Memory

Memory is the faculty of the mind by which data or information is encoded, stored, and retrieved
when needed.

Importance of memory
It is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. If past
events could not be remembered, it would be impossible for language, relationships, or personal
identity to develop.

Memory loss is usually described as forgetfulness or amnesia.[

Functioning of memory
Memory is often understood as an informational processing system with explicit and implicit
functioning that is made up of a sensory processor, short-term (or working) memory, and long-
term memory.

This can be related to the neuron. The sensory processor allows information from the outside
world to be sensed in the form of chemical and physical stimuli and attended to various levels of
focus and intent. Working memory (also known as short term memory) serves as an encoding
and retrieval processor. Information in the form of stimuli is encoded in accordance with explicit
or implicit functions by the working memory processor. The working memory also retrieves
information from previously stored material. Finally, the function of long-term memory is to
store through various categorical models or systems.

Sensory memory
Sensory memory holds information, derived from the senses, less than one second after an item
is perceived.

The ability to look at an item and remember what it looked like with just a split second of
observation, or memorization, is the example of sensory memory.

It is out of cognitive control and is an automatic response. With very short presentations,
participants often report that they seem to "see" more than they can actually report.

Three types of sensory memories exist

1. Iconic memory is a fast decaying store of visual information, a type of sensory
memory that briefly stores an image that has been perceived for a small duration.
 2. Echoic memory is a fast decaying store of auditory information, also a sensory
memory that briefly stores sounds that have been perceived for short durations.
3. Haptic memory is a type of sensory memory that represents a database for touch
stimuli.

Short-term memory
Short-term memory is also known as working memory. Short-term memory allows recall for a
period of several seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity, however, is very limited.

George A. miller Experiment

In 1956, George A. Miller (1920–2012), when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted
experiments showing that the store of short-term memory was 7±2 items. (Hence, the title of his
famous paper, "The Magical Number 7±2.")

Short-term Memory capacity

Modern perspectives estimate the capacity of short-term memory to be lower, typically on the
order of 4–5 items, or argue for a more flexible limit based on information instead of items.
Memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking. For example, in
recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits into three groups: first,
the area code (such as 123), then a three-digit chunk (456), and, last, a four-digit chunk (7890).
This method of remembering telephone numbers is far more effective than attempting to
remember a string of 10 digits; this is because we are able to chunk the information into
meaningful groups of numbers. This is reflected in some countries' tendencies to display
telephone numbers as several chunks of two to four numbers.

Long-term Memory
The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally has a strictly limited capacity
and duration, which means that information, is not retained indefinitely. By contrast, while the
total capacity of long-term memory has yet to be established, it can store much larger quantities
of information. Furthermore, it can store this information for a much longer duration, potentially
for a whole life span.

For example, given a random seven-digit number, one may remember it for only a few seconds
before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in short-term memory. On the other hand, one can
remember telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be
stored in long-term memory.
While short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term memory encodes it
semantically: Baddeley (1966) discovered that, after 20 minutes, test subjects had the most
difficulty recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great, huge)
long-term. Another part of long-term memory is episodic memory, "which attempts to capture
information such as 'what', 'when' and 'where'". With episodic memory, individuals are able to
recall specific events such as birthday parties and weddings.

Types of long term memory

1. Multi store memory

2. working memory model

Researchers distinguish between recognition and recall memory.

Recognition memory tasks require individuals to indicate whether they have encountered a
stimulus (such as a picture or a word) before.

Recall memory tasks require participants to retrieve previously learned information. For
example, individuals might be asked to produce a series of actions they have seen before or to
say a list of words they have heard before.

Declarative memory requires conscious recall, in that some conscious process must call
back the information. It is sometimes called explicit memory, since it consists of information that
is explicitly stored and retrieved.

Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into

Semantic memory, concerning principles and facts taken independent of context; and
episodic memory, concerning information specific to a particular context, such as a time and
place.

Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract knowledge about the world, such as "Paris is
the capital of France".

Episodic memory, on the other hand, is used for more personal memories, such as the sensations,
emotions, and personal associations of a particular place or time. Episodic memories often reflect
the "firsts" in life such as a first kiss, first day of school or first time winning a championship.
These are key events in one's life that can be remembered clearly.

Procedural

In contrast, procedural memory (or implicit memory) is not based on the conscious recall of
information, but on implicit learning. It can best be summarized as remembering how to do
something. Procedural memory is primarily used in learning motor skills and can be considered a
subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when one does better in a given task due only to
repetition – no new explicit memories have been formed, but one is unconsciously accessing
aspects of those previous experiences.

Some examples of procedural memory include the ability to ride a bike or tie shoelaces.

Factor that effect our memory

1) Ability to retain:

This depends upon good memory traces left in the brain by past experiences.

2) Good health:

A person with good health can retain the learnt material better than a person with poor health.

3) Age of the learner:

Youngsters can remember better than the aged.

4) Maturity:

Very young children cannot retain and remember complex material.

5) Will to remember:

Willingness to remember helps for better retention.

6) Intelligence:

More intelligent person will have better memory than a dull person,

7) Interest:

If a person has more interest, he will learn and retain better.

8) Over learning:

Experiments have proved that over learning will lead to better memory.

9) Speed of learning:

Quicker learning leads to better retention,

10) Meaningfulness of the material:

Meaningful materials remain in our memory for longer period than for nonsense material,

11) Sleep or rest:

Sleep or rest immediately after learning strengthens connections in the brain and helps for clear
memory.

Introduction:

Learning in psychology is like taking a fascinating journey where we discover new things
and grow as individuals.

I. What is Learning?

1. Learning is like collecting information and skills from our experiences and interactions. It
helps us become better and handle new situations.
2. Learning helps us adapt and change, making us more skilled and knowledgeable about
the world around us.

II. Classical Conditioning:

1. Connecting Things: Classical conditioning is about linking things together. When

something makes us feel a certain way, we start connecting that feeling with other things
around us.
2. Emotions and Learning: It's also about connecting emotions to different situations, like
feeling happy or scared because of certain cues in our environment.

III. Operant Conditioning:

1. Consequences Matter: Operant conditioning looks at how our actions are shaped by what
happens next. If something good or bad follows what we do, it affects whether we'll do it
again.
2. Rewards and Punishments: We learn through rewards (like treats) and punishments (like
timeout), and this shapes how we behave.

IV. Observational Learning:

1. Learning from Watching: This is about learning by watching and copying others. If we
see someone doing something cool or getting in trouble, we might copy or avoid doing
the same.
2. Learning from Example: Sometimes, we learn just by seeing others do things, and we
might feel good or bad about it, even if we didn't do it ourselves.

V. Thinking While Learning:

 1. Creating Mental Maps: Our brains make mental maps to help us understand and
remember our surroundings, kind of like having a GPS in our heads.
2. Figuring Things Out: Sometimes, we learn by figuring things out on our own. It's like
solving a puzzle and realizing how things work.

VI. Types of Learning:

1. Knowing and Doing: Learning can be knowing things on purpose (explicit) or just
picking up stuff without really trying (implicit).
2. Getting Used to or More Sensitive: We might get used to things that happen a lot
(habituation) or become more aware and sensitive to them (sensitization).

Conclusion:

Learning is a big adventure where we connect ideas, copy from others, and use our brains to
understand the world. This assignment has shown how learning happens in different ways,
shaping who we are and how we navigate through life.