source. These fibers have a larger
each end of the scope. An objective lens at the diameter than the image fibers and they do not
distal end (far end) gathers the image light and need to be aligned coherently because they do
relays it to the optical train. After the light has not transmit an image.
been relayed along the length of the scope, it is An articulating tip is an optional piece of
picked up by the ocular lens (eyepiece) and equipment that can be used on a fiberscope.
subsequently relayed to the eye. The ocular and Articulating tips are mechanical or pneumatic
objective lenses are made moveable on devices that allow the distal end of the scope to
focusing scopes to compensate for observer to achieve a greater field of view.
eyesight differences, to expand the depth of
field, and to present a crisp image to the Visual Inspection Instruments
viewer.
Many different instruments are available as
Fiberscopes aids in visual inspection. These instruments are
used to determine length, diameter, height,
Fiberscopes are similar to borescopes surface texture, thread pitch, and many other
because they allow access to normally characteristics that are not quantifiable by the
inaccessible areas; however, they operate on a eye alone.
different principle. The borescope uses a Some common instruments that are useful
system of lenses to transmit the image from the for examination include the steel rule, caliper,
object to the eye, while the fiberscope uses a mechanical gage, depth gage, weld fillet gage,
bundle of light transmitting fibers made of Cambridge weld gage, and pit gage.
16 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing

Rules Figure 1. 7: Indirect calipers

The simplest mechanical instrument for
linear measurement is the 6 in. machinists steel
rule. While accurate to 0.016 in. if applied
properly, misinterpretation is common.
Accuracy is also limited by the inherent width
of the graduation etching itself.
To obtain accurate measurements with a
steel rule, use the 1 in. mark for the beginning
reference instead of the zero end, and then
subtract 1 in. from the obtained dimension.
This method is suggested because it is more
difficult to align the zero end with the edge of
the work piece than it is to align the
graduations of the rule. Also, the possibility of
unseen damage to the zero end of the ruJe
could affect the measurement.
When performing the measurement, the rule dimension of an item from the item to a steel
should be aligned perpendicular to the test rule. For example, the measurement of an
piece so the graduations are as close as outside diameter is made by adjusting the
possible to the measurement area as shown in caliper so that both legs lightly touch the
Figure 1.6. This alignment also minimizes widest portion of the item. This distance is then
parallax error. Because steel rules have several transferred to a steel rule to obtain the
scales with different graduations, attention measurement. If performed properly, this type
should be paid to the selection of the proper of measurement is accurate to 1/64 in.
scale to avoid approximation. If the Direct reading calipers are available in a
measurement made with the selected scale falls variety of types. A direct reading caliper can be
between graduations, the next finer scale simple - a rule with jaws for coarse
should be used. measurements; or it could be of the vernier,
Steel rules come in lengths other than 6 in. dial, or electronic digital type, which are used
and they can be made of rigid or flexible for very accurate measurements, as shown in
material. Figure 1.8. All types of direct reading calipers
consist of a fixed jaw on a beam along which a
Calipers moveable jaw slides. The measurements are
Calipers are are used to obtain accurate taken with the item between the jaws of the
linear measurements. Calipers come in a wide instrument.
variety of sizes and configurations for Dial and electronic calipers are simple to use
measuring length, width, height, diameter, and and read. Electronic calipers are the easiest to
depth, and they can be either direct reading or read because the actual measurement is
indirect reading. displayed on a digital readout. The dial caliper
Indirect, or transfer type, reading calipers requires some interpretation between the beam
(Figure 1.7) are used to "transfer" the scale, which is divided in graduations of

Figure 1.6: Steel rule

 Chapter 1, Overview of Visual Testing 17

Figure 1.8: Vernier reading mark of the vernier scale has passed. This gives
a reading to 1/100 in. The additional
thousandths are obtained by observing the
graduation of the vernier scale that coincides
with a graduation on the main scale, and
Vernier Caliper adding this to the tenths obtained. Figure 1.9
shows a reading of 1.659 in.
Gages
Some gages that are commonly used during
VT include mechanical gages, weld fillet
Dial Caliper
gages, and Cambridge gages.
Mechanical Gages (Micrometers)
Mechanical gages perform extremely
accurate measurements of linear dimensions.
Mechanical gages are available in a wide
variety of configurations for inside and outside
measurements of flat, curved, threaded, and
Digital Caliper cylindrical dimensions. The mechanical gage is
a form of caliper that operates by determining
how far the end of a screw travels after one
0.1 in., and the rotating indicator on the dial complete revolution.
that represents 0.1 in. for every revolution and To better understand the operation of the
is divided into 100 segments each representing mechanical gage, it is useful to know the
0.001 in. components of the instrument. This includes
Vernier calipers are more difficult to use the frame, anvil, spindle, barrel, thimble, screw,
because the scale used requires more care ratchet, and clamp ring. These components are
during interpretation. The vernier consists of illustrated in Figure 1.10.
the fixed main scale, which is etched into the Measurement with the mechanical gage
beam, and the sliding vernier scale that is occurs between the anvil and spindle. The
attached to the moveable jaw. Each inch of the screw of the spindle has a thread pitch of 40
main scale is divided into 10 equal divisions, threads per inch, so 1 revolution of the screw
which are further divided into quarters so that equals 0.025 in. The thimble is divided around
each graduation represents 1/40 in. The vernier its circumference into 25 graduations, so that
scale on the sliding jaw is divided into 25 1/25 of a revolution equals (111,000 in.)
subdivisions and is arranged so that the total because 1/25 of 1/40 is 1/1,000. A 1 inch
span of those 25 divisions equals the span of section of the micrometer barrel is divided into
24 divisions on the main scale. This is so that
the difference between the divisions of each Figure 1.9: Direct reading calipers
scale is 1/25 of a main scale division.
Therefore, because the main scale divisions are
1/40 in., and the vernier scale division is 1/25
of the main scale division, the caliper is
capable of reading to 1/1000 in. as I /25th of 89 1
123456789212345678931234
1140th equals 1/1000 or 0.001 in.
To take a measurement with the vernier 1l111l111l111l111l111l111l1111lllllWJg•p-l111l111l111l11�111l111II
caliper, open the jaws larger than the maximum
dimension of the item to be measured and
slowly close the jaws around the item until
light contact is made. For the greatest accuracy,
the item must make even contact all along the
thickness of the jaw faces. Note the number of
inches and subdivisions of an inch that the zero
18 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing

Figure 1.10: Mechanical gage (micrometer)

