1 2

Unit- I
Introduction to Electrical Circuit – I

I. BASIC C ONCEPT

(a) (b)

Fig. 1: Simple Electrical Circuit Fig. 2: AC and DC Current

Electric Circuit: We often require to transfer energy from one point to another. To do this requires an
interconnection of electrical devices. Such interconnection is referred to as an electric circuit, and each Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit charge through an element,
component of the circuit is known as an element. An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical measured in volts (V).
elements. A simple electric circuit is shown in Fig.1. It consists of three basic elements: a battery, a lamp,
and connecting wires

Charge : The most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge. Charge is an electrical
property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in coulombs (C).
Charge on electron is negative and is of the magnitude 1.6 ∗ 10−19 C.
Current: When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected to a battery (a source of
electromotive force), the charges are compelled to move. Positive charges move in one direction while
negative charges move in the opposite direction. This motion of charges creates electric current. It is
conventional to take the current flow as the movement of positive charges. Electric current is the time
rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A). (b) Reference polarities for power using the passive sign convention: (a)
Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q , and time t is (a) Polarity of voltage Vab. absorbing power, (b) supplying power

dq Power :Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).
i= (1)
dt
DC Current:A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time. By convention the symbol We write this relationship as ,
I is used to represent such a constant current. dw dw dq
p= = . = vi (3)
AC Current:An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time. A time-varying dt dq dt
current is represented by the symbol i . Energy:Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

Voltage : The voltage between two points a and b in an electric circuit is the energy (or work) needed
to move a unit charge from a to b II. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE C OMPONENTS
Mathematically,
dw The Two Types of Electrical components :
vab = (2) • Active components
dq
• Passive components
where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C).
 3 4

A. Active Components III. V-I R ELATIONSHIP FOR PASSIVE E LEMENTS

An active component is an electronic component which supplies energy to a circuit. A. Resistor
Common examples of active components include:
• Voltage sources
• Current sources
• Generators (such as alternators and DC generators)
• All different types of transistors (such as bipolar junction transistors, MOSFETS, FETs, and JFET)
• Diodes (such as Zener diodes, photodiodes, Schottky diodes, and LEDs)
Voltage Sources : A voltage source is an example of an active component in a circuit. When current
leaves from the positive terminal of the voltage source, energy is being supplied to the circuit. As per the
definition of an active element, a battery can also be considered as an active element, as it continuously
delivers energy to the circuit during discharging.
Current Sources : A current source is also considered an active component. The current supplied to
the circuit by an ideal current source is independent of circuit voltage. As a current source is controlling
the flow of charge in a circuit, it is classified as an active element.
Transistors : Although not as obvious as a current or voltage source – transistors are also an active
circuit component. This is because transistors are able to amplify the power of a signal (see our article
on transisors as an amplifier if you want to know exactly how).
(a) (a) Resistor, (b) Circuit symbol for resistance. (b) The i-v characteristic of: (a) a linear resistor, (b) a nonlinear resistor.

B. Passive Components Resistance :Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric charge.
A passive component is an electronic component which can only receive energy, which it can either This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is represented by the symbol
dissipate, absorb or store it in an electric field or a magnetic field. Passive elements do not need any form R. The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends on A and its length l.
of electrical power to operate. We can represent resistance (as measured in the laboratory), in mathematical form:
As the name ‘passive’ suggests – passive devices do not provide gain or amplification. Passive com- l
ponents cannot amplify, oscillate, or generate an electrical signal. R=ρ (4)
A
Common examples of passive components include:
• Resistors
where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters.
• Inductors
Ohm’s Law: Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the current
• Capacitors
i flowing through the resistor.
• Transformers
That is,
Resistors : A resistor is taken as a passive element since it can not deliver any energy to a circuit.
v∝i (5)
Instead resistors can only receive energy which they can dissipate as heat as long as current flows through
it. Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance, R. Thus, above equation
Inductors : An inductor is also considered as passive element of circuit, because it can store energy becomes
in it as a magnetic field, and can deliver that energy to the circuit, but not in continuous basis. The energy
absorbing and delivering capacity of an inductor is limited and transient in nature. That is why an inductor v = iR (6)
is taken as a passive element of a circuit.
Capacitors : A capacitor is considered as a passive element because it can store energy in it as which is the mathematical form of Ohm’s law.
electricfield. The energy dealing capacity of a capacitor is limited and transient – it is not actually The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is measured
supplying energy, it is storing it for later use. As such it is not considered an active component since no in ohms Ω.
energy is being supplied or amplified. Short Circuit : Since the value of R can range from zero to infinity, it is important that we consider
Transformers : A transformer is also a passive electronic component. Although this can seem surprising the two extreme possible values of R. An element with R = 0 is called a short circuit. For a short circuit,
since transformers are often used to raise voltage levels – remember that power is kept constant. When
transformers step up (or step down) voltage, power and energy remain the same on the primary and v = iR = 0 (7)
secondary side. As energy is not actually being amplified – a transformer is classified as a passive showing that the voltage is zero but the current could be anything.
element. A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.
 5 6

v 30
i= = = 6mA.
R 5x103
The conductance is
1 1
= G== 0.2mS.
R 5x103
Power can be calculated in various ways as :

p = vi = 30(6x10−3 ) = 180mW.
orp = i2 R = (6x10−3 )2 x5x103 = 180mW
v2 302
= orp = = 180mW.
R 5x103
H1·1 The essential component of a toaster is an electrical element (a resistor) that converts electrical
energy to heat energy. How much current is drawn by a toaster with resistance 15Ω at 110 V ?
Ans: 7.33
H1·2 For the circuit shown in Fig , calculate the voltage v , the conductance G, and the power p.
Fig. 5: (a)Short Circuit,(b)Open Circuit Ans: 30V, 100µS, 90mW.

