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COGNITIVE STUDIES IN LITERATURE AND PERFORMANCE

The Early
Evolutionary
Imagination
Literature and Human Nature
Emelie Jonsson
 Cognitive Studies in Literature and Performance

Series Editors
Bruce McConachie, Department of Theatre Arts, University of
Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Blakey Vermeule, Department of English, Stanford University, Stanford,
CA, USA
This series offers cognitive approaches to understanding perception,
emotions, imagination, meaning-making, and the many other activities
that constitute both the production and reception of literary texts and
embodied performances.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14903
 Emelie Jonsson

The Early
Evolutionary
Imagination
Literature and Human Nature
Emelie Jonsson
UiT The Arctic University of Norway
Tromsø, Norway

Cognitive Studies in Literature and Performance

ISBN 978-3-030-82737-3 ISBN 978-3-030-82738-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82738-0

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
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This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
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in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
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For the ones who raised me with art and nature,
and for the one who unified my universe.
 Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments, like novels, vary by temperament. Some scholars are

naturally inclined to praise the human contact that has shaped their minds
during a decade-long process of composition. Others, more private,
restrict themselves to lists of official research bodies. This scholar tends
toward the private but recoils from formalized gratitude. I hope readers
of this preliminary will be tolerant.
A few mentions must be made. Though Professor Marcus Nordlund
is no longer with us, this book would not exist without him. He intro-
duced me to the field of evolutionary literary theory and allowed me to
pursue it. One of the first things he told me was that “This field is full
of fascinating people who love both science and literature.” I have since
found his claim to be true beyond his personal example. I keep memories
of our wry debates, aggravating disagreements, and moments of mutual
intellectual appreciation. I still hear his voice when I write, cautioning
against overreaching from the data or reducing literature to abstractions.
Though I don’t always listen (then as now), I cherish the voice.
Marcus told me about an intensive summer course called “Evolu-
tion, Literature, and Film” held in 2011 at Aarhus University, Denmark.
That is where I met Curator’s Professor Joseph Carroll, pioneer of
evolutionary literary theory, and the then star Ph.D. candidate Mathias
Clasen. No single encounter has been more significant for my intellec-
tual development. Mathias has gone on to become Associate Professor
at Aarhus University, leader of the Recreational Fear Lab, author of

vii
viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

books with prestigious presses, TED-talker, and oft-cited international

authority on the horror genre. Meanwhile, he has remained a stead-
fast friend and intellectual companion—still giving and taking editorial
cuts with grace, including many administered to this book. The students
he raises in Aarhus have been similarly gracious. A special recognition
goes to the up-and-coming authority on villains and video games, Jens
Kjeldgaard-Christiansen, whose keen editorial eye has saved me from
many indignities.
My greatest debt is to Joe Carroll. His hypothesis about the adaptive
function of the arts first expanded my mind toward my conclusions about
Darwinian myth-making, and he has helped refine those conclusions
through ten years of lively discussion. His critical eye is as judicious as it
is ruthless—and it is, indeed, quite ruthless. There is no one I trust more
to tell me when I’m wrong, to acknowledge when I’m right, or to let my
ideas be my own. He has been a supporter beyond his contributions to
this book: an anchor in the tumultuous world of academic intrigue, and
a Virgil for the never-ending wanderings of literary education.
I will not linger on friends and family. Suffice to say that I’m fully
aware that I’m fortunate. You are, alas, entangled in this book: My parents
on the wild island; my night-and-day brothers with night-and-day fami-
lies; the librarian farmer’s son with oceanic compassion; the militaristic
engineer with a razor-sharp literary mind; and the former zoo keeper,
part-time jewelry maker, who gifted me a notebook of poetry called
Human/Nature.
I have seen acknowledgments humorously capped by the inclusion of
pets. The humor is appropriate, since the dogs and cats do not care
either way, but my gratitude is rather earnest. This book would have
been very different if I had not lived from childhood in direct contact
with uncompromisingly non-human perspectives.
 Permissions

Parts of “Chapter 4: From Adventure to Utopia” were previously

published in Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture 2 (1),
2018, as “T. H. Huxley, Arthur Conan Doyle, and the Impact of Evolu-
tion on the Human Self-Narrative”; and in Broken Mirrors: Representa-
tions of Apocalypses and Dystopias in Popular Culture (Routledge, 2019),
as “Dystopia and Utopia After Darwin: Using Evolution to Explain
Edward Bulwer Lytton’s The Coming Race.” Parts of “Chapter 6: H.
G. Wells’s Evolutionary Imagination” were previously published in Style.
47 (3), 2013, as “The Human Species and the Good Gripping Dreams
of H. G. Wells.” Parts of “Chapter 7: Joseph Conrad’s Evolutionary
Imagination” were previously published in Evolutionary Perspectives on
Imaginative Culture (Springer, 2020) as “Heart of Darkness: Joseph
Conrad’s Confrontation with Amoral Nature.”

ix
 Contents

1 Using Evolution to Explain the Evolutionary

Imagination 1
1.1 The Case for Literature 5
1.2 A Current View of the Human Species 8
1.3 The Human Niche 9
1.4 Sociality and Social Organization 13
1.5 Imagination and the Arts 17
1.6 Species Identity and Literature 27
References 30
2 Myth-Making in Early Evolutionary Thought 37
2.1 Negotiating Human Uniqueness 41
2.2 Myths of Order, Cooperation, and Harmony 46
2.3 Myths of Competition, Inequality, and Individualism. 50
2.4 Nature as Antagonist or Protagonist 54
2.5 Making Meaning 59
References 65
3 Darwinism in Literature 69
3.1 Previous Literary Scholarship 74
3.2 The Position of Evolutionary Literary Theory 88
References 97
4 From Adventure to Utopia 101
4.1 Arthur Conan Doyle’s The Lost World (1912) 102