Clamp Ring Ratchet

\
Spindle Screw
Anvil

Frame

tenths of an inch, and each tenth is divided into dimension, note the largest major division
four equal divisions. As the thimble is rotated uncovered, the graduation closest to the
counterclockwise, the spindle and anvil thimble, and the thimble division aligned with
separate and the barrel graduations are revealed the barrel reference line. Referring to
in succession. Figure 1.11, the "2" or 0.2 in. division is
To make a measurement with a standard revealed, and the closest graduation to the
mechanical gage, rotate the thimble thimble is the second, or 0.05 in. and the" 12"
counterclockwise until the spindle is a far or 0.012 in. graduation on the thimble is
enough away from the anvil to allow the item aligned with the reference line of the barrel.
to be measured to fit in between them. With the Adding these together, 0.2 plus 0.05 plus 0.012
part between the anvil and spindle, slowly tum gives the dimension 0.262 in. as shown in
the thimble clockwise to obtain contact Figure I.I 1.
between the anvil, part, and spindle. A gentle
pressure is all that is necessary to make an Weld Gages
accurate measurement - too much pressure A common tool used in visual examination
could distort the frame reducing accuracy, and of weldments is the weld fillet gage. This
too little pressure could result in improper simple, easy-to-use device measures leg lengths
contact with the part, producing an inaccurate and determines if there is sufficient throat in
measurement. The part should be able to be weld fillets. This gage is basically a
rotated about the spindle axis with the feeling comparator - the acceptable size is etched
of a slight drag. into the gage and arcs are cut into the gage to
Barrel graduations are revealed by the allow space for the weld bead. The gage is
outward travel of the thimble. To read the placed square against the welded components
and the actual weld is compared to the
Figure 1.11: Mechanical gage standards of the gage as shown in Figure 1.12.
reading This type of gage offers a quick and precise

Figure 1.12: Fillet weld gage

Leg __
Length

Concave Weld Convex Weld

 Chapter 1, Overview of Visual Testing 19

means of measuring concave and convex fillet Another more versatile device used for weld
welds from 3 mm (0.13 in.) to 25 mm (1 in.). inspection is the welding gage, commonly
The Palmgren weld gage, shown in referred to as the Cambridge gage. The
Figure 1.13, can be used to measure the size of Welding Institute of Cambridge, England
fillet welds, the actual throat size of convex developed this versatile tool, hence the name.
and concave fillet welds, reinforcement of butt With this device, joint preparation angles, joint
welds, and root openings of 8 mm (0.3 in.) and misalignment, weld fillet size and depth
3 mm (0.13 in.) measurements can be easily obtained.
Figure 1.14 shows some typical applications.
Figure 1.13: Palmgren weld gage
Magnifiers
Occasionally, the visual range of the human
eye is not sufficient when observing for desired
characteristics. In these cases, visual aids such
as magnifiers are employed to enhance natural
vision. Magnifiers are available in
magnification powers that range from l .5x to
2,000x with fields of view from 89 mm
(3.5 in.) to 0.15 mm (0.006 in.). Resolving
power can range from 0.05 mm (0.002 in.) to
2 µm (0.000008 in.). Microscopes, loupes, and
optical comparators are variants of magnifiers.
When selecting magnifiers, the attributes of
magnification power, working distance, and
field of view should be considered. These are
related in that a high power magnifier has a
short working distance and narrow field of
view. Conversely, a low power magnifier has a
long working distance and wide field of view.

Figure 1.14: Cambridge gage

Angle of Preparation, 0-60 °

Fillet Weld Throat Size

Excess Weld Metal (reinforcement)

' �

Depth of Undercut/Pitting
Misalignment (high-low)
20 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing

Mirrors (reflectors) Imaging Systems

The use of mirrors is sometimes necessary The equipment used to obtain an image of a
when all or portions of the inspection area test surface and relay it electronically to a
cannot be placed easily within the display device is called an imaging system. A
recommended viewing range (610 mm or 24 in. videoprobe borescope is a good example of an
at 30 °). Many types of inspection mirrors are imaging system. The videoprobe borescope
available with articulating joints, extendible combines a borescope with video processing
handles, and self-contained light sources to technology, which reduces some of the
allow placement of the mirror and sufficient difficulties encountered when using typical
illumination at the inspection site. borescopes or fiberscopes. Difficulties such as
eyestrain and operator fatigue, induced by the
Automated Systems need to assume awkward positions, are
lessened when the image is transferred from
Automated visual examination systems make the eyepiece to a display such as a CRT video
use of the recently developed "machine vision" monitor. Imaging systems that combine a
that "sees" and interprets information about the videoprobe with an image processor are ideal
test object. The apparatus examines the object for displaying, manipulating, and storing
with a vidicon camera or a charged-coupled obtained images.
device (CCD), laser, thermometer, etc., it Early imaging systems simply used a camera
processes the data in a microprocessor, it mounted on the eyepiece of a borescope or
compares this data with a known acceptable fiberscope, with the resulting image displayed
example stored in memory, and it determines on a monitor. Videoprobes place the camera in
the acceptability of the object. Manufacturers the distal end of the probe behind the objective
using automated systems can obtain cost­ lens, and connect a monitor in place of an
effective, reliable inspections that are not eyepiece.
affected by the vagaries of the human condition The videoprobe is similar in appearance to
such as fatigue or attitude. the fiberscope; however, the videoprobe uses
For example, the steel industry uses CCD fiberoptic strands only to deliver mumination
cameras to scan hot slabs of steel for to the observation site. Reflected light (the
discontinuities as they pass by on roller tables. image) is collected on a CCD and transmitted
The automobile industry is using automated as electric signals to the video processor. The
systems to examine the paint finish of signals are transmitted along a wire assembly
automobiles for characteristics such as (this replaces the fiberscope image bundle) to
mottling, blotch, and distribution of the metal the video processor. The processor then
particles in metallic paint. decodes and amplifies the data for display on a
CRT screen. Videoprobes are also available
Computer-based Systems with pneumatic or mechanically operated
articulating ends for a greater field of view.
Some visual examination systems use The CCD is an array of semiconductor
computers to enhance and manipulate the capacitors that gains a charge as photons of
image of the test specimen. These instruments light impinge on them. Color is provided by a
digitize the image and convert each picture cell color wheel that rotates between the light
(pixel) into a number, generally binary, which source and light guide, or by placing a primary
can be interpreted by computer software. Using color filter over each chip and grouping the
this digitized image data, extremely accurate primary colors as a pixel of information. While
measurements are made of selected areas, and both of these are effective at providing "false"
the image can be electronically enhanced to color, the use of color filters requires a CCD
compensate for poor lighting or variations in approximately two times larger than sequential
surface texture. The digitized data may also be color lighting (use of the rotating wheel).
saved to a storage medium (magnetic tape, The operating system software installed in
disk, etc.) for future retrieval. these units allows the operator to perform
several functions-· adjust the image (i.e., edge
and contrast enhancement) and zoom of
..-