Open Circuit: An element with R = ∞ is known as an open circuit. For an open circuit,
v
i = lim (8)
R→∞ R

indicating that the current is zero though the voltage could be anything. Thus, An open circuit is a circuit
element with resistance approaching infinity.
Conductance: Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is measured in mho Fig. 7: H1.2
(℧) or siemens (S).
1
G= (9)
R
B. Inductor
It is the reciprocal of resistance R.
P1·1 An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find its resistance.
Soln: From Ohm’s law
v 120
R= = = 60Ω
i 2
P1·2 Calculate the current i , the conductance G , and the power p for the circuit.

(b) Circuit symbols for inductors: (a) air-core, (b) iron-core, (c) variable iron-
(a) Typical form of an inductor core.

Fig. 6: P1.2
An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire
Soln: The voltage across the resistor is the same as the source voltage (30 V) because the resistor and current is allowed to pass through an inductor, it is found that the voltage across the inductor is directly
the voltage source are connected to the same pair of terminals. Hence, the current is proportional to the time rate of change of the current.
 7 8

di
v=L (10)
dt
where L is the constant of proportionality called the inductance of the inductor. The unit of inductance
is the henry (H).

Fig. 11: Current-voltage relationship of a capacitor.

on one plate and a negative charge on the other. The capacitor is said to store the electric charge. The
amount of charge stored, represented by q, is directly proportional to the applied voltage so that
q = Cv (12)
where C, the constant of proportionality, is known as the capacitance of the capacitor. The unit of
capacitance is the farad (F).
Capacitance : Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a capacitor to the voltage
Fig. 9: Voltage-current relationship of an inductor difference between the two plates, measured in farads (F).
Although the capacitance C of a capacitor is the ratio of the charge q per plate to the applied voltage
Inductance: Inductance is the property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition to the change of current it does not depend on q or v. It depends on the physical dimensions of the capacitor. For example, for
flowing through it. the parallel-plate capacitor shown in Fig, the capacitance is given by
The inductance of an inductor depends on its physical dimension and construction. For example, for
the inductor, (solenoid) εA
C= (13)
d
N 2 µA where A is the surface area of each plate, d is the distance between the plates, and is the permittivity of
L= (11)
l the dielectric material between the plates.
where N is the number of turns, lis the length, A is the cross-sectional area, and is the permeability of To obtain the current-voltage relationship of the capacitor, we take the derivative of both sides of
the core. equation
The current-voltage relationship is obtained from q = Cv
di dq dv
v=L i= =C (14)
dt dt dt
IV. B ILATERAL AND U NILATERAL E LEMENTS
C. Capacitor
Bilateral Element : Conduction of current in both directions in an element with same magnitude is
termed as bilateral element. (example: Resistance; Inductance; Capacitance).
Unilateral Element : Conduction of current in one direction is termed as unilateral element. (example:
Diode, Transistor)

(a) A capacitor with applied voltage v (b) Circuit symbols for capacitors: (a) fixed capacitor, (b) variable capacitor.

A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator (or dielectric). Fig. 12: Bilateral and Unilateral Elements
When a voltage source is connected to the capacitor, as in Fig. , the source deposits a positive charge q
 9 10

V. D IFFERENT T YPE OF S OURCES independent of the voltage across its terminals across the terminals.
Source Classification Non Ideal or Practical Current Source : An non ideal current source, is a device whose delivered
current may varies depending on load connected.

Fig. 13: Classification of Sources

Ideal Voltage Source:An ideal voltage source is a device that produces a constant voltage across its
terminals (V = E ) no matter what current is drawn from it (terminal voltage is independent of load
(resistance) connected across the terminals).

Fig. 16: Current Source

Fig. 14: Ideal Voltage Source VI. F URTHER C LASSIFICATION OF S OURCES

Independent Source : An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage
Non Ideal or practical Voltage Source : Practical voltage source is a device whose output voltage or current that is completely independent of other circuit elements.
may varies depending on the value of external load. Dependent or Controlled Source : An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in
which the source quantity is controlled by another voltage or current. In general, dependent source is
represented by a diamond (♦ ). They can be classified into four types:
1) Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
2) Current-controlled voltage source (ICVS)
3) Voltage-controlled current source(VCIS)
4) Current-controlled current source(ICIS)

VII. S OURCE T RANSFORMATION

Source Transformation : A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source Vs in
series with a resistor R by a current source is in parallel with a resistor R , or vice versa.
source transformation requires that,
Fig. 15: Practical Voltage Source
vs
vs = is R. or is = (15)
R
Ideal Current Source : An ideal current source, is a device that delivers a constant current to any
P1·3 Convert 20V source in series with resistance 5Ω into equivalent current source.
load resistance connected across it, no matter what the terminal voltage is developed across the load (i.e.,
H1·3 Convert 10A source in parallel with resistance 2Ω into equivalent voltage source.
 11 12

Fig. 19: Nodes, Branches and Loop

P1·4 Determine the number of branches and nodes in the circuit shown in Fig. Identify which elements
are in series and which are in parallel.
Soln :

Fig. 17: Dependent Sources

Fig. 20: P1.4

H1·4 How many branches and nodes does the circuit in Fig. have? Iden- Practice Problem 2.4 tify the
elements that are in series and in parallel.