xi
xii CONTENTS

4.2 Robert Louis Stevenson’s Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde

(1886) 110
4.3 Edward Bulwer-Lytton’s The Coming Race (1871) 120
References 137
5 Jack London’s Evolutionary Imagination 141
5.1 The Split Cosmic Vision and the Handcuff to Life 146
5.2 Martin Eden (1909) 154
5.3 The Sea-Wolf (1904) 169
5.4 Conclusion 176
References 179
6 H. G. Wells’s Evolutionary Imagination 183
6.1 The Little Animals and the Mind of the Race 190
6.2 The Shakespeare of Science Fiction 197
6.3 The Time Machine (1895) 202
6.4 The Island of Doctor Moreau (1896) 212
6.5 Conclusion 219
References 224
7 Joseph Conrad’s Evolutionary Imagination 231
7.1 Conrad’s Science 236
7.2 The Skeptical Life Strategy 240
7.3 Heart of Darkness (1899) 257
7.4 Conclusion 271
References 274
8 The Unimaginable Place in Nature 279
References 289

Index 293
 CHAPTER 1

Using Evolution to Explain the Evolutionary

Imagination

THE question of questions for mankind—the problem which underlies all

others, and is more deeply interesting than any other—is the ascertain-
ment of the place which Man occupies in nature and of his relations to
the universe of things. Whence our race has come; what are the limits of
our power over nature, and of nature’s power over us; to what goal we
are tending; are the problems which present themselves anew and with
undiminished interest to every man born into the world.
—T. H. Huxley

Darwinian evolution did something remarkable to the human imagina-

tion. It changed the stage for our ancient habit of self-definition. Our
cultural histories brim with the remnants of what T. H. Huxley called our
“question of questions” (2009 [1863], 57). There is scarcely a folk tale or
stage tragedy that does not address “what are the limits of our power over
nature, and of nature’s power over us.” Every political or moral vision
suggests “to what goal we are tending” (or should be). From the time
of eerie Paleolithic petroglyphs, pictorial art has portrayed bestial people
and anthropomorphic animals, exploring what it does and does not mean
to be human. From its earliest records, fiction swarms with jackal-headed
Egyptian deities, Chinese monkey kings, Greek and Norse myths about
talking animals and interspecies breeding, all the way to the ancient were-
wolves and vampires that persist in today’s popular culture. Where do

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2021
E. Jonsson, The Early Evolutionary Imagination,
Cognitive Studies in Literature and Performance,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82738-0_1
2 E. JONSSON

humans come from? What makes us special, how do we fit into nature,
and where are we going? In answer to these questions, world religions
and tribal mythologies assure us that we have been chosen by supernatural
forces for some purpose, that our history was shaped by grandiose events,
that our concerns have universal significance, and that the world works
according to human moral laws that mete out ultimate punishments and
rewards. These are all answers from within our subjective human universe.
Darwin, for the first time, began to provide scientific answers that gave
us glimpses of ourselves from the outside. His view of our place in nature
clashed with the views of mythology and religion—and, as I will argue,
with the human imagination itself.
Before Darwin, human self-definition had been largely guided by
human desires. Philosophers and naturalists either thought within the
established religious stories or created new stories without much to check
the biases of their own human minds. Though there had been hints of
species change and common descent in human thought from ancient
Greek and Chinese philosophy up through Darwin’s near-contemporaries
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Erasmus Darwin, and Robert Chambers, those
hints had never taken the shape of naturalistic explanation detached from
a cosmic purpose of perfection or transcendence (Appleman 1970, 3–45).
As Huxley said, those looking for original answers to the great human
questions faced “difficulties and dangers” (2009 [1863], 57). The estab-
lished answers had the double benefit of being habitual and of being
inherently comfortable for the human mind. For the Victorians, Darwin’s
theory was a fairly late, decisive blow in the ongoing struggle between
naturalistic and Christian cosmology. But the discomfort it produced ran
deep. The Darwinian account of life clashes with mythology generally,
because as the theory itself would come to show, it runs counter to the
way our minds work.
In our time, Darwin’s theory has guided a synthesis of biology, anthro-
pology, and psychology that aims to explain our species the way we would
explain any other species. To the best of our current understanding, our
minds have been shaped for survival and reproduction in our particular
niche. We tend to focus on the human life cycle and the threats and
rewards that most commonly attend it. We pay attention to life events
like births, growing up, finding a place in the sustenance system, romantic
bonding, parenting, and death. We worry about survival, enjoy learning
and imitation, get caught up in games of trust and deception, feel at home
in communities, thrill and rage in conflict with other communities, punish
 1 USING EVOLUTION TO EXPLAIN THE EVOLUTIONARY IMAGINATION 3

bullies and cheaters, strive for status, feel the deep satisfaction of construc-
tive effort, and take pleasure in various kinds of love and imaginative life.
Though we share many of these features with other animals, they come
together into a specifically human profile. That human profile is imprinted
on our minds. We can imagine alternative paths of life and different time
periods—even magical universes, fictional technology, or empires in outer
space populated by unknown sentient species. But all such imaginative
visions take their shape from the basic categories of our human life cycle.
Like all imaginative stories, our cosmic origin stories build the universe
around human life trajectories and social relationships.
The human profile means that Darwinian evolution fits inside our
imagination like a grain of sand under an eyelid. In Darwin’s origin story,
we are one of millions of species that have evolved on Earth, and most
species have gone extinct. Our concerns are not universally relevant, only
adaptations to our particular niche. Our history was shaped by innumer-
able small chance events. Our future may be extinction or changes so
extreme that we become unrecognizable as a species. The universe works
according to amoral natural laws. These answers to the great human ques-
tions are the reverse of the answers given by mythologies and artistic
visions—given, that is, by the human imagination. Despite Darwin’s occa-
sional flights of rhetoric, his human origin story came without heroic
characters, anthropomorphized weather, rituals and symbols, meaningful
adventures, agonistic structures arranged around human concerns, and
more or less directly recommended courses of life. In its most detailed
form it was abstract, counterintuitive, and difficult to grasp. Thus, it posed
a problem different from all other cosmological shifts, like that from
pagan religions to Christianity. Rather than being faced with a full imag-
inative story created by other human minds, the Victorians were faced
with data gradually uncovered by human minds.
Darwin’s conclusions were distressing, but they were also evocative
precisely because they began to tell a story like no other. Darwinian
evolutionary theory revealed facts about the natural world that still cause
wonder, and principles that are still hard to keep in focus without beau-
tification. It brought to light a delicate balance between the struggle
for existence and the reality of cooperation, the details of which still
puzzle biologists. It forced us to think statistically, seeing species neither
as essential types nor as arbitrary categories of the human mind, but as
groups of subtly different individuals united by gradations of similarity
and interaction. It re-painted our family tree in a way that stretched the
4 E. JONSSON

