ME2402-Applied

Thermodynamics II:

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning –

Part 2
Mr. H.M.S. Bandara
 Dry And
Atmospheric Air

• Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and

small amounts of other gases.
• Air in the atmosphere normally contains
some water vapor (or moisture) and is
referred to as atmospheric air.
• In contrast, air that has no water vapor,
is called dry air.

Although the amount of water vapor in air

is small, it significantly affects human
comfort and is a key factor in air-
conditioning applications.
Specific and Relative Humidity of Air
• Absolute or specific humidity is defined as the mass of water vapor present in
a unit mass of dry air. Also known as the humidity ratio.
• It is a logical way to quantify the moisture content in the air and is denoted by
ω

If atmospheric air is treated as an ideal-gas mixture,

vapor pressure

partial pressure of dry

air
• Saturated air refers to air that holds the maximum amount of water
vapor possible at a given temperature and pressure. Any additional
moisture would condense into liquid.

• Relative humidity (ϕ) is the ratio of the actual amount of moisture in

the air (mv) to the maximum amount of moisture the air can hold at
the same temperature (mg).

P Sat @ T

• The relative humidity ranges from 0 for dry air to 1 for saturated air.
 Psychometry

• Psychometry is the study of thermodynamic

properties of moist air.

• It is used to analyze the characteristics of

various air conditioning processes and
cycles.
Key Temperature Measures
in Air-Conditioning and
Psychrometry
• The dry-bulb temperature (Tdb) of air is the
temperature obtained with a thermometer,
which is freely exposed to the air, but which
is shielded from radiation and free from
moisture.
• The wet-bulb temperature (Twb) of air is the
temperature obtained with a thermometer
whose bulb is covered by a muslin sleeve
that is kept moist with distilled/clean water,
freely exposed to the air, and free from
radiation.
The rate of evaporation from the wet cloth on
the bulb, and the temperature difference
The wet bulb temperature is always lower than
between the dry bulb and wet bulb, depends
on the humidity of the air. The evaporation is the dry bulb temperature but will be identical
reduced when the air contains more water with 100% relative humidity
vapor.
• The dew point (Tdp) is the temperature at which water vapor starts to
condense into liquid, and the air becomes fully saturated.
• In other words, Tdp is the saturation temperature of water corresponding to
the vapor pressure (Tdp= T Sat @ P ).
V

• If the dew-point temperature is close to the air temperature, the relative

humidity is high, and if the dew point is well below the air temperature, the
relative humidity is low.

Examples of Dew Point:

Psychrometric Chart
• A psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of the physical and thermal
properties of moist air.
• It is a powerful tool used in HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) and
other engineering fields to analyze air conditions and design air-conditioning
systems.
Example 1
Consider a room that contains air at 1 atm, 25°C, and a wet-bulb
temperature of 20°C.

Using the psychrometric chart, determine

a) the relative humidity (RH)
b) the specific humidity/ humidity ratio
c) the specific volume of the air
d) the enthalpy
Example 2
Consider a room that contains air at 1 atm, 35°C, and 40 percent
relative humidity.

Using the psychrometric chart, determine

(a) the specific humidity
(b) the enthalpy
(c) the wet-bulb temperature
(d) the dew-point temperature, and
(e) the specific volume of the air
Importance of Air Conditioning
Comfort & Health:
• Regulates temperature and humidity for comfort.
• Improves air quality by filtering allergens and pollutants.

Boosts Productivity & Equipment Protection:

• Enhances workplace performance and prevents equipment from overheating.

Industrial & Transport Applications:

• Essential for temperature-sensitive processes and transporting perishable
goods.
Air-conditioning processes
Maintaining the desired temperature and humidity in living spaces or
industrial facilities requires various air-conditioning processes.

• Heating: Raising the air temperature.

• Cooling: Lowering the air temperature.
• Humidifying: Adding moisture to the air.
• Dehumidifying: Removing moisture from the air.

In many cases, a combination of these processes is needed to achieve

the desired conditions.
If temperature is not controlled:
If humidity is not controlled:

Mold growth

Corrosion
Simple heating and cooling
processes appear as horizontal
lines on this chart since the
moisture content of the air remains
constant (ω = constant) during
these processes.

Air is commonly heated and

humidified in winter and cooled
and dehumidified in summer.

Notice how these processes

appear on the psychrometric chart.
Most air-conditioning processes are modeled as steady-flow
processes, meaning the mass flow rates remain constant over time.
The mass balance can be expressed separately for dry air and water
vapor as:

Disregarding kinetic and potential energy changes, the steady-

flow energy balance, 𝐸ሶ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 can be expressed as:
Simple Heating and Cooling
Residential Heating Systems:
• Use stoves, heat pumps, or electric resistance heaters.
• Air circulates through ducts containing hot gas tubing or
electric resistance wires.

Moisture Content:
• No moisture is added or removed during the process.