Soln:

Fig. 21: H1.3

Fig. 18: Dependent Sources

VIII. N ODES , B RANCHES , AND L OOPS

Branch : A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.
Node : A node is the point of connection between two or more branches
loop : A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
Two or more elements are in series if they share a single node and consequently carry the same current.
Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes and consequently have
the same voltage across them.
 13
2.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws 39

IX. K IRCHOFF ’ S L AW
Fig. 2.18(a) can be combined as in Fig. 2.18(b). The combined or IT
A. Kirchoff’s Current Law equivalent current source can be found by applying KCL to node a. a
: Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires that the algebraic
IT ⫹ I2 ⫽ I1 ⫹ I3
sum of charges within a system cannot change. I1 I2 I3
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a closed or
boundary) is zero. b
IT ⫽ I1 ⫺ I2 ⫹ I3 (2.18)
Mathematically, (a)
XN A circuit cannot contain two different currents, I1 and I2, in series,
IT
in = 0 (16) unless I1 ⫽ I2; otherwise KCL will be violated.
n=1 Kirchhoff’s second law is based on the principle of conservation a
of energy:
where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the nth current entering (or leaving) IT = I1 – I2 + I3
the node. By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while currents leaving the Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all volt- b
node may be taken as negative or vice versa. ages around a closed path (or loop) is zero. (b)
Applying KCL gives , Figure 2.18
Expressed mathematically, KVL states that Current sources in parallel: (a) original
circuit, (b) equivalent circuit.

a vm ⫽ 0 (2.19)
m⫽1

where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of

branches in the loop) and vm is the mth voltage.
To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Fig. 2.19. The sign on
each voltage is the polarity of the terminal encountered first as we KVL can be applied in two ways: by
travel around the loop. We can start with any branch and go around taking either a clockwise or a counter-
the loop either clockwise or counterclockwise. Suppose we start with clockwise trip around the loop. Either
the voltage source and go clockwise around the loop as shown; then way, the algebraic sum of voltages
Fig. 22: KCL example around the loop is zero.
voltages would be ⫺v1, ⫹v2, ⫹v3, ⫺v4, and ⫹v5, in that order. For
example, as we reach branch 3, the positive terminal is met first; hence,
i1 + (−i2 ) + i3 + i4 + (−i5 ) = 0 (17) we have ⫹v3. For branch 4, we reach the negative terminal first; hence,
since currents i1 , i3 , i4 are entering the node, while currents i2 , i5 are leaving it. By rearranging the ⫺v4. Thus, KVL yields + v2 − + v3 −

terms, we get. ⫺v1 ⫹ v2 ⫹ v3 ⫺ v4 ⫹ v5 ⫽ 0 (2.20)

i 1 + i 3 + i4 = i 2 + i5 (18) Rearranging terms gives v1 +
−
−
+ v4

Alternative form of KCL is , v2 ⫹ v3 ⫹ v5 ⫽ v1 ⫹ v4 (2.21) − +

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the node. v5
which may be interpreted as Figure 2.19
A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL.
Sum of voltage drops ⫽ Sum of voltage rises (2.22)

This is an alternative form of KVL. Notice that if we had traveled

counterclockwise, the result would have been ⫹v1, ⫺v5, ⫹v4, ⫺v3,
and ⫺v2, which is the same as before except that the signs are reversed.
Hence, Eqs. (2.20) and (2.21) remain the same.
When voltage sources are connected in series, KVL can be applied
to obtain the total voltage. The combined voltage is the algebraic sum
of the voltages of the individual sources. For example, for the voltage
sources shown in Fig. 2.20(a), the combined or equivalent voltage
source in Fig. 2.20(b) is obtained by applying KVL.
⫺Vab ⫹ V1 ⫹ V2 ⫺ V3 ⫽ 0
40 Chapter 2 Basic Laws 2.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws 41

or
Find v1 and v2 in the circuit of Fig. 2.22. Practice Problem 2.5
Vab ⫽ V1 ⫹ V2 ⫺ V3 (2.23)
4Ω
To avoid violating KVL, a circuit cannot contain two different voltages Answer: 16 V, ⫺8 V.
+ v1 −
V1 and V2 in parallel unless V1 ⫽ V2. −
32 V +
−
+ −8 V
+ v2 −
a
+
2Ω
+ V1
− Figure 2.22
a
For Practice Prob. 2.5.
Vab + V2 +
−

Vab + V =V +V −V
− − S 1 2 3
+ V3
− −
b b Determine vo and i in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.23(a). Example 2.6
(a) (b)
i 4Ω 2vo 4Ω 2vo
Figure 2.20 +− +−
Voltage sources in series: (a) original circuit, (b) equivalent circuit.
− i −
12 V +
− 4V + 12 V +
− 4V +
6Ω 6Ω
+ vo − + vo −
Example 2.5 For the circuit in Fig. 2.21(a), find voltages v1 and v2. (a) (b)
Figure 2.23
For Example 2.6.
2Ω 2Ω
+ v1 − + v1 − Solution:
− − We apply KVL around the loop as shown in Fig. 2.23(b). The result is
20 V +
− v2 3Ω 20 V +
− i v2 3Ω
+ + ⫺12 ⫹ 4i ⫹ 2 vo ⫺ 4 ⫹ 6i ⫽ 0 (2.6.1)
Applying Ohm’s law to the 6-⍀ resistor gives

(a) (b) vo ⫽ ⫺6i (2.6.2)