mind to its fullest, forcing it to envision countless life forms worked

on by natural forces through deep geological time, with the few that
survived still undergoing perpetual transformations. The trunk of the tree
bound human beings to all other organisms. Without delicacy or flair, it
uncovered our descent from microbes, fish, and tree-dwelling primates.
This vision was made convincing through fossils, the anatomical orga-
nization of plants and animals and the distribution of species. Evidence
converged in a compelling way from fields as diverse as geology, plant
and animal husbandry, geography, and embryology. Darwin’s Origin of
Species and Descent of Man gathered all this evidence and shaped it into a
theoretical whole. And the human imagination responded. Philosophers
and theologians defended the comforting self-authored origin stories or
tried to encase Darwin’s grain of sand in soothing qualifications. Artists
engaged evolution in allegorical battle, drew heroes and villains from
evolutionary history, personified the impersonal natural forces, or took
the imaginative challenge itself as their topic. Anyone remotely concerned
with intellectual life had to face Darwinian evolution—whether with
despair, scientific admiration, utopian gusto, sneering moral superiority,
or surrealist amusement.
Evolution, which has challenged the human imagination more than
any other scientific discovery, can also be used to explain the human
imagination. Though the evolutionary study of human behavior is a
steady research program, imaginative behavior remains an uncertain fron-
tier populated by conflicting hypotheses. I will map out that frontier,
and argue for the hypothesis that our imaginative worlds help guide
our flexible behavior. According to that hypothesis, our mythologies and
artistic visions imbue our concerns with universal significance so that
those concerns seem valuable despite their smallness on the cosmic scale.
That means that our imaginative visions necessarily distort reality to some
extent. But we need to see reality clearly enough to interact with it
successfully, and imaginative visions can help us do that, too. Through
the arts, we can accept difficult truths and cope with the most painful
clashes between personal wishes and the rest of the world. The result, I
argue, is that we constantly—more or less consciously—balance our need
for reliable information about the world against our need to distort the
world in psychologically functional ways.
Because of the friction with our imagination, Darwinian evolution
replaced illusions of an anthropocentric world with illusions of a world
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
Chariot, Comte de, appeals to England to protect Belgium
against France, 513.
Chartres, Duc de. See Orleans, Duke of.
Chatham, Hester, Lady, 36, 37, 39, 40, 288.
Chatham, John Pitt, 2nd Earl of, 40, 41, 57, 167, 269, 397, 398;
First Lord of the Admiralty, 567, 616.
Chatham, William Pitt, first Earl of, his death, 2;
his character and influence, 34, 35;
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fallacious comparisons between him and his son, 39, 40;
his opinion of public schools, 42;
his careful choice of language, 43;
letters from his son, 44, 51;
his last speeches and death, 61;
hostility of the King to, 62;
state of his affairs, 64;
his Coalition with Newcastle compared with that of Fox and
North, 119.
Chauvelin, Marquis de, French ambassador to England, 281.
Cherbourg, fortification of, 211, 327, 341.
Cheyt Singh, Zamindar of Benares, 225, 232, 233, 238, 239.
China, trade between America and, 563.
Cholmondeley, Lord, Walpole on his death, 25.
Chotzim, surrender of, 491.
Church Missionary Society founded, 473.
Civil List, proposals for reform of, 68, 84.
“Clapham Sect,” the, 473.
Clarence, Duke of (afterwards William IV), opposes abolition of
the Slave Trade, 471, 472, 474.
Clarkson, Thomas, 322, 455, 457, 468, 473, 478.
Clavering, Sir John, his intrigues against Hastings, 224.
Clavière, Etienne, supports abolition of the Slave Trade, 458.
Clerk, Sir Philip, 69.
Cl k hi f th P ll th 159
Clerkship of the Pells, the, 159.
Clinton, Sir Henry, 445.
Coal, duty on, 186.
Coalition Ministry (1783) formed, 118;
names of Ministers, 128, 129;
dismissed, 148.
Cobenzl, Count, Austrian Vice-Chancellor, 524, 527, 614, 620 n.
Coke of Norfolk, 163, 611.
Colnett, Captain, his ships seized by the Spaniards at Nootka,
563–5.
Commerce, Committee of Council for, appointed by Pitt, 257.
Commons, House of. See Parliament.
Commutation Bill (1784), 185.
Consols, lowness of (1783, 1784), 178, 180;
rise in (1785), 318,
(1786), 341.
Constantine, Prince, grandson of Catharine II, 482.
Constitutional Information, Society for Promoting, 109, 206.
Contractors Bill (1782), 110, 113.
Convict Settlements, Parliamentary Report on (1785), 434, 435;
scheme for new, 435–40.
Conway, General, 102, 112, 116, 159, 163.
Cook, Captain, 436, 438, 440, 562, 564.
Coote, Sir Eyre, death of, 147.
Corn, Bill to regulate export of (1789), 544;
export of from Ireland to England forbidden, 545.
Cornwall, Charles Wolfran, Speaker, his death, 422.
Cornwallis, Earl, declines office under Pitt, 156;
Governor-General of India, 224, 370, 371, 402;
mission to Berlin, 314;
suggested as Home Secretary, 619.
Corporation Act, its repeal proposed and rejected, 212, 214,
215.
Cort of Gosport, his invention for the production of malleable
iron, 31.
Cotton industry, its enormous expansion, 30.
County Reform Associations, 21, 27, 68, 71, 169.
Court, the English, strictness of the etiquette at, 16, 392.
Courtenay, John, M.P., 211.
Crabbe, Thomas, on smuggling, quoted, 182, 183.
Cracow, Bishop of, 627.
Craufurd, George, English commissioner at Versailles, 328–30.
Crewe, Mrs., on Pitt’s administration, 154;
on behalf of Fox, 172.
Crompton, Samuel, his “mule-jenny,” 3, 29.
Crown, the debates on the influence of, 70, 130;
theory of royal veto, 148;
abuse of power of, 148, 149.
Cumberland, Henry Frederick, Duke of, his influence on the
Prince of Wales, 393.
Cumberland, William Augustus, Duke of, his death, 24.
Curtis, Alderman, 586.
Czartoryski family, the, in Poland, 486.