Chapter 1, Overview of Visual Testing 21

selected areas. Measurement capabilities are conditions that may be inspected with
available, along with the ability to add text and comparators.
pointers, compare selected images, and store, Some comparators are small enough to be
retrieve, and duplicate images. A character taken to the inspection site, while others are
generator (keyboard) is provided with special large, stationary pieces of equipment into
function keys to facilitate the data entry and which test items must be placed. This type of
cursor functions. comparator is also called a contour projector.
The item to be inspected is placed in the unit
Special Optical Systems and a light source behind the item projects a
magnified shadow of the item onto a screen
Optical flats and optical comparators are two over which a standard profile is laid. A
common visual examination tools that are used comparison is then made between the standard
to enhance certain characteristics of the item and the item.
being examined.
Optical Flats Closed-circuit Television
Optical flats are used to check the flatness of Closed-circuit television (CCTV) uses a
surfaces that require a high degree of accuracy. television camera tube to convert reflected light
An optical flat is a cylinder of glass or quartz from the observed object into an electrical
that has been made with one or more extremely image that is transmitted and displayed on a
flat surfaces. When applied to the inspection cathode ray tube (CRT). Camera tubes are
surface, any deviation of that surface will result either the image orthicon tube that works by
in an air gap between the flat and the specimen, photoemission or the vidicon tube that works
causing patterns to appear in the optical flat. by photoconduction.
These patterns are interference patterns created Photoemission occurs when electrons are
when light reflected from the inspection emitted by a photosensitive surface that is
surface interferes with light transmitted through stimulated by light. Photoconduction is the
the flat. process by which the conductivity of the
photosensitive surface changes in relation to
Optical Comparators the intensity of the light striking it.
Optical comparators are available in several Both processes produce an electric current
varieties and they are used to compare a that is the video signal. This signal is
characteristic of the inspection surface to a processed, amplified, and displayed on the
known standard. Surface finish, threaded CRT.
fasteners, and gear teeth are some of the

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22 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing

Discontinuities a forging, but they usually appear along the

flash line. A burst is a rupture of the material
VT is used to locate discontinuities in many that occurs due to forging at an improper
stages during the manufacturing process. VT is temperature or a drastic change in section
commonly performed on castings, forgings, thickness as the material is forced throughout
and welds and it is performed after machining the die. Flash line tears are cracks along the
processes as well. flash line caused by improper trimming of
flash.
Castings
Castings are made by pouring molten metal
Machining Processes
into a preformed mold. They are subject to A machining process performed on raw
various discontinuities inherent in the process. material as the name implies, forms machined
Typical casting discontinuities that appear on components. Turning on a lathe, milling,
the surface include inclusions, porosity, hot grinding, drilling, and cutting are various
tears, shrink cracks, and cold shuts. machine processes, and may result in
Inclusions may result from the sand used to discontinuities. Grinding cracks result from
make the mold, slag from the poured metal, excessive heat generated in the item during the
refractory materials, or other materials that do grinding process and they appear as fine, tight
not melt and alloy with the molten metal. cracks. Tears occur due to improper stock or
Inclusions appear anywhere on the surface and tool bit speed and they result in a tearing of
give the surface a rough, porous appearance. material rather than the desired cut.
Porosity is the result of gasses emanating
from the molten metal that have been trapped Welds
during freezing.
Hot tears and shrink cracks are caused by an Welding, the process of joining members
uneven rate of freezing of the metal or drastic together by applying enough heat to melt and
changes in material thickness due to an fuse the material, results in a number of
irregular shape of the pattern. Hot tears and discontinuities apparent during visual
shrink cracks are usually evident in areas of examination. Porosity, cracks, slag, fusion,
tension such as comers, areas where portions of penetration, undercut, and overlap are the
the casting are restrained, or areas where large discontinuities that may appear on a completed
thickness transitions occur. weldment.
Cold shuts are an incomplete fusion of the Porosity, as in the casting process, is the
cast metal that results from an interrupted pour result of gasses emanating from the molten
of metal, or in areas where freezing has weld pool that are trapped during the freezing
occurred before the pour is complete. Cold of the metal.
shuts can appear anywhere on a casting but are Cracks can occur due to the portion of the
generally found near an area of interrupted base material being restrained during the
flow near the core. cooling process. As the weld metal cools it
contracts, and any restraint may cause
Forgings cracking.
Slag is the remains of the flux shielding used
Forgings are made by placing a heated blank to protect the molten weld pool from
of metal between two dies and forming the atmospheric contaminants. If slag is not
blank into the finished part using great pressure completely removed prior to depositing
or repeated blows. Several discontinuity types additional weld metal, it may get trapped in the
may be evident during visual examination, weld. Slag appears as an elongated indication
notably laps, bursts, and flash line tears. between weld beads.
Laps are produced when material folds over Fusion is the melting and mixing of weld
due to the forging process. The material is metal and base metal, or previous weld layers.
subsequently pressed down onto adjacent If complete fusion does not occur, a linear
material but does not fuse due to surface indication may be evident between weld beads
oxidation. Laps can appear almost anywhere on or between the weld bead and the base metal.
 Chapter 1, Overview of Visual Testing 23

Penetration is the term used to define the Welding Society (AWS) has developed
degree to which the weld metal has entered the ANSI/AWS A2.4 to standardize welding
weld joint. Penetration is important for symbols throughout industry. It should be noted
determining if the opposite side of the that a "welding" symbol differs from a "weld"
weldment is accessible to the inspector. A weld symbol in that a weld symbol indicates the type
root that is at least as high as the base metal of weld while a weld symbol is incorporated
that blends smoothly with the base metal will into the welding symbol on the drawing. The
evidence the correct amount of penetration. welding symbol has many elements that
Undercut is caused by a failure of the weld describe the characteristics of the desired weld.
metal to flow into the reduced area vacated by Characteristics such as weld type, size, length,
the melting base metal. This creates a notch preparation, penetration, finish, and location
type discontinuity at the transition between are all delineated on the welding symbol.
weld and base material or weld toe. Overlap
occurs when the weld metal flows over the Acceptance/Rejection Criteria
underlying material but does not fuse with it.
The resulting notch type discontinuity Due to the wide variety of accept/reject
produced results in a concentration of stresses criteria among the different codes and
at the base of the notch. specifications, it is impractical to list the
differences and similarities this document. The
inspector should be aware of the applicable
VISual Testing Documents governing document prior to performing the
There are may types of documents involved examination so that the appropriate criteria
in the regulation of VT examinations including may be employed in determining acceptability.
codes, standards, and specifications, and others
designed to record inspection resu Its. Examination Results
Welding Specifications VT examination results are recorded on
forms designed for the purpose of permanently
Because certain specifications require a recording pertinent data regarding the
more thorough examination of welds than examination procedure and results.
simply observing for surface discontinuities, Supplemental forms are available when the
this section will discuss some of the more primary record is insufficient and sketch forms
common welding symbols in use. are available to record illustrations of specific
Welding symbols are used to represent the items of interest for future reference.
desired weld on a drawing, and the American

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' :;•>,\ ..,Y· ):_/
 25

Chapter 1
Questions
Some questions in this section can only be answered after using the recommended references on page 5.