Figure 2.21 Substituting Eq. (2.6.2) into Eq. (2.6.1) yields
For Example 2.5.
⫺16 ⫹ 10i ⫺ 12i ⫽ 0 1 i ⫽ ⫺8 A
and vo ⫽ 48 V.
Solution:
To find v1 and v2, we apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Assume that current i flows through the loop as shown in Fig. 2.21(b).
From Ohm’s law,
v1 ⫽ 2i, v2 ⫽ ⫺3i (2.5.1) Find vx and vo in the circuit of Fig. 2.24. Practice Problem 2.6
Applying KVL around the loop gives
Answer: 20 V, ⫺10 V. 10 Ω
⫺20 ⫹ v1 ⫺ v2 ⫽ 0 (2.5.2) + vx −
+
Substituting Eq. (2.5.1) into Eq. (2.5.2), we obtain 70 V +
− − 2vx
5Ω
⫺20 ⫹ 2i ⫹ 3i ⫽ 0 or 5i ⫽ 20 1 i⫽4A
+ vo −
Substituting i in Eq. (2.5.1) finally gives
Figure 2.24
v1 ⫽ 8 V, v2 ⫽ ⫺12 V For Practice Prob. 2.6.
42 Chapter 2 Basic Laws 2.5 Series Resistors and Voltage Division 43

Since the voltage and current of each resistor are related by Ohm’s
Example 2.7 Find current io and voltage vo in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.25.
law as shown, we are really looking for three things: (v1, v2, v3) or
(i1, i2, i3). At node a, KCL gives
Solution:
a
Applying KCL to node a, we obtain i1 ⫺ i2 ⫺ i3 ⫽ 0 (2.8.2)
io
+ 3 ⫹ 0.5io ⫽ io 1 io ⫽ 6 A
Applying KVL to loop 1 as in Fig. 2.27(b),
0.5io vo 4Ω 3A
−
For the 4-⍀ resistor, Ohm’s law gives
⫺30 ⫹ v1 ⫹ v2 ⫽ 0
vo ⫽ 4io ⫽ 24 V
We express this in terms of i1 and i2 as in Eq. (2.8.1) to obtain
Figure 2.25
For Example 2.7.
⫺30 ⫹ 8i1 ⫹ 3i2 ⫽ 0

or

(30 ⫺ 3i2)
i1 ⫽ (2.8.3)
8
Practice Problem 2.7 Find vo and io in the circuit of Fig. 2.26.
Applying KVL to loop 2,
Answer: 12 V, 6 A.
⫺v2 ⫹ v3 ⫽ 0 1 v3 ⫽ v2 (2.8.4)
io
+
io as expected since the two resistors are in parallel. We express v1 and
9A 2Ω 8Ω vo
4 − v2 in terms of i1 and i2 as in Eq. (2.8.1). Equation (2.8.4) becomes

i2
Figure 2.26 6i3 ⫽ 3i2 1 i3 ⫽ (2.8.5)
2
For Practice Prob. 2.7.
Substituting Eqs. (2.8.3) and (2.8.5) into (2.8.2) gives

30 ⫺ 3i2 i2
⫺ i2 ⫺ ⫽ 0
8 2

Example 2.8 Find currents and voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.27(a). or i2 ⫽ 2 A. From the value of i2, we now use Eqs. (2.8.1) to (2.8.5)
to obtain

i1 ⫽ 3 A, i3 ⫽ 1 A, v1 ⫽ 24 V, v2 ⫽ 6 V, v3 ⫽ 6 V

i1 i3 i1 i3
8Ω a 8Ω a
+ v1 − i2 + v1 − i2
+ + + +
Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.28. Practice Problem 2.8
30 V +
−
v2 3Ω v3 6Ω 30 V +
−
Loop 1 v2 3Ω Loop 2 v3 6Ω i1 i3
− − − − Answer: v1 ⫽ 6 V, v2 ⫽ 4 V, v3 ⫽ 10 V, i1 ⫽ 3 A, i2 ⫽ 500 mA, 2Ω 4Ω
i3 ⫽ 1.25 A. + v1 − i2 + v3 −
+
10 V + − 6V
(a) (b) − v2 8Ω +
−
Figure 2.27
For Example 2.8.

2.5 Series Resistors and Voltage Division Figure 2.28

For Practice Prob. 2.8.
The need to combine resistors in series or in parallel occurs so fre-
Solution:
quently that it warrants special attention. The process of combining the
We apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws. By Ohm’s law,
resistors is facilitated by combining two of them at a time. With this
v1 ⫽ 8i1, v2 ⫽ 3i2, v3 ⫽ 6i3 (2.8.1) in mind, consider the single-loop circuit of Fig. 2.29. The two resistors
44 Chapter 2 Basic Laws 2.6 Parallel Resistors and Current Division 45