Specific Humidity (ω) remains constant.

Psychrometric Chart Representation:

• The process follows a horizontal line on the chart, indicating
constant specific humidity.
• Dry-bulb temperature increases along this line during
heating.
• A cooling process at constant specific
humidity is similar to the heating process
discussed above, except the dry-bulb
temperature decreases and the relative
humidity increases during such a process.

• Cooling can be accomplished by passing the

air over some coils through which a
refrigerant or chilled water flows.
The conservation of mass equations for a heating or cooling process that
involves no humidification or dehumidification reduce to 𝑚ሶ 𝑎1 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎2 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 for
dry air and ω1 = ω2 for water.

Neglecting any fan work that may be present, the conservation of energy
equation in this case reduces to,

where h1 and h2 are enthalpies per unit mass of dry air at the inlet and the exit
of the heating or cooling section, respectively.
Heating with Humidification
• Simple heating can lead to low relative humidity (RH), causing
discomfort and potential health issues (e.g., dry skin, respiratory
problems).
• Low humidity can also affect indoor plants and materials, leading
to cracking or drying out.
• To mitigate these issues, heated air can be humidified before
distribution. This process involves two main sections:
This is achieved by, first passing the air
through a heating section (process 1-2) and
then through a humidifying section (process 2-
3).

In process 2-3, moisture is added to the

heated air, raising the relative humidity to
comfortable levels without cooling the air.

This can be achieved using various methods,

such as steam injection, evaporative coolers,
or misting systems.
Cooling with Dehumidification
• In simple cooling, the relative humidity (RH) increases as the air
temperature decreases, since cooler air holds less moisture.
• High relative humidity can make the environment feel damp,
leading to discomfort.
• It reduces the body’s ability to cool through sweating, making it
feel hotter than it actually is.
• If RH becomes too high, cooling systems may need to remove
moisture by cooling the air below the dew point.
• Dehumidification ensures a comfortable and safe environment,
preventing moisture-related issues.
Evaporative Cooling
• Evaporative cooling is a natural and energy-efficient method of cooling air
that utilizes the principle of water evaporation to lower air temperature.
• This process is particularly effective in hot and dry climates.

✓ Hot, dry air at state 1 enters the evaporative

cooler, where it is sprayed with liquid water.

✓ Part of the water evaporates during this

process by absorbing heat from the airstream.

✓ As a result, the temperature of the air stream

decreases and its humidity increases (state 2).
In the limiting case, the air leaves
the evaporative cooler saturated at
state 2’, which is the lowest
temperature that can be achieved
by this process.

• The process follows the constant Twb

line, because temperature drops
through evaporation while humidity
increases.

• The energy exchange happens within

the air-water vapor system, with no
external heat transfer.
Adiabatic Mixing of Airstreams
• In many air-conditioning systems, two airstreams need to be mixed.
• This is common in large buildings, industrial plants, and hospitals.
• Conditioned air is often mixed with fresh outside air before being sent into
living spaces.
• The mixing process is done by merging the two air streams.
• Heat transfer with surroundings is usually small, so the process is
considered adiabatic.
• No work interactions occur during mixing.
• Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.

Mass and Energy Balances for Adiabatic Mixing:

• When two airstreams at different states (State 1 and State 2) are mixed, the final state (State
3) lies on a straight line between them on the psychrometric chart.
• The position of State 3 depends on the ratio of the mass flow rates of the two airstreams.
• The ratio of distances on the chart between 2-3 and 3-1 corresponds to the ratio of the mass
flow rates.
Wet Cooling Towers
• A wet cooling tower is a device used to cool water
by exposing it to air, where part of the water
evaporates, removing heat from the remaining
water.
• Air is drawn into the tower from the bottom and
leaves through the top.
• Warm water from the condenser is pumped to the
top of the tower and is sprayed into this airstream.
• The purpose of spraying is to expose a large
surface area of water to the air. As the water
droplets fall under gravity, a small fraction of water
evaporates and cools the remaining water.
Forced-Draft Cooling Tower
• Airflow Mechanism: Uses mechanical fans to force air through the tower.
• Structure: Typically smaller in size; fans are installed at the air inlet.
• Performance: Provides higher airflow rates and better control, making it effective in hot or
humid climates.
• Energy Consumption: Requires electric power for fans, increasing operational costs.
• Application: Common in industrial facilities, HVAC systems, and areas where airflow must
be controlled precisely.
Natural-Draft Cooling Tower
• Airflow Mechanism: Relies on natural convection to draw air through the tower. The warm air
rises and cooler air is pulled in from the bottom.
• Structure: Larger towers (often hyperbolic in shape) to optimize natural airflow.
• Performance: Works well in large power plants and facilities with high cooling loads.
• Energy Consumption: No fans are needed, making it more energy-efficient but dependent on
weather conditions.
• Application: Common in power plants and chemical plants where space allows for large
structures.
Thank You