I. During visual fillet weld examination, the 6. Forged products display two major types of
inspector would use: discontinuities:

a. a fillet weld gage. a. laps and bursts.

b. a Palmgren weld gage. b. laps and laminations.
c. a Cambridge gage. c. hot tears and craters.
d. all of the above. d. shrinkage and cold shuts.
2. Many video probe systems use a CCD to 7. Which of the following welding methods
collect the light image at the inspection site. uses a gas shielded continuous consumable
CCD stands for: electrode?

a. Closed Circuit Device. a. GTAW.

b. Charged Coupled Device. b. GMAW.
c. Color Camera Detection. c. SMAW.
d. Cold Cathode Delivery. d. SAW.
3. A groove melted in the base metal at the 8. Which of the following welding methods
toe of the weld during the welding process could produce a tungsten inclusion
is called: discontinuity?
a. underfill. a. GTAW.
b. undercut. b. GMAW.
c. a cold lap. c. SMAW.
d. lack of fusion. d. SAW.
4. A borescope transmits the light image 9. A groove weld symbol located on top of the
collected at the inspection site: reference line of the welding symbol
indicates that the weld is to be located on:
a. through a series of lenses and/or
mirrors. a. either side of the joint.
b. through a light guide bundle. b. the side of the joint the arrow points to.
c. through electric signals. c. on the side of the joint opposite the side
d. none of the above. the arrow points to.
d. on both sides of the joint.
5. Seams and laps are longitudinal base metal
discontinuities found in: 10. The graduations etched on the thimble of a
micrometer are in:
a. cast products.
b. rolled products. a. 1/100 in.
c. welded products. b. 1/40 in.
d. none of the above. C. 1/1,000 in.
d. 1/10 in.
26 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing

11. In a normal, healthy eye the incoming light 17. The best equipment to use to measure the
is focused on the: inside diameter of a pipe or tube would be
a:
a. fovea.
b. iris. a. micrometer
c. optic disk. b. cambridge gage
d. cornea. c. comparator
d. dial caliper
12. When examining objects of substantial size:
18. A joint that is considered to be two
a. a scanning plan should be formed and members to be joined lying in parallel on
followed. the same plane is called a:
b. glare should be increased.
c. the use of mirrors and magnifiers is a. butt joint.
prohibited. b. corner joint.
d. partial examination is acceptable. c. edge joint.
d. lap joint.
13. The component of the eye that responds to
light intensity and gives the eye its color is 19. Laminations would most likely occur in:
the:
a. castings.
a. cornea. b. forgings.
b. lens. c. plate.
C. retina. d. all of the above.
d. ITIS.
20. The main difference between a borescope
14. The result of gasses becoming trapped in and fiberscope is that:
molten metal during freezing is called:
a. a borescope is rigid and transmits light
a. slag. through a system of lenses, a fiberscope
b. burst. is flexible and transmits light through a
c. porosity. bundle of fibers.
d. shrink. b. a borescope is flexible and transmits
light through a system of lenses, a
15. The element of the welding symbol where fiberscope is rigid and transmits light
specifications or other reference items may through a bundle of fibers.
be placed is called the: c. a borescope will supply light to the
inspection site, the fiberscope will not.
a. reference line. d. borescopes are available in only one
b. tail. basic length, fiberscopes are available
c. arrow. in various lengths.
d. weld symbol.
21. If there is a substantial thickness transition
16. Incomplete penetration occurs at the: in a casting, the result may be:
a. root of the weld. a. a cold shut.
b. face of the weld. b. a hot tear.
c. toe of the weld. c. lamination.
d. end of the weld. d. porosity.
 Chapter 1, Questions 27

22. Porosity, pipe, and other inclusions 28. Which of the fo11owing are visual
remaining in the original ingot after examination methods?
cropping may be modified after rolling into
plate form. If this type of discontinuity is a. Direct and indirect.
not fused together during rolling, it b. Shear and longitudinal.
becomes: c. Manual and automatic.
d. Visible and fluorescent.
a. a cold shut.
b. a hot tear. 29. In a blast furnace, pig iron is the result of
c. lamination. combining:
d. porosity.
a. silica, soda ash, and limestone.
23. Shielding gas used in the GTAW welding b. iron ore, coke, and limestone.
process is used to: c. bauxite and caustic soda.
d. magnesite and zinc.
a. prevent the weld from cooling rapidly.
b. protect the weld from arc blow. 30. To detail which member is to receive any
c. protect the molten weld from preparation, which of the following is used
atmospheric contaminants. on a welding symbol?
d. accomplish all of the above.
a. A note in the tail.
24. To provide color to the light used with the b. The reference line.
videoprobe which of the following could be c. A break in the arrow.
used: d. A flag at the intersection of the arrow
and reference line.
a. a color monitor.
b. a color wheel. 3 t. Failure to adequately remove the residual
c. a color camera. flux from a previously deposited weld bead
d. a color form. prior to deposition the next layer can result
m:
25. Forged products are manufactured using:
a. slag.
a. dies. b. porosity.
b. molds. c. a crater crack.
C. rams. d. incomplete penetration.
d. punches.
32. The size of a convex fillet weld refers to
26. Visible light is one of the radiation types the:
graphically represented on:
a. width of the face.
a. the periodic table. b. total length of the fillet.
b. the electromagnetic spectrum. c. leg length.
c. the IES lighting table. d. sum of the leg lengths.
d. none of the above.
27. The flux on a SMAW welding electrode is
used for:

a. introducing alloying elements.

b. controlling the rate of cooling.
c. protecting the molten weld metal from
atmospheric contaminates.
d. all of the above.
28 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing

Figure Q.1 36. A Cambridge gage may be used to:

a. verify bevel angle.
b. measure weld reinforcement.
c. measure undercut.
d. do all of the above.
37. A soft drink can is produced by:
For questions 33-35, please refer to
Figure Q.t. a. forging.
b. casting.
33. The tail is shown by: c. rolling.
d. extrusion.
a. A.
b. B. 38. SMAW is commonly referred to as:
C. C.
d. D. a. MIG welding.
e. E. b. TIG welding.
c. Stick welding.
34. The reference line is: d. Sub-arc welding.
a. A. 39. If the focal point of the light entering the
b. B. eye falls in front of the retina the result is:
C. C.
d. D. a. hyperopia (far-sightedness).
e. E. b. myopia (near-sightedness).
c. astigmatism.
35. The weld size is: c. presbyopia.
a. A.
b. B.
C. C.
d. D.
e. E.
 29

Chapter 1
Answers

1. d 11. a 21. b 31. a

2. b 12. a 22. C 32. C
3. b 13. d 23. C 33. b
4. a 14. C 24. b 34. C
5. b 15. b 25. a 35. a
6. a 16. a 26. b 36. d
7. b 17. d 27. d 37. d
8. a 18. a 28. a 38. C
9. C 19. C 29. b 39. b
10. C 20. a 30. C
 31