i a R1 R2 are in series, since the same current i flows in both of them. Applying
Ohm’s law to each of the resistors, we obtain 2.6 Parallel Resistors
+ v1 − + v2 −
and Current Division
+ v1 ⫽ iR1, v2 ⫽ iR2 (2.24)
v − Consider the circuit in Fig. 2.31, where two resistors are connected i Node a
If we apply KVL to the loop (moving in the clockwise direction), we in parallel and therefore have the same voltage across them. From
have Ohm’s law, i1 i2
b
⫺v ⫹ v1 ⫹ v2 ⫽ 0 (2.25) v +
Figure 2.29 v ⫽ i1R1 ⫽ i2R2 − R1 R2
A single-loop circuit with two resistors in
Combining Eqs. (2.24) and (2.25), we get or
series.
v ⫽ v1 ⫹ v2 ⫽ i(R1 ⫹ R2) (2.26) v v Node b
i1 ⫽ , i2 ⫽ (2.33)
or R1 R2 Figure 2.31
Two resistors in parallel.
v Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i as
i⫽ (2.27)
R1 ⫹ R2 i ⫽ i1 ⫹ i2 (2.34)
Notice that Eq. (2.26) can be written as
Substituting Eq. (2.33) into Eq. (2.34), we get
v ⫽ iReq (2.28)
⫽va ⫹ b⫽
v v 1 1 v
implying that the two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resis- i⫽ ⫹ (2.35)
i a Req R1 R2 R1 R2 Req
tor Req; that is,
+ v − where Req is the equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel:
Req ⫽ R1 ⫹ R2 (2.29)
v + 1 1 1
−
Thus, Fig. 2.29 can be replaced by the equivalent circuit in Fig. 2.30. ⫽ ⫹ (2.36)
Req R1 R2
The two circuits in Figs. 2.29 and 2.30 are equivalent because they
b exhibit the same voltage-current relationships at the terminals a-b. An or
Figure 2.30 equivalent circuit such as the one in Fig. 2.30 is useful in simplifying
1 R1 ⫹ R2
Equivalent circuit of the Fig. 2.29 circuit. the analysis of a circuit. In general, ⫽
Req R1R2
The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in or
series is the sum of the individual resistances.
R1R2
Resistors in series behave as a single For N resistors in series then, Req ⫽ (2.37)
R1 ⫹ R2
resistor whose resistance is equal to
the sum of the resistances of the N
individual resistors. Req ⫽ R1 ⫹ R2 ⫹ p ⫹ RN ⫽ a Rn Thus,
(2.30)
n⫽1
The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the prod-
uct of their resistances divided by their sum.
To determine the voltage across each resistor in Fig. 2.29, we sub-
stitute Eq. (2.26) into Eq. (2.24) and obtain
It must be emphasized that this applies only to two resistors in paral-
lel. From Eq. (2.37), if R1 ⫽ R2, then Req ⫽ R1兾2.
R1 R2
v1 ⫽ v, v2 ⫽ v (2.31) We can extend the result in Eq. (2.36) to the general case of a cir-
R1 ⫹ R2 R1 ⫹ R2 cuit with N resistors in parallel. The equivalent resistance is

Notice that the source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct 1 1 1 1
proportion to their resistances; the larger the resistance, the larger the ⫽ ⫹ ⫹p⫹ (2.38)
Req R1 R2 RN
voltage drop. This is called the principle of voltage division, and the
circuit in Fig. 2.29 is called a voltage divider. In general, if a voltage
divider has N resistors (R1, R2, . . . , RN) in series with the source volt- Note that Req is always smaller than the resistance of the smallest resis-
age v, the nth resistor (Rn ) will have a voltage drop of tor in the parallel combination. If R1 ⫽ R2 ⫽ p ⫽ RN ⫽ R, then
Rn R
vn ⫽ v (2.32) Req ⫽ (2.39)
R1 ⫹ R2 ⫹ p ⫹ RN N
46 Chapter 2 Basic Laws 2.6 Parallel Resistors and Current Division 47

For example, if four 100-⍀ resistors are connected in parallel, their is short circuited, as shown in Fig. 2.33(a), two things should be kept
equivalent resistance is 25 ⍀. in mind:
Conductances in parallel behave as a It is often more convenient to use conductance rather than resist-
1. The equivalent resistance Req ⫽ 0. [See what happens when
single conductance whose value is ance when dealing with resistors in parallel. From Eq. (2.38), the equiv-
equal to the sum of the individual R2 ⫽ 0 in Eq. (2.37).]
alent conductance for N resistors in parallel is
conductances. 2. The entire current flows through the short circuit.
As another extreme case, suppose R2 ⫽ ⬁, that is, R2 is an open
Geq ⫽ G1 ⫹ G2 ⫹ G3 ⫹ p ⫹ GN (2.40) circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.33(b). The current still flows through the
path of least resistance, R1. By taking the limit of Eq. (2.37) as R2 S ⬁,
we obtain Req ⫽ R1 in this case.
i a where Geq ⫽ 1兾Req, G1 ⫽ 1兾R1, G2 ⫽ 1兾R2, G3 ⫽ 1兾R3, p , GN ⫽ 1兾RN. If we divide both the numerator and denominator by R1R2, Eq. (2.43)
Equation (2.40) states: becomes

+ Req or Geq The equivalent conductance of resistors connected in parallel is the G1

v − v i1 ⫽ i (2.44a)
sum of their individual conductances. G1 ⫹ G2

This means that we may replace the circuit in Fig. 2.31 with that in G2
b i2 ⫽ i (2.44b)
Fig. 2.32. Notice the similarity between Eqs. (2.30) and (2.40). The G1 ⫹ G2
Figure 2.32
Equivalent circuit to Fig. 2.31. equivalent conductance of parallel resistors is obtained the same way
as the equivalent resistance of series resistors. In the same manner, Thus, in general, if a current divider has N conductors (G1, G2, p , GN)
the equivalent conductance of resistors in series is obtained just in parallel with the source current i, the nth conductor (Gn) will have
the same way as the resistance of resistors in parallel. Thus the current
equivalent conductance Geq of N resistors in series (such as shown in Gn
Fig. 2.29) is in ⫽ i (2.45)
G1 ⫹ G2 ⫹ p ⫹ GN