Dalrymple, Lord, British Ambassador at Berlin, 304 n., 313, 352,

353, 363 n.
Daly, Denis, M.P., 251.
Danzig, question of its cession to Prussia, 387, 507, 508, 511 n.,
521 n., 522, 526, 529, 594, 596, 597, 599, 601, 606, 607,
613, 614.
Delancey, Colonel Stephen, 445, 446 n.
Delancey, Sir William, 446 n.
Del Campo, Marquis, Spanish Ambassador in London, 562,
565, 566.
Democracy, growth of, 2, 197, 203–6;
see Chap. XXIV.
Dempster, George, 190, 191, 544.
Denmark, desires alliance with Great Britain, 385;
treaty with Russia, 496;
eager for war with Sweden, 496;
lays siege to Gothenburg, 496–9;
agrees to an armistice, 499, 500;
renders help to Russia, 501, 502, 600, 603.
Derby, Countess of, works on behalf of Fox, 172.
Desmoulins, Camille, 512, 571, 572.
Devonshire, Georgiana, Duchess of, supports Fox, 172, 173,
421, 623;
recognizes Mrs. Fitzherbert, 398;
her Diary, 409, 421 n.
Diamond Necklace Scandal, 140, 343, 382.
Diderot, Denis, 299, 300.
Dietz, Prussian envoy at Constantinople, 494, 506, 507 n., 509,
511, 521, 528.
Disbrowe, Colonel, epigram on Queen Charlotte, 392.
Dissenters. See Nonconformists.
Dnieper, River, 603, 604.
Dniester, River, 597, 602, 604, 605, 615, 619, 620.
Dolben, Sir William, his bill for regulating transport of slaves,
461.
Dominica ceded to Great Britain, 116, 121.
Dönhoff, Countess, 609.
Dorchester, Lord, Governor-General of Canada, 448–50.
Dorset, Duke of, British Ambassador in Paris, 329, 333, 334,
341, 344 n., 369, 545;
recalled, 546.
Douglas, Captain, his ship seized by the Spaniards at Nootka,
564.
Dover House Club, 403.
Drake, Francis, British envoy at Copenhagen, 615.
Drinking in the eighteenth century, 23–5.
Düben, Count, Swedish Minister, 499.
Dublin Parliament, legislative independence conceded, 105.
Dumouriez, General, 547.
Duncannon, Lord, 90.
Duncannon, Viscountess, 172.
Duncombe, Charles Slingsby, elected member for York, 170,
201, 293, 586.
Dundas, Henry, 88;
his attitude on the conduct of the war, 101;
fails to win over Lord North, 117;
supports the choice of Pitt as Prime Minister, 125;
in favour of Pitt’s Reform proposals, 131;
opposes Fox’s India Bill, 146;
Treasurer of the Navy, 157;
his character, 157, 158;
his attitude on reform, 200 n., 201–3, 212;
letter to Cornwallis, 220;
introduces the India Amending Act of 1786, 221;
his high opinion of Cornwallis, 224;
his attitude to Warren Hastings, 227, 229, 230, 232, 234–6;
introduces Adam Smith to Pitt, 241 n.;
his house at Wimbledon, 270 n.;
his friendship with Pitt, 274;
account of, 276–80;
his influence in Scotland, 277, 278;
his influence over Pitt, 278, 279;
conviviality at Wimbledon, 279;
anecdotes of Pitt and, 279, 289, 404;
carries out the Canada Bill, 452;
on the Slave Trade, 469, 471, 475, 476;
defends the armament against Russia, 613, 618;
Home Secretary, 619.
Dundas, Sir Thomas, 173.
Dunning, John. See Ashburton, Lord.
Dupont de Nemours, 346.
Durham, Lord, his Report on Canada (1839), 450, 452.
Dutch East India Company, 317, 327, 356, 382.
Dutch Republic. See United Provinces.

East India Company, The, unsatisfactory state of, 143, 217;

Fox’s India Bill, 143–6;
resolutions of the general court, 161;
Pitt’s India Bill, 160–3;
proposals of Pitt’s second India Bill, 218–21;
hails Pitt as its champion, 223;
often on the verge of bankruptcy, 225;
how affected by Pitt’s Irish Resolutions, 260;
dispute with Pitt, 403, 404.
Economic Reform, movement for, 68, 110, 113.
Economistes, the, 322–4.
Economy Bill (1782), 110, 113, 178, 286.
Eden, Morton, Ambassador at Berlin, 629.
Eden, William (Lord Auckland), 79, 185, 233, 234;
opposes Pitt’s Irish Resolutions, 254, 255, 275;
his career, 333;
special envoy in Paris, 330, 331, 333–8, 341, 343, 347, 356,
367, 370, 371, 373, 376–81, 545;
his “Discourse on Banishment,” 432, 434;
letters from Wilberforce and Pitt to, on the Slave Trade, 459,
460;
Ambassador at Madrid, 459;
made Lord Auckland, 523;
Ambassador at The Hague, 523, 534, 569, 572, 592, 602,
610;
his opposition to Ewart, 602, 629.
Edmundson, William, 454.
Edward, Prince (afterwards Duke of Kent), 515;
sent to Gibraltar, 549.
Edwards, Gerard (afterwards Sir Gerard Noel), 91.
Edwards, Gerard (afterwards Sir Gerard Noel), 91.

Effingham, Lady, 407.

Egypt, French policy in, 310, 326, 327, 355.
Eldon, Lord (John Scott), anecdote told by, 24;
opposes Fox’s India Bill, 146, 213.
Elections in England, popular licence, 27.
Elgin, Lord, his mission to Leopold II, 619, 620.
Eliot, Edward, made Lord Eliot, 159.
Eliot, Edward J., 58;
marries Harriet Pitt, 58;
goes with Pitt to France, 137;
death of his wife, 289, 290.
Elliot, Sir Gilbert (afterwards Earl of Minto), 146, 158, 274, 275,
428;
proposed as Speaker, 464.
Elliot, Hugh, letters to Pitt, 25 n., 396;
British Ambassador at Copenhagen, 496;
persuades Gustavus to accept English and Prussian
mediation, 497–501;
his mission to Paris, 560, 579–81.
Ellis, Welbore, 102.
England. See Great Britain.
English, character of the, 142.
Errington, Mr., uncle of Mrs. Fitzherbert, 397 n., 398.
Erskine, Thomas (afterwards Baron), attacks Pitt, 159;
defeated at the polls, 171;
attack on Pitt prompted by the Prince of Wales, 404.
Eugène, Prince, 481, 482.
Euston, Lord, 58, 90;
elected member for Cambridge University, 171.
Ewart, Joseph, letter to him, quoted, 9, 10;
Secretary of Legation at Berlin, 311;
originates the idea of the Triple Alliance, 313, 631;
Ambassador at Berlin, 313 n., 363 and n., 364, 365, 374, 375,
381, 386 n., 387, 389, 489 n., 490 n., 495, 497–9, 500 n.,
 381, 386 n., 387, 389, 489 n., 490 n., 495, 497 9, 500 n.,
507 n., 508, 510, 511 n., 514, 516, 519, 521 n., 528–30,
534, 574, 590, 593, 595, 598, 599, 616–19;
opposed by Auckland, 602, 603;
Burke’s opinion of him, 613 n.;
his description of his interview with Pitt, 617, 618;
his work nullified, 628, 631;
his recall and death, 629, 630.

Falconbridge, overseer of the Sierra Leone settlement, 473.

Family Compact, the (1761), 570, 571, 576.
Fawcett, General, 374.
Fawkener, William, special envoy to St. Petersburg, 619 n.,
621–4, 625.
Ferguson of Pitfour, 88, 278.
Ferguson, Sir Edward, 191.
Fielding, Henry, on the occupations of a fop, 17.
Finckenstein, Count, Prussian Foreign Minister, 353, 364.
Finland, campaign in, 491, 493, 531.
Fitzgerald, Lord Robert Stephen, British Ambassador at Paris,
465, 513, 546–8.
Fitzherbert, Alleyne, British Ambassador at St. Petersburg, 300,
302, 486, 488;
his mission to Madrid, 570, 574, 577, 582–4.
Fitzherbert, Mrs., her relations with the Prince of Wales, 394–9.
Fitzpatrick, Richard, 426, 429.
Fitzwilliam, Earl, 145, 428, 429 n., 611.
Fitzwilliam, W., suggests a lottery for settling the Prince of
Wales’s debts, 403 n.
Flanders. See Belgic Provinces.
Fletcher, Sir Henry, 145.
Flood, Henry, 245, 252, 264.
Floridablanca, Count, Spanish Minister, 568, 573–5, 577, 584.
Floridas, the, ceded to Spain, 116, 120.
Flour export of to France forbidden 543 5
Flour, export of to France forbidden, 543–5.
Fontainebleau, Treaty of, 316.
Foster, John Baron Oriel, Irish Chancellor of the Exchequer,
248, 251, 337.
Fox, Charles James, his house at Wandsworth, 19;
his losses at gambling, 26;
his University career contrasted with Pitt’s, 58;
introduced to Pitt, 60;
his character and vices, 80, 93;
as an orator, 80, 81;
praises Pitt’s maiden speech, 85;
motion in favour of peace, 88;
made Foreign Secretary, 104;
supports proposals for Reform, 108, 109;
resigns, 111;
attacks Shelburne, 111, 112;
refuses Pitt’s overtures, 117;
his Coalition with North, 117, 118;
effect of his conduct, 119;
his defence, 120;
supports motion for a vote of censure, 120;
made Secretary of State in the Coalition ministry, 128;
supports Pitt’s reform proposals (1783), 131;
proposes to allow £100,000 a year to the Prince of Wales,
133;
attributes the King’s opposition to an intrigue of Pitt’s, 133;
introduces the India Bill, 142;
dismissed from office, 148;
attacks Pitt, 159;
defeats him and calls on him to resign, 163;
negotiations for a union of parties, 164;
offers to serve with Pitt, 165;
failure of negotiations, 166;
his attacks not pressed home, 167;
his election for Westminster invalidated, 173;
elected for Orkney and Shetland, 173;
Pitt’s ungenerous conduct to him, 173, 254, 271;
f hi d f 174
 reasons for his defeat, 174;
opposes reduction of the tea duty, 185;
opposes Pitt’s proposal of a Sinking Fund, 192;
his amendment accepted by Pitt, 193;
attitude to the Reform Bill of 1785, 202;
supports repeal of the Corporation and Test Acts, 214;
opposes Pitt’s second India Bill, 219, and his Amending Act,
222;
supports Burke’s motions against Hastings, 228, 230, 232,
239;
speeches on Pitt’s Irish Resolutions, 254, 255, 261, 262;
his opinion of Adam Smith, 262;
contrasted with Pitt, 273, 295;
opposes the French Commercial Treaty, 341, 342;
friendship with the Prince of Wales, 393, 396, 398, 399;
denies the marriage of the Prince with Mrs. Fitzherbert, 401;
champions the East India Company against Pitt, 404;
action on the King’s illness, 409, 413;
speeches on the Regency question, 415–18, 421, 423, 424;
his disappointment on the King’s recovery, 426, 427;
on Canadian policy, 448, 451, 452;
rupture with Burke, 451, 558;
on the Slave Trade, 463, 465, 467, 469, 474;
interview with Vorontzoff, 504;
opposes vote for the army (1790), 550, 551;
on the Convention with Spain, 586, 587;
opposes the Russian armament, 610, 612;
his relations with Adair, 623, 624.
Fox, George, 454.
“Fox’s Martyrs,” 170, 171.
France, Anglomania in, 17, 322;
peace concluded with, 115, 116, 136;
position of, after the peace, 139, 140, 321;
national debt of, 179, 180;
beginnings of Political Economy in, 183;
her activity in India, 220, 221, 230, 310, 317, 326, 355, 356,
373 n.;
ih h M h 225
 war with the Mahrattas, 225;
alliance with Austria, 297, 300, 314;
compact with Sweden, 301–4;
designs in Egypt, 310, 327, 482, 483;
alliance with the United Provinces, 316, 317, 332;
her commanding position, 317;
mental sympathy with England in, 322;
commercial treaty with England, 325–40;
its reception, 341, 342;
reasons for its acceptance, 343–5;
its after effects, 346, 347;
the assembly of Notables, 343, 345, 358;
refuses Prussian proposal of joint intervention at The Hague,
354, 363, 367, 382;
financial difficulties, 347, 358;
her Dutch policy, 366–82;
duplicity of her policy and conduct, 370, 373 and n., 374, 379;
promises aid to Holland, 377,
but fails to give it, 378, 379;
destruction of her influence in the United Provinces, 379–82;
her finances compared with those of England, 405;
her expedition to New South Wales forestalled, 440;
opinion on the Slave Trade in, 458, 460, 463 (see French
Revolution);
her preponderance in Canada, 447, 448;
her policy in Turkey, 482;
position of the peasants in France and other countries, 538,
539;
effect of philosophical speculation in France and England,
539, 540;
first efforts of reformers in, 540;
suspicious of England, 542, 550;
her constitution, 556.
Francis, Sir Philip, opposes Pitt’s Second India Bill, 219;
his hostility to Hastings, 222, 224, 226, 228, 233;
his friendship with Burke, 226, 556.
Franking, abuses of, 186, 187.
F kli B j i W i 59
Franklin, Benjamin, at Westminster, 59;
his admiration for Lord Shelburne, 83;
Pitt meets him in Paris, 139, 140.
Fraser, British Ambassador at St. Petersburg, 385 n., 488 n.,
489.
Frederick the Great, intrigues against England, 296, 297;
refuses to help the Princess of Orange, 309, 349, 351, 360;
refuses an alliance with England, 312, 314;
his death, 351.
Frederick William II of Prussia, his accession and character,
351, 352;
his overtures rejected by France, 354, 363, 367;
demands satisfaction from Holland for the insult to the
Princess of Orange, 363–5, 370–2, 382;
his vacillation, 366, 374, 381;
sends an ultimatum to Holland, 374, 375;
invades Holland, 376;
alliance with England, 384–9;
his attitude to the war between Sweden and Russia, 494, 495;
threatens to invade Denmark if she attacks Sweden, 497,
499;
sanctions Hertzberg’s schemes, 506, 507, 514;
demands Belgian independence, 514, 516;
anger against England, 517;
treaty with Poland, 521;
correspondence with Leopold II, 523, 528;
renounces Hertzberg’s schemes, 529;
his Polish policy, 594, 595;
sends Bischoffswerder to Vienna, 601;
challenges England to take strong measures against Russia,
608, 609;
changes his attitude, 614;
agrees to Pitt’s proposals, 619, 621;
decides on an understanding with Austria, 628, 629.
Free Trade, ideas of, 322, 323, 343.
French East India Company, revived, 220, 221, 310, 317, 326,
341.
French Revolution, the National Assembly constituted, 511;
declares slaves free in French colonies, 465–7;
disastrous effects, 467;
declaration of war against England, 472;
intrigues in Belgium, 513, 516;
meeting of the States-General, 537, 538;
fall of the Bastille, 542;
the Revolution compared with the English Revolution, of
1688, 554, 555;
warlike attitude of the royalists in the Assembly, 570;
debate on the royal prerogative, 571;
proposed alliance with Spain against England, 576–8, 583.
French Royalists, failure of their settlement in Canada, 446, 447.
Friends, Society of. See Quakers.
Friesland, Province of, 350, 368.
Frost, John, attorney, 109, 110.
Fürstenbund, the, 312, 482.

Gainsborough, Thomas, his portraits of Lady Chatham and

William Pitt, 38.
Galicia, question of its restoration to Poland, 387, 507, 508, 511,
521–3, 526, 594.
Gambia River, penal settlement, 434, 435.
Gambling, in the eighteenth century, 26.
Game-laws, the, 15.
“Gazetteer,” the, 253, 255.
George III, resentment against his war policy, 7;
national loyalty to, 8;
his personality, 8;
his political power, 8–10;
his sobriety and simple tastes, 24, 25;
his hostility to Chatham, 61, 62;
his firmness during the Gordon Riots, 71;
his electioneering, 74, 99, 172;
disastrous effects of his policy, 76;
disastrous effects of his policy, 76;
his increasing power, 77;
characteristics of, 97–100;
skill in intrigue, 99;
relations with his Ministers, 99;
his attitude after Yorktown, 100;
resignation of Lord North, 103;
foments discords in the Rockingham Ministry, 104, 105;
exerts influence against Reform, 110;
rebukes Pitt, 115;
urges Pitt to form a Ministry, 125–7;
threatens to retire to Hanover, 127;
is forced to accept the Coalition Ministry, 127, 128;
his hatred of Fox and North, 129;
refuses to grant honours, 129, 137;
his anger on the subject of the Prince of Wales’s allowance,
133;
makes overtures to Pitt through Thurlow, 134, 135;
recalls Pitt from Paris, 141;
intervenes to secure defeat of the India Bill in the Lords, 147,
148;
appoints Pitt Prime Minister, 148;
refuses to remove him, 168;
dissolves Parliament, 169;
his relations with Pitt after 1784, 175, 176;
attitude to the Reform Bill of 1785, 197, 201, 204;
favours Warren Hastings, 226, 228, 235, 236;
insists on an Irish contribution towards naval expenses, 250;
letter on the death of Pitt’s sister, 290;
desire for peace, 301, 317, 357, 494;
causes Hanover to join the Fürstenbund, 312;
his opinion of Sir James Harris, 369;
in favour of an Anglo-Prussian alliance, 388;
his insanity, 392, 407;
relations with the Prince of Wales, 393–402;
his letters to the Prince drafted by Pitt, 399, 408;
reconciliation with the Prince, 402;
decline in health, 406, 407;
 decline in health, 406, 407;
stories of his madness, 407 and n.;
progress of the disease, 410–13;
removed to Kew House, 413;
treated by Dr. Willis, 414, 415;
his recovery, 426, 427, 504;
his confidence in Pitt, 430;
his partiality to Thurlow, 464, 465;
absorbed in domestic troubles, 515, 549;
on the Duke of Orleans’ visit to London, 547;
his silence with regard to the French Revolution, 549;
his determined attitude on the Nootka Sound dispute, 566,
567;
on Elliot’s mission to Paris, 579, 580.
Georgia, Principality of, 486.
Germain, Lord George. See Sackville, Viscount.
Gibbon, Edward, worsted in a discussion with Pitt, 72, 73.
Gibraltar, Siege of, 67, 79;
relieved, 106, 114;
question of ceding it, 114.
Gilbert’s Act (1782), 15.
Giurgevo, defeat of the Austrians at, 527.
Glynn, Dr., 50, 51.
Gold Coast, the, 435.
Goltz, Count von, Prussian envoy at Warsaw, 522 n.
Goostree’s, 89, 91–3.
Gordon, Duchess of, 404.
Gordon, Lord George, 71, 341.
Gordon Riots, the, 9, 27, 71.
Goree, ceded to France, 116.
Görtz, Count, special Prussian envoy to The Hague, 354, 373.
Gothenburg, besieged by the Danes, 496, 498–500.
Gower, (second) Earl, President of the Council, 156.
Gower (third) Earl, ambassador in Paris, 576 n., 577, 579, 580.
Grafton Duke of Privy Seal 114 116 616;
Grafton, Duke of, Privy Seal, 114, 116, 616;
declines office under Pitt, 155.
Graham, Lord, 90.
Graham, Thomas (Lord Lynedoch), 16.
Granby, Lord, 56. See Rutland, Duke of.
Grant, General, letter to Cornwallis on the Prince of Wales, 402.
Grantham, Lord, Foreign Secretary, 111, 325.
Granville Bay and Town, 473.
Grasse, Count de, defeated by Rodney, 106.
Grattan, Henry, 105, 246, 247, 251, 252, 264.
Great Britain, state of, in and after 1780, 4 et seq.;
power and character of the peers, 10, 13, 14;
power of the squires, 14–16;
etiquette at Court, 16;
manners and customs in 1782, 17–20;
wealth and prosperity, 18;
her stolid conservatism, 21;
vices of the age, 23–6;
industrial expansion, 28–31;
development of agriculture, 31, 32;
financial position in 1784, 179, 180;
penal code, 433, 434;
state of in 1791, 611.
Gregory, Robert, 146.
Greig, Admiral, in command of the Russian fleet, 493.
Grenada, ceded to Great Britain, 116, 121.
Grenville, Hester. See Chatham, Lady.
Grenville, Thomas, 171, 410 n.
Grenville, William Wyndham (Lord Grenville), 90;
his speech on the India Bill, 146;
Paymaster of the Forces, 157;
speaks in defence of Hastings, 232, 234, 235;
his house at Wimbledon, 270 n.;
his career and character, 280, 281;
mission to The Hague, 280, 307 n., 356 n., 369, 374;
 mission to Paris, 280, 378, 379;
his influence over Pitt in foreign affairs, 317, 326, 405;
made Speaker, 412, 422;
Home Secretary, 449, 464;
created Baron Grenville, 449, 466;
his share in the Canada Bill, 449–52;
on the Slave Trade, 476, 477;
Foreign Secretary, 535 n., 544, 559, 560, 575, 599, 616, 618–
20, 624, 627.
Grey, Charles (afterwards Earl Grey), 289, 586, 613, 624.
Groschlag, French envoy to Berlin, 375.
Grosvenor, Thomas, M.P., 466.
Guelderland, Province of, 350, 359, 376.
Gustavus III of Sweden, 385;
declares war on Russia, 491, 493, 502;
his character and career, 492;
alliance with Turkey, 493, 495;
retires to Stockholm, 494, 498;
not supported by England or Prussia, 494, 495;
proceeds to Gothenburg, 498, 499;
accepts English and Prussian mediation, 499, 500;
his ambitious schemes, 501;
makes peace with Russia, 530–3, 592, 593;
open to an offer from the Allies, 600, 603, 609, 621;
alliance with Russia, 628, 629.

Haggerston, Sir Carnaby, 397, 398.

Hague, The, treaty signed at (1788), 383;
Conference at, 534;
Convention signed at (1790), 534.
Hailes, Daniel, Secretary to the embassy in Paris, 326, 327,
330, 332, 334, 343–5, 355, 356, 545;
British envoy at Warsaw, 522, 595, 596, 598, 626, 627, 630.
Haldimand, Governor, 446.
Hamilton, Lady Anne, her “Memoirs of the Court of George III,”
t d 275
 quoted, 275.
Hamilton, Gerald, 424.
Hanover, included in the Fürstenbund, 312, 313.
Hardy, Thomas, on smuggling, 182.
Hargreaves, James, his spinning-jenny, 2, 29.
Harris, Sir James (afterwards Earl of Malmesbury), account of,
308, 309;
Ambassador at St. Petersburg, 79, 296, 299, 302, 304, 484;
Ambassador at The Hague, 275, 308–10, 314, 315, 317, 326,
327, 335, 347, 349–51, 354, 355, 357–64, 369, 372–4,
376, 381, 388, 389;
confidante of the Prince of Wales, 394, 395, 424.
Harrowby, Earl of. See Ryder, Dudley.
Hastings, Warren, vote of censure on, 143, 217;
order for his recall annulled, 143, 217;
his plan of an alliance with the Great Mogul frustrated by his
Council, 221;
his treatment of Cheyt Singh, 224, 225, 232, 233;
the affair of the Begums of Oude, 225, 239, 240;
source of Burke’s information against him, 226;
received with favour by the King, 226;
interview with Pitt, 227;
charges against him, 229–40;
his impeachment, 233, 240.
Hats, tax on, 186.
Hawkesbury, Lord, 471.
Hayes, Chatham’s house at, 37, 40, 41, 43, 48.
Henry, Prince, of Prussia, 479, 609.
Herbert, George Augustus (afterwards Earl of Pembroke), 155.
Hertzberg, Count, Prussian Foreign Secretary, anxious for an
alliance with England, 311, 312, 353, 363, 364, 366, 375;
signs the treaty with England (1788), 389;
his schemes in Eastern Europe, 384, 386, 387, 489 n., 491,
494, 495, 506–10, 520–3, 528;
Belgian policy, 511, 513, 514, 574;
Polish policy 594 596 597 614;
 Polish policy, 594, 596, 597, 614;
treacherous proposals to Russia, 597, 599, 606, 607, 619;
decline of his power, 600, 601, 621 n.;
his fall, 628.
Hesse, Prince of, Danish Commander-in-chief, 499.
Hippisley, J. C., British agent, 545.
Holland, Province of, 350, 351, 355, 360;
the Free Corps detain and insult the Princess of Orange, 361,
362, 364, 366;
the Estates refuse to apologize, 370–2;
cancel their appeal for help to France, 376;
bad faith of the French towards, 377–9.
Holwood House, 265 n., 269.
Hood, Admiral, Lord, 172, 173, 567.
Horses, tax on, 186.
Howard, John, 214, 322, 433.
Howe, Admiral Lord, relieves Gibraltar, 114;
First Lord of the Admiralty, 156;
resigns, 567.
Hyde de Neuville, 281.
Hyder Ali, invades the Carnatic, 79, 143, 217, 225.

India. See Chap. X;

Fox’s India Bill, 142–8;
Pitt’s first India Bill, 160–3;
his second India Bill, 218–20;
his Amending Act of 1786, 221, 222;
increased power of the Viceroy, 222, 223;
joint action of the Dutch and French in, 317, 356;
French plans for overthrow of British power in, 356;
British garrison strengthened, 403;
India Declaratory Act (1788), 404.
Indian “nabobs,” influence of, 16, 223.
Imhoff, Baron, 226.
Income Tax, Pitt’s opinion of, in 1798, 188.
Industrial Revolution the 2 29;
Industrial Revolution, the, 2, 29;
its results, 29–32.
“Influence,” importance of, 12, 91;
Pitt’s increasing use of, 208, 209.
Ireland. See Chap. XI;
burden of taxation in (1781), 5;
state of, in 1782, 105;
state of, in 1783, 141;
the Act of Union (1800), 203;
history of Anglo-Irish relations, 242–6;
Protestant tyranny in, 242;
growth of toleration, 242, 243;
composition of the Irish Parliament, 242, 243;
the woollen and linen industries, 243, 244;
Volunteer corps, 244, 245;
restrictions on trade removed, 245;
repeal of the Test Act, 245;
legislative independence secured, 105, 106, 245;
demand for “protection,” 246, 247;
question of parliamentary reform, 246–9;
suggestion of an Irish contribution to imperial funds, 248–54;
Pitt’s Commercial Resolutions, 198, 200, 202, 209, 249–66;
passed by the Dublin Parliament, 251;
debated at Westminster, 253–5;
campaign of protest against the Resolutions, 255–7;
report of committee of inquiry, 258, 259;
modified Resolutions introduced, 260;
passed at Westminster, 264;
opposed in Ireland and dropped, 264;
letter of Wilberforce on the Resolutions, 282, 283;
how affected by the French commercial treaty, 337–9;
the Irish Parliament adopts Fox’s arguments on the Regency,
424, 426.
Iron industry, expansion of the, 31.
Ismail, fall of, 590, 591, 598.

Jackson, Francis, chargé-d’affaires at Berlin, 595, 598, 600,

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