Appendix
Standard Terminology for Visual and Optical Testing
and Materials Processing
Accommodation - The process by which the eye changes focus from far to near objects.
Achromatic - Lacking any amount of a chromatic primary.
Acuity - See Vision acuity.
Adaptation -The process by which the retina becomes accustomed to more or less light than it
was exposed to during an immediately preceding period. It results in a change of the
sensitivity of the eye to light. I
Adhesive bonding - A materials joining process in which an adhesive, placed between the faying
surfaces (adherends), solidifies to produce an adhesive bond. 5
Aliasing - Visible as jagged effects on the vertical edges of the image and occurs in a static
image when the scan or sample rate is too low for the frequency being digitized.
Ambient light - Light in the environment, as opposed to illumination, provided by a visual or
optical testing system.2
Angstrom unit (A) - Unit of length, equal to 0.1 nm.2
Arc strikes - Localized bum damage to an object from the arc caused by breaking an energized
electric circuit. Also called arc bums. 4, 6
Arc welding - See Electric arc welding.
Aspect ratio - The ratio of the width of the raster to its height.
As-welded - The condition of the welded metal, welded joints, and weldments after welding but
prior to any subsequent thermal, mechanical, or chemical treatments. 5
Austenite - A solid solution with iron as the solvent in a face centered cubic structure formed by
slow cooling of delta ferrite. Characteristic lattice structure is stable between 906 °C
(1663 °F) and 1,390 °C (2535 °F). Also called gamma iron.2
Automatic welding (AU) - Welding with equipment that performs the welding operation without
adjustment of the controls by a welding operator. The equipment may or may not perform
the loading and unloading of the work. See Machine welding (MA).5

Back gouging - The removal of weld metal and base metal from the other side of a partially
welded joint to ensure complete penetration upon subsequent welding from that side.5
Background - Short for electrical background noise. Signals from a test object that create noise,
or false indications. The higher the level of background, the more difficult it is to
distinguish an indication.
32 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing
Backing - In welding, a material placed under or behind a joint to enhance the quality of the
weld at the root. It may be a metal backing ring or strip; a pass of weld metal; or a
nonmetal such as carbon, granular flux, or a protective gas. 5
Bainite -A metastable aggregate of ferrite and cementite resulting from the transformation of
austenite at temperatures below the pearlite range but above M5, the martensite start
temperature. Upper bainite is an aggregate that contains parallel lath-shape units of ferrite,
produces the so-called "feathery" appearance in optical microscopy, and is formed above
approximately 350 °C (660 °F). Lower bainite, which has an acicular appearance similar
to tempered martensite, is formed below approximately 350 °C (660 °F).5
Base material - The material to be welded, brazed, soldered, or cut. See Base metal.5
Base metal - (1) The metal present in the largest proportion in an alloy; brass, for example, is a
copper-base alloy. (2) The metal to be brazed, cut, soldered, or welded. (3) After welding,
the part of the metal which was not melted. (4) A metal that readily oxidizes, or that
dissolves to form ions. 5
Bevel angle - The angle formed between the prepared edge of a member and a plane
perpendicular to the surface of the member. 5
Borescope -A periscope or telescope using mirrors, prisms, lenses, optic fibers, or television
wiring to transmit images from inaccessible areas for visual testing.2
Brazing - Joining of metals and a11oys by fusion of nonferrous alloys that have melting points
above 430 °c (806 °F), but below melting points of materials being joined.6
Burn-through - A term erroneously used to denote excessive melt-through or a hole. See
Melt-through. 5
Burst - (1) A signal whose oscillations have a rapid increase in amplitude from an initial
reference level (generally that of the background noise), followed by a decrease (genera1ly
more gradual) to a value close to the initial value.5 (2) In metal, external or internal
rupture caused by improper forming. 2
Butt weld or butt joint - Weld joining two metal pieces in the same plane. 2

Candela (cd) - Base unit of measure in the SI system for luminous intensity. The luminous
intensity in a given direction of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency
540 x 10 12 Hz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1.4641 milliwatt per
steradian.2
Chroma - The difference from gray (the achromatic equivalent) of a color.
CIE -An abbreviation for the French title of the International Commission on Illumination
(Commission Internationale de l 'Eclairage).
Cold shut - (1) Casting discontinuity caused by two streams of semimolten metal coming
together inside a mold but failing to fuse. Cold shuts are sometimes called misruns but the
latter term correctly describes incomplete filling of the mold. (2) A discontinuity that
appears on the surface of test metal as a result of two streams of liquid meeting and
failing to unite. A cracklike discontinuity caused by forging, where two surfaces of metal
fold against each other to produce a discontinuity at the point of folding. This is usually at
some angle to the surface. It may also be a separate piece of metal forged into the main
 Appendix, Standard Terminology 33

component. See Lap. (3) A portion of the surface of a forging that is separated in part
from the main body of metal by oxide.6
Color - Sensation by means of which humans distinguish light of different intensities
(brightness) and wavelengths (hue).2
Complete fusion - Fusion that has occurred over the entire base material surraces intended for
welding and between all layers and weld beads.5
Complete joint fusion - Joint penetration in which the weld metal completely fills the groove
and is fused to the base metal throughout its total thickness. 5
Concavity -The maximum distance from the face of a concave fillet weld perpendicular to a line
joining the toes.5
Convexity - The maximum distance from the face of a convex fillet weld perpendicular to a line
joining the toes.5
Crack - (1) A break, fissure or rupture, usually V-shaped and relatively narrow and deep. A
discontinuity that has a relatively large cross section in one direction and a small or
negligible cross section when viewed in a direction perpendicular to the first.
(2) Propagating discontinuities caused by stresses such as heat treating or grinding.
Difficult to detect unaided because of fineness of line and pattern (may have a radial or
latticed appearance).6
Crack, transverse - Cracks at right angles to the length of the test object.6
Crater - (I) In machining, a depression in the cutting tool face eroded by chip contact. (2) In arc
or gas fusion welding, a cavity in the weld bead surrace, typically occurring when the heat
source is removed and insufficient filler metal is available to fill the cavity.6

Dark current - The unwanted charge that accumulates in each pixel due to the natural thermal
processes that occur above absolute zero.
Datum - A theoretically perfect point, axis, or plane that is derived from actual features.
Defect - A condition or discontinuity having a size, shape, orientation, nature, frequency, or
location that impairs the useful service of the part or that is rejectable according to a
specification or standard.3
Discontinuity - An intentional or unintentional interruption in the physical structure or
configuration of a part.4

Effective throat - In welding, the weld throat incJuding the amount of weld penetration but
ignoring excess metal between the theoretical face and the actual face.2
Electric arc welding - Joining of metals by heating with electric arc. Also called arc welding.2
Electromagnetic spectrum - A continuum or electric and magnetic radiation encompassing all
wavelengths. I
Electroslag welding (ESW) - A fusion welding process in which the welding heat is provided by
passing an electric current through a layer of molten conductive slag (flux) contained in a
pocket formed by water-cooled dams that bridge the gap between the members being
34 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing

welded. The resistance heated slag not only melts filler-metal electrodes as they are fed
into the slag layer, but also provides shielding for massive weld puddle characteristic of
the process.5
Endoscope - Device for viewing the interior of objects. The term endoscope is usually used for
medical instruments that are equivalent to borescopes. 2
Evaluation -A review, following interpretation of the indications noted, to determine whether
they meet specified acceptance criteria. 2

False indication -An indication that is not produced by a discontinuity. Compare Defect. 2
Far vision -Vision of objects at a distance, generally beyond arm's length. 2
Faying surface -The surfaces of materials in contact with each other and joined or about to be
joined. 5
Field of vision -The range or area where objects can be perceived organoleptically (using the
eyes only), assuming that the eye's position is fixed.
Filler metal -Metal added in making a brazed, soldered, or welded joint.5
Fillet weld - Weld at the comer of two metal pieces. 2
Flicker - When the frame repetition rate is not high enough to provide an image that is perceived
as continuous by a human observer.
Fluorescence - Luminescence produced by a material that is excited by light, electricity, or
radiation. The luminescence ceases as soon as the source of excitation is removed.
Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) -An arc welding process that joins metal by heating them with
an arc between continuous tubular filler-metal electrode and the work. Shielding is
provided by a flux contained within the consumable tubular electrode. Additional
shielding may or may not be obtained from an externally supplied gas or gas mixture. 5
Focal distance (lens) - See Focal length.
Focal length (lens) -The distance from the principal plane to the focal plane.
Focal plane - Where parallel incident light rays converge after being diffracted by the lens.
Footcandle (ftc) - Former unit of measure for illumination, equivalent to 1 lumen/ft2 or 1 candle
of luminance measured at I ft.
Fusion (welding) - the melting together of filler metal and base metal (substrate), or of base
metal only, which results in coalescence. 5

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) -An arc welding process that produces coalescence of metals
by heating them with an arc between a continuous filer metal (consumable) electrode and
the work. Shielding is obtained entirely from an externally supplied gas or gas mixture.
Variations of the process include short-circuit arc GMAW, in which the consumable
electrode is deposited during repeated short circuits, and pulsed arc GMAW, in which the
current is pulsed.5
 Appendix, Standard Terminology 35

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) -An arc welding process that produces coalescence of
metals by heating them with an arc between a tungsten (nonconsumable) electrode and the
work. Shielding is obtained from a gas or gas mixture.5
Glare - Excessive brightness (or brightness varying by more than 10:1 within the field of view)
that interferes with clear vision, critical observation, and judgment. 2
Graybody -Radiator whose spectral emissivity is uniform for all wavelengths. 2
Grayscale -A means of defining the image brightness as a function of the brightness of the
object being imaged. It is specified by the highlight brightness, contrast ratio, and gamma.
Groove (welding) -An opening or channel in the surface of a part or between two components
that provides space to contain a weld.5
Groove angle - The total included angle of the groove between parts to be joined. This the sum
of two bevel angles, either or both of which may be zero degrees.5
Groove face -The portion of a surface or surfaces of a member included in a groove.5

Heat affected zone (HAZ) - Base metal not melted during brazing, cutting, or welding, but
whose microstructure and physical properties were altered by the heat.6
Highlight brightness - The brightness of the brightest area of the image.
Hot tear - A fracture formed in a metal during solidification because of hindered contraction.
Surface cracks on castings produced by contraction of the metal during cooling. Hot tears
often occur where areas of different thickness adjoin. 2
Hue -Attribute of color perception by which a color is perceived to be red, yellow, blue, or an
intermediate color between these. White, black, and grays possess no hue.
Hydrogen embrittlement -A condition of low ductility in metals resulting from the absorption
of hydrogen.6

Illuminance (E v == d<J>/dA) -The density of luminous flux on a surface. It is the equivalent to the
measure of irradiance in radiometry.2
Image -The visual impression of an object produced by a lens, mirror, or optical system. A real
image is formed by convergence of light and can be produced on a screen. A virtual image
is one from which the rays of light appear to diverge. The virtual image cannot be
produced on a screen.
Incandescence - The emission of visible radiation due to thermal excitation. 2
Indication -An NDT response that requires interpretation to determine its relevance. 2
Indication, false -An NDT indication that is interpreted to be caused by a condition other than a
discontinuity or imperfection.4
Indication, nonrelevant - An NDT indication that is caused by a condition or type of
discontinuity that requires evaluation.4
Indication, relevant -An NOT indication that is caused by a condition or type of discontinuity
that requires evaluation.4
36 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing

Interpretation -The determination of whether indications are relevant, nonrelevant, or false.4

Irradiance (Ee = d<PldA) -Power of electromagnetic radiant energy incident on a surface of
given unit area.2
IshiharaTM plates -Trade name for a kind of pseudoisochromatic plates.2

Lag - A measure of the rate of change of the video signal at a fixed point on the raster.
Lamellar tearing -Occurs in the base metal adjacent to weldments due to high through­
thickness strains introduced by weld metal shrinkage in highly restrained joints. Tearing
occurs by decohesion and linking along the working direction of the base metal; cracks
usually run roughly parallel to the fusion line and are steplike in appearance. Lamellar
tearing can be minimized by designing joints to minimize weld shrinkage stresses and
joint restraint.5
Lamination - Discontinuity in plate, sheet, or strip caused by pipe, inclusions, or blowholes in
the original ingot. After rolling, laminations are usually flat and parallel to the outside
surface. Laminations may also result from pipe, blisters, seams, inclusions, or segregation
elongated and are made directional by working. Lamination discontinuities may also
occur in metal powder compacts. May appear in the form of rectangles or plates as
inclusion stringers between rolled surfaces. Short, intermittent laminations may be
detrimental if the object is subjected to high bending stresses in service.6
Lap -Surface discontinuity, usually parallel to the surface, appearing as a fold or tangential seam
in a wrought product and caused by the folding over of a hot metal fin or sharp corner in a
thin plate, then rolling or forging it into the surface but not welding it. See also Cold
shut. 6
Leg of fillet weld - (1) Actual - the distance from the root of the joint to the toe of the fillet
weld. (2) Nominal - the length of a side of the largest right triangle that can be inscribed
in the cross section of the weld. 5
Lens -Translucent object that refracts light passing through it in order to focus the light on a
target.2
Light -Radiant energy between approximately 380 nm and 770 nm. This portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum produces a response in the human retina.
Lumen (Im) - Unit of measure in the SI system for luminous flux, equivalent to candela times
steradian (cd•sr). 2
Luminance [L = d2<P/(doxJA cos 0)] -The ratio of a surface's luminous intensity in a given
direction to a unit of projected area. Measured in candela/m2 .2
Luminous flux - Radiant energy's time rate of flow. Measured in lumens.2
Luminous intensity Uv = d<Pldw) -Luminous flux on a surface normal to the direction from its
light source, divided by the solid angle the surface subtends at the source. Measured in
candela.2
Lux (Ix) -Unit of measure for illuminance in the SI system. Equivalent to lm/m2 .
 Appendix, Standard Terminology 37

Machine vision - Automated system function of acquiring, processing, and analyzing images to
evaluate a test object or to provide information or interpretation for human evaluation.2
Machine welding (ME) - Welding with equipment that performs under the continual observation
and control of a welding operator. The equipment may or may not load the work.
Compare with automatic welding (AW).5
Macular lutae - Irregular, diffuse ring of yellow pigment surrounding the fovea that absorbs blue
light and changes the spectral energy distribution of the light reaching the receptors under
it.
Manual welding (MA) - Welding wherein the entire welding operation is performed and
controlled by hand.5
Melt-through - Complete joint penetration for a joint welded from one side. To prevent melt­
through, the welding current and the width of the root opening should be reduced, and
travel speed increased. 5
Metallograph - A metallographic microscope designed for metallography.
Metallography - The science and practice of microscopic testing, inspection, and analysis of a
metal's structure, typically at magnifications in the range of 50x to 2500x.2
Microscope -An instrument that provides enlarged images of very small objects.2
Monochromatic - Color composed of a single hue, having a very narrow band of wavelength.
Monochromator - Device that uses prisms or gratings to separate or disperse the wavelengths of
the spectrum into noncontinuous lines or bands.2

Overlap - (I) Pultrusion of weld metal beyond the toe, face, or root of a weld. (2) In resistance
seam welding, the area in a given weld remelted by the succeeding weld. See also Face of
weld, Root of weld, and Toe of weld. 5
Oxyacetylene welding (OAW) - An oxyfuel gas welding process in which the fuel gas is
acetylene.5

Near vision - Vision of objects near to the eye when accommodative ability is required.
Generally within arm's length.
Nearsightedness - Vision acuity that is adequate for near vision.
N-type semiconductor - See Semiconductor.

Pearlite - Platelet mixture of cementite and ferrite in steels or in alpha and beta phases in
nonferrous alloys.2
Photometer -The basic measuring instrument of photometry.2
Photometry - The science and practice of the measurement of light or photon emitting
electromagnetic radiation. 2
38 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing

Photons - Discrete particles of light or electromagnetic radiation hypothesized to explain the

corpuscular theory of radiant energy.
Photopic vision - Vision adapted to daylight and mediated mainly by the cones. Vision is wholly
photopic when the luminance of the test surface is above 0.034 cd•m-2 (0.0032 cd•ft-2).1
Pipe - (I) The central cavity formed during solidification of metal, especially ingots, by thermal
contraction. (2) The discontinuity in wrought or cast products resulting from such a cavity.
(3) An extrusion discontinuity due to the oxidized surface of the billet flowing toward the
center of the rod at the back end. (4) A cast, wrought, or welded metal tube. 6
Pixel - Short for picture element, a pixel is an individual light sensor.
Plasma arc welding (PAW) -An arc welding process that produces coalescence of metals by
heating them with a constricted arc between an electrode and the workpiece (transferred
arc) or the electrode and the constricting nozzle (nontransferred arc). Shielding is obtained
from hot, ionized gas issuing from an orifice surrounding the electrode and may be
supplemented by an auxiliary source of shielding gas, which may be an inert gas or a
mixture of gasses. Pressure may or may not be used, and filler metal may or may not be
supplied.5
Porosity -A discontinuity in metal resulting from the creation or coalescence of gas. Very small
pores are called pinholes. 2
Principal focus - See Focal plane.
Process -Repeatable sequence of actions to bring about a desired result. 2
Pseudoisochromatic plates -Color plates used for color vision examinations.2
P•type semiconductor - See Semiconductor.

Quality of lighting - Level of distribution of luminance in a visual task or environment.2

Radiance [Le= d2<Pl(dox/A cos 0)] -Radiant flux per unit solid angle and per unit projected area
of the source. Measured in watts per square meter steradian. 2
Radiant energy (Qe) - Energy transmitted through a medium by electromagnetic waves. Also
known as radiation. 2
Radiant flux ( <1> = dQ/dt) - Radiant energy's rate of flow, measured in watts.2
Radiant intensity Ue = d<I>ldm) -Electromagnetic energy emitted per unit time per unit solid
angle. Measured in watts per steradian. 2
Raster - The repetitive pattern whereby the scanning electron beam follows a path of adjacent
parallel lines.
Remote visual inspection - Viewing of an object not in the viewer's field of vision.
Resolution - An aspect of image quality pertaining to a system's ability to reproduce objects,
often measured by resolving a pair of adjacent objects or parallel lines. 2
 Appendix, Standard Terminology 39

Resolving power - The ability of vision or other detection systems to separate two points.
Resolving power depends on the angle of vision and the distance of the sensor from the
test surface. Resolving power is often measured using parallel lines.2
Rhodopsin -Retinal receptor that responds at low light levels.
Root face -The portion of a weld groove face adjacent to the root of the joint.5
Root mean square (RMS) - The square root of the average of the squares of a number of values.
Root of joint -The portion of a weld joint where the members are closest to each other before
welding. In cross section, this may be a point, a line, or an area.5
Root opening -In a weldment, the separation between the members at the root of joint prior to
welding.5
Root of weld -The points at which the weld bead intersects the base-metal surfaces either
nearest to or coincident with the root of joint.5

SI -The International System of units of measurement. Includes most of the base units formerly
called metric.2
Saturation -Relative or comparative color characteristic resulting from a hue's dilution with
white light.2
Scab -A flat volume of metal joined to a casting through a small area. Usually set in a
depression, a flat side being separated from the metal of the casting proper by a thin layer
of sand.6
Scan lines - See Trace.
Scotopic vision -Dark adapted vision, using only the rods in the retina, where differences in
brightness can be detected but the differences in hue cannot. Vision is wholly scotopic
when the luminance of the test surface is below 3 x I o-s cd•m-2 (2.7 x I Q-6 cd•ft-2). Also
known as parafoveal vision.2
Seam - (I) On the surface of metal, an unwelded fold or lap that appears as a crack, usually
resulting from a discontinuity obtained in casting or working. (2) Mechanical or welded
joints. (3) Longitudinal surface discontinuity on metal originating from a surface crack or
blowhole near the surface of the ingot, that is drawn out during rolling and follows the
rolling direction. Also due to overfill while rolling. After forging, seams generally follow
the direction of flow lines. 6
Semiautomatic arc welding (SW) - Arc welding with equipment that controls only the filler
metal feed. The advance of the welding is manually controlled.s
Semiconductor -A solid with an electrical conductivity that is intermediate between those of
insulators and metals. Semiconductors are usually metalloid elements such as germanium
or silicon.
• n-type semiconductors - a semiconducting material where most of the circuit is carried by
electrons when deliberately placed donor impurities in the material form positive ions and
release electrons.
40 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing
• p-type semiconductor - a semiconducting material where acceptor impurities require extra
electrons for stable bonding. The ionization of the impurity creates a positive hole creating
the current flow.
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) -A manual arc welding process in which the heat for
welding is generated by an arc established between a flux-covered consumable electrode
and a workpiece. The electrode tip, molten weld pool, arc, and adjacent areas of the
workpiece are protected form atmospheric contamination by a gaseous shield obtained
from the combustion and decomposition of the electrode covering. Additional shielding is
provided from the molten metal in the weld pool by a covering of molten flux or slag.
Filler metal is supplied by the core of the consumable electrode and from the metal
powder mixed with the electrode covering of certain electrodes. SMAW is often referred
to as arc welding with stick electrodes, manual metal arc welding, and stick welding.5
Size of weld - (1) The joint penetration in a groove weld. (2) The lengths of the nominal legs of
a fillet weld. (3) The weld metal thickness measured at the root of a flange weld.5
Smear - When the phase response of the imaging system is not capable of reproducing a rapid
change in shade or contrast in a static object.
Specification -A set of instructions or standards invoked by a specific customer to govern the
results or performance of a specific set of tasks or products. 2
Spectral power distribution -The radiant power per unit wavelength as a function of
wavelength. Also known as spectral energy distribution, spectral density, and spectral
distribution.2
Spectrophotometer -Instrument used for spectrophotometry.2
Spectrophotometry -Measurement of electromagnetic radiant energy as a function of
wavelength, particularly in the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared wavelengths.2
Spectroradiometer -Instrument used for spectroradiometry.2
Spectroradiometry -Measurement of electromagnetic radiant power and spectral emittance,
used particularly to examine colors and to measure the spectral emittance of light
sources. 2
Spectrum -Representation of radiant energy in adjacent bands of hues in sequence according to
the energy's wavelengths or frequencies. A rainbow is a well known example of a visible
spectrum.2
Specular -Pertaining to a mirror-like reflective finish, as of a metal.2
Standard -Document to control and govern practices in an industry or application, applied on a
national or international basis and usually produced by consensus.2
Stress corrosion cracking - Failure by cracking under combined action of corrosion and stress,
either applied or residual. Cracking may be either intergranular or transgranular,
depending on the metal and corrosive medium. 6
Stud welding (SW) -An arc welding process in which the contact surfaces of a stud, or similar
fastener, and a workpiece are heated and melted by an arc drawn between them. The stud
is then plunged rapidly onto the workpiece to form a weld. Partial shielding may be
obtained by the use of a ceramic ferrule surrounding the stud. Shielding gas or flux may
or may not be used. The two basic methods of stud welding are known as stud arc
 Appendix, Standard Terminology 41

welding, which produces a large amount of weld metal around the stud base and a
relatively deep penetration into the base metal, and capacitor discharge stud welding
which produces a very small amount of weld metal around the stud base and shallow
penetration into the base meta!.5
Submerged arc welding (SAW) -Arc welding in which the arc, between a bare metal electrode
and the work, is shielded by a blanket of granular, fusible material overlying the joint.
Pressure is not applied to the joint, and filler metal is obtained from the consumable
electrode (and sometimes from a supplementary welding rod). 5

Throat, actual - Shortest distance from the root of a fillet weld to its face, as opposed to
theoretical throat or weld size. 2
Throat, theoretical - The distance from the beginning of the root of the weld perpendicular to
the hypotenuse of the largest right triangle that can be inscribed within the cross section of
the fillet weld. Compare Size of weld-2
Throat, weld - Distance from the root of a fillet weld to its face. Compare Size of weld and
Throat, actual.2
Toe of weld -The junction between the face of a weld and the base metal.5
Trace - Line formed by electron beam scanning from left or right on a video screen to generate a
picture.2
Tungsten inert gas (TJG) welding - See Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW).

Ultraviolet radiation - Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths from 4-400 nm, between
visible light and X-rays.2
Undercut - Undesirable depression or groove left unfilled by weld metal, created by melting
during welding and located in base material at the toe of a weld.2, 6
Underfill - In weldments, a depression on the face of the weld or root surface extending below
the surface of the adjacent base metaJ.5

Video - Pertaining to the transmission and display of images in an electronic format that can be
displayed on a cathode ray screen.2
Visibility -The quality or state of being perceivable by the eye. In many outdoor applications,
visibility is defined in terms of the distance at which an object can be just perceived by
the eye. In indoor applications, it usually is defined in terms of the contrast or size of a
standard test object, observed under standardized view conditions, having the same
threshold as the given object. 1
Vision - Perception by eyesight.2
Vision acuity -The ability to distinguish fine details visually. Quantitatively, it is the reciprocal
of the minimum angular separation in minutes of two lines of width subtending one
minute of arc when the lines are just resolvable as separate. 1
Visual acuity - See Vision acuity.
42 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Visual and Optical Testing

Visual angle - The angle subtended by an object or detail at the point of observation. It usually is
measured in minutes of arc. I
Visual perception - The interpretation of impressions transmitted from the retina to the brain in
terms of information about a physical world displayed before the eye. Visual perception
involves any one or more of the following -recognition of the presence of something
(object, aperture, or medium); identifying it; locating it in space; noting its relation to
other objects; or identifying its movement, color, brightness, or form. I
Visual performance - The quantitative assessment of the performance of a visual task, taking
into consideration speed and accuracy. 1
Visual purple - See Rhodopsin.
Visual task - The appearance and immediate background of those details and objects that must
be seen for the performance of a given activity. 1
Visual testing - Method of NDT using electromagnetic radiation at visible frequencies-2

Weld - A localized coalescence of metals or nonmetals produced either by heating the materials
to suitable temperatures, with or without the application of pressure, or by the application
of pressure alone and with or without the use of filler materiaJ.5

Gl�ary References
1. JES Lighting Handbook - Reference & Application, 8th Edition. New York, NY -The
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. I 993.
2. Allgaier, Michael W., Stanley Ness, Paul McIntire, and Patrick 0. Moore, eds.
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition -Volume 8, Visual and Optical Testing.
Columbus, OH -The American Society for Nondestructive Testing. 1993.
3. EPRT Learning Modules. Charlotte, NC - The Electric Power Research Institute
4. ASTM E 1316, 1997 Annual Book ofAST M Standards, Section 3, Metals Test Methods
and Analytical Procedures, Volume 03.03, Nondestructive Testing. West Conshohocken,
PA-The American Society for Testing and Materials. 1997.
5. Davis, J .R., ed. ASM Materials Engineering Dictionary. ASM International. I 992.
6. Ness, Stanley, Charles N. Sherlock, Paul McIntire, and Patrick 0. Moore, eds.
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition -Volume 10, Nondestructive Testing
Overview. Columbus, OH -The American Society for Nondestructive Testing. 1996.