1 1 1 1 1 In general, it is often convenient and possible to combine resis-

⫽ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹p⫹ (2.41) tors in series and parallel and reduce a resistive network to a single
Geq G1 G2 G3 GN
equivalent resistance Req. Such an equivalent resistance is the resist-
ance between the designated terminals of the network and must
Given the total current i entering node a in Fig. 2.31, how do we exhibit the same i-v characteristics as the original network at the
obtain current i1 and i2? We know that the equivalent resistor has the terminals.
same voltage, or
iR1 R2
i v ⫽ iReq ⫽ (2.42)
R1 ⫹ R2
i1 = 0 i2 = i Combining Eqs. (2.33) and (2.42) results in Find Req for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.34. Example 2.9
R1 R2 = 0 4Ω 1Ω
Solution:
R2 i R1 i To get Req, we combine resistors in series and in parallel. The 6-⍀ and
i1 ⫽ , i2 ⫽ (2.43)
R1 ⫹ R2 R1 ⫹ R2 3-⍀ resistors are in parallel, so their equivalent resistance is 2Ω
Req
(a) 5Ω
6⫻3
6 ⍀ 储 3⍀ ⫽ ⫽2⍀ 6Ω 3Ω
i which shows that the total current i is shared by the resistors in 6⫹3 8Ω
inverse proportion to their resistances. This is known as the princi-
i2 = 0 (The symbol 储 is used to indicate a parallel combination.) Also, the 1-⍀
i1 = i ple of current division, and the circuit in Fig. 2.31 is known as a Figure 2.34
and 5-⍀ resistors are in series; hence their equivalent resistance is For Example 2.9.
current divider. Notice that the larger current flows through the
R1 R2 = ∞
smaller resistance. 1⍀⫹5⍀⫽6⍀
As an extreme case, suppose one of the resistors in Fig. 2.31 is
Thus the circuit in Fig. 2.34 is reduced to that in Fig. 2.35(a). In
zero, say R2 ⫽ 0; that is, R2 is a short circuit, as shown in
Fig. 2.35(a), we notice that the two 2-⍀ resistors are in series, so the
(b) Fig. 2.33(a). From Eq. (2.43), R2 ⫽ 0 implies that i1 ⫽ 0, i2 ⫽ i. This
equivalent resistance is
Figure 2.33 means that the entire current i bypasses R1 and flows through the
(a) A shorted circuit, (b) an open circuit. short circuit R2 ⫽ 0, the path of least resistance. Thus when a circuit 2⍀⫹2⍀⫽4⍀
48 Chapter 2 Basic Laws 2.6 Parallel Resistors and Current Division 49

4Ω This 4-⍀ resistor is now in parallel with the 6-⍀ resistor in Fig. 2.35(a); Similarly, the 12-⍀ and 4-⍀ resistors are in parallel since they are 10 Ω c 1Ω d
a
their equivalent resistance is connected to the same two nodes d and b. Hence
2Ω
Req 4⫻6 12 ⫻ 4 2Ω 3Ω 6Ω
6Ω 4⍀储6⍀⫽ ⫽ 2.4 ⍀ 12 ⍀ 储 4 ⍀ ⫽ ⫽3⍀ (2.10.2)
4⫹6 12 ⫹ 4
2Ω
8Ω b
The circuit in Fig. 2.35(a) is now replaced with that in Fig. 2.35(b). In Also the 1-⍀ and 5-⍀ resistors are in series; hence, their equivalent b b b
Fig. 2.35(b), the three resistors are in series. Hence, the equivalent resistance is (a)
(a)
resistance for the circuit is 1⍀⫹5⍀⫽6⍀ (2.10.3)
4Ω 10 Ω c
Req ⫽ 4 ⍀ ⫹ 2.4 ⍀ ⫹ 8 ⍀ ⫽ 14.4 ⍀ With these three combinations, we can replace the circuit in Fig. 2.37 with a
that in Fig. 2.38(a). In Fig. 2.38(a), 3-⍀ in parallel with 6-⍀ gives 2-⍀,
Req
2.4 Ω as calculated in Eq. (2.10.1). This 2-⍀ equivalent resistance is now in series 2Ω 3Ω

8Ω with the 1-⍀ resistance to give a combined resistance of 1 ⍀ ⫹ 2 ⍀ ⫽ 3 ⍀.

b
Thus, we replace the circuit in Fig. 2.38(a) with that in Fig. 2.38(b). In b b
(b) Fig. 2.38(b), we combine the 2-⍀ and 3-⍀ resistors in parallel to get
(b)
Figure 2.35 2⫻3 Figure 2.38
Equivalent circuits for Example 2.9. 2⍀储3⍀⫽ ⫽ 1.2 ⍀ Equivalent circuits for Example 2.10.
2⫹3
This 1.2-⍀ resistor is in series with the 10-⍀ resistor, so that
Rab ⫽ 10 ⫹ 1.2 ⫽ 11.2 ⍀
Practice Problem 2.9 By combining the resistors in Fig. 2.36, find Req.

Answer: 10 ⍀.
Find Rab for the circuit in Fig. 2.39. Practice Problem 2.10
4Ω 3Ω 4Ω 20 Ω
Answer: 19 ⍀.
16 Ω 5Ω
Req a
6Ω 4Ω 5Ω
3Ω 3Ω Rab 18 Ω 20 Ω
1Ω
9Ω
Figure 2.36
For Practice Prob. 2.9. 2Ω
b
Figure 2.39
For Practice Prob. 2.10.

Example 2.10 Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in the circuit in Fig. 2.37.

10 Ω 1Ω 1Ω
Find the equivalent conductance Geq for the circuit in Fig. 2.40(a). Example 2.11
c d
a
6Ω Solution:
Rab The 8-S and 12-S resistors are in parallel, so their conductance is
3Ω 4Ω 5Ω
8 S ⫹ 12 S ⫽ 20 S
12 Ω
b This 20-S resistor is now in series with 5 S as shown in Fig. 2.40(b)
b b so that the combined conductance is
Figure 2.37
For Example 2.10. 20 ⫻ 5
⫽4S
20 ⫹ 5
Solution:
The 3-⍀ and 6-⍀ resistors are in parallel because they are connected This is in parallel with the 6-S resistor. Hence,
to the same two nodes c and b. Their combined resistance is Geq ⫽ 6 ⫹ 4 ⫽ 10 S
3⫻6 We should note that the circuit in Fig. 2.40(a) is the same as that
3⍀储6⍀⫽ ⫽2⍀ (2.10.1)
3⫹6 in Fig. 2.40(c). While the resistors in Fig. 2.40(a) are expressed in
50 Chapter 2 Basic Laws 2.6 Parallel Resistors and Current Division 51

5S siemens, those in Fig. 2.40(c) are expressed in ohms. To show that the and hence, vo ⫽ 2i ⫽ 2 ⫻ 2 ⫽ 4 V. Another way is to apply voltage i 4Ω io
a
circuits are the same, we find Req for the circuit in Fig. 2.40(c). division, since the 12 V in Fig. 2.42(b) is divided between the 4-⍀ and
Geq 2-⍀ resistors. Hence, +
6S 8S 12 S
ga ⫹ g b⫽ ga ⫹ b⫽ g
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 12 V +
− 6Ω vo 3Ω
Req ⫽ 2 −
6 5 8 12 6 5 20 6 4 vo ⫽ (12 V) ⫽ 4 V
2⫹4
(a) b
1
6 ⫻ 41 1 Similarly, io can be obtained in two ways. One approach is to apply
5S ⫽ ⫽ ⍀ (a)
1
⫹ 1
10 Ohm’s law to the 3-⍀ resistor in Fig. 2.42(a) now that we know vo; thus,
6 4
i 4Ω
Geq
1 4 a
6S 20 S Geq ⫽ ⫽ 10 S vo ⫽ 3io ⫽ 4 1 io ⫽ A
Req 3 +
Another approach is to apply current division to the circuit in Fig. 2.42(a) 12 V +
−
vo 2Ω
This is the same as we obtained previously. −
(b) now that we know i, by writing
1
Ω b
5 6 2 4
io ⫽ i ⫽ (2 A) ⫽ A
6⫹3 3 3 (b)
Req
1
Ω
1
Ω
1
Ω Figure 2.42
6 8 12 The power dissipated in the 3-⍀ resistor is For Example 2.12: (a) original circuit,
(b) its equivalent circuit.
po ⫽ vo io ⫽ 4 a b ⫽ 5.333 W
4
(c) 3
Figure 2.40
For Example 2.11: (a) original circuit,
(b) its equivalent circuit, (c) same circuit as
in (a) but resistors are expressed in ohms.
Find v1 and v2 in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.43. Also calculate i1 and Practice Problem 2.12
i2 and the power dissipated in the 12-⍀ and 40-⍀ resistors. i1
12 Ω
Practice Problem 2.11 Calculate Geq in the circuit of Fig. 2.41. Answer: v1 ⫽ 10 V, i1 ⫽ 833.3 mA, p1 ⫽ 8.333 W, v2 ⫽ 20 V, i2 ⫽ + v1 −
500 mA, p2 ⫽ 10 W. 6Ω
Answer: 4 S.
8S 4S i2
Geq +
30 V +
− 10 Ω v2 40 Ω
2S 6S −
12 S

Figure 2.41 Figure 2.43

For Practice Prob. 2.11. For Practice Prob. 2.12.

Example 2.12 Find io and vo in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.42(a). Calculate the power
dissipated in the 3-⍀ resistor. For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.44(a), determine: (a) the voltage vo, Example 2.13
(b) the power supplied by the current source, (c) the power absorbed
Solution: by each resistor.
The 6-⍀ and 3-⍀ resistors are in parallel, so their combined resistance is
Solution:
6⫻3 (a) The 6-k⍀ and 12-k⍀ resistors are in series so that their combined
6⍀储3⍀⫽ ⫽2⍀
6⫹3 value is 6 ⫹ 12 ⫽ 18 k⍀. Thus the circuit in Fig. 2.44(a) reduces to
that shown in Fig. 2.44(b). We now apply the current division technique
Thus our circuit reduces to that shown in Fig. 2.42(b). Notice that vo is
to find i1 and i2.
not affected by the combination of the resistors because the resistors are
in parallel and therefore have the same voltage vo. From Fig. 2.42(b), 18,000
we can obtain vo in two ways. One way is to apply Ohm’s law to get i1 ⫽ (30 mA) ⫽ 20 mA
9,000 ⫹ 18,000
12 9,000
i⫽ ⫽2A i2 ⫽ (30 mA) ⫽ 10 mA
4⫹2 9,000 ⫹ 18,000
52 Chapter 2 Basic Laws 2.7 Wye-Delta Transformations 53

6 kΩ Notice that the voltage across the 9-k⍀ and 18-k⍀ resistors is the same, the wye (Y) or tee (T) network shown in Fig. 2.47 and the delta ( ¢ ) or Rc
and vo ⫽ 9,000i1 ⫽ 18,000i2 ⫽ 180 V, as expected. pi ( ß ) network shown in Fig. 2.48. These networks occur by themselves 1 3
+ (b) Power supplied by the source is or as part of a larger network. They are used in three-phase networks,
30 mA vo 9 kΩ 12 kΩ Rb Ra
− electrical filters, and matching networks. Our main interest here is in how
po ⫽ voio ⫽ 180(30) mW ⫽ 5.4 W to identify them when they occur as part of a network and how to apply
(c) Power absorbed by the 12-k⍀ resistor is wye-delta transformation in the analysis of that network. 2 4
(a)
(a)
io i2 p ⫽ iv ⫽ i2 (i2 R) ⫽ i 22 R ⫽ (10 ⫻ 10⫺3)2 (12,000) ⫽ 1.2 W
1 3 Rc
i1
Power absorbed by the 6-k⍀ resistor is R1 R2 1 3
+ R1 R2 1 3
30 mA vo 9 kΩ 18 kΩ p ⫽ i 22 R ⫽ (10 ⫻ 10⫺3)2 (6,000) ⫽ 0.6 W
− R3 Rb Ra
Power absorbed by the 9-k⍀ resistor is R3

2 4 2 4
(b) v2o (180)2 2 4
p⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 3.6 W (a) (b)
(b)
Figure 2.44 R 9,000
For Example 2.13: (a) original circuit, Figure 2.47 Figure 2.48
(b) its equivalent circuit. or Two forms of the same network: (a) Y, (b) T. Two forms of the same network: (a) ¢ ,
(b) ß .
p ⫽ voi1 ⫽ 180(20) mW ⫽ 3.6 W

Notice that the power supplied (5.4 W) equals the power absorbed Delta to Wye Conversion
(1.2 ⫹ 0.6 ⫹ 3.6 ⫽ 5.4 W). This is one way of checking results. Suppose it is more convenient to work with a wye network in a place
where the circuit contains a delta configuration. We superimpose a wye
network on the existing delta network and find the equivalent resistances
in the wye network. To obtain the equivalent resistances in the wye net-
work, we compare the two networks and make sure that the resistance
Practice Problem 2.13 For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.45, find: (a) v1 and v2, (b) the power between each pair of nodes in the ¢ (or ß ) network is the same as the
dissipated in the 3-k⍀ and 20-k⍀ resistors, and (c) the power supplied resistance between the same pair of nodes in the Y (or T) network. For
by the current source. terminals 1 and 2 in Figs. 2.47 and 2.48, for example,
R12 (Y) ⫽ R1 ⫹ R3 (2.46)
1 kΩ R12 (¢) ⫽ Rb 7 (Ra ⫹ Rc)

+ + Setting R12(Y) ⫽ R12 (¢) gives

3 kΩ v1 30 mA 5 kΩ v2 20 kΩ
− − Rb (Ra ⫹ Rc)
R12 ⫽ R1 ⫹ R3 ⫽ (2.47a)
Ra ⫹ Rb ⫹ Rc
Figure 2.45 Similarly,
For Practice Prob. 2.13.
Rc (Ra ⫹ Rb)
R13 ⫽ R1 ⫹ R2 ⫽ (2.47b)
Ra ⫹ Rb ⫹ Rc
Answer: (a) 45 V, 60 V, (b) 675 mW, 180 mW, (c) 1.8 W.
Ra (Rb ⫹ Rc)
R34 ⫽ R2 ⫹ R3 ⫽ (2.47c)
Ra ⫹ Rb ⫹ Rc
R1
Subtracting Eq. (2.47c) from Eq. (2.47a), we get

R2
Rc (Rb ⫺ Ra)
R3 R1 ⫺ R2 ⫽ (2.48)
Ra ⫹ Rb ⫹ Rc
vs +
−
R4 2.7 Wye-Delta Transformations
Adding Eqs. (2.47b) and (2.48) gives
Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are neither in
R5 R6 parallel nor in series. For example, consider the bridge circuit in Fig. 2.46.
How do we combine resistors R1 through R6 when the resistors are neither Rb Rc
R1 ⫽ (2.49)
Figure 2.46 in series nor in parallel? Many circuits of the type shown in Fig. 2.46 Ra ⫹ Rb ⫹ Rc
The bridge network. can be simplified by using three-terminal equivalent networks. These are
54 Chapter 2 Basic Laws 2.7 Wye-Delta Transformations 55

and subtracting Eq. (2.48) from Eq. (2.47b) yields The Y and ¢ networks are said to be balanced when

R1 ⫽ R2 ⫽ R3 ⫽ RY, Ra ⫽ Rb ⫽ Rc ⫽ R¢ (2.56)
Rc Ra
R2 ⫽ (2.50) Under these conditions, conversion formulas become
Ra ⫹ Rb ⫹ Rc

Subtracting Eq. (2.49) from Eq. (2.47a), we obtain R¢

RY ⫽ or R¢ ⫽ 3RY (2.57)
3
Ra Rb
R3 ⫽ (2.51)
Ra ⫹ Rb ⫹ Rc One may wonder why RY is less than R¢. Well, we notice that the Y-
connection is like a “series” connection while the ¢ -connection is like
We do not need to memorize Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51). To transform a ¢ net- a “parallel” connection.
Rc work to Y, we create an extra node n as shown in Fig. 2.49 and follow Note that in making the transformation, we do not take anything
a b this conversion rule: out of the circuit or put in anything new. We are merely substituting
R1 R2 different but mathematically equivalent three-terminal network patterns
n Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the resistors in the two to create a circuit in which resistors are either in series or in parallel,
adjacent ¢ branches, divided by the sum of the three ¢ resistors. allowing us to calculate Req if necessary.
Rb Ra
One can follow this rule and obtain Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51) from Fig. 2.49.
R3

Wye to Delta Conversion Convert the ¢ network in Fig. 2.50(a) to an equivalent Y network. Example 2.14
c
To obtain the conversion formulas for transforming a wye network to
an equivalent delta network, we note from Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51) that
Figure 2.49 Rc
a b a b
Superposition of Y and ¢ networks as an Ra Rb Rc (Ra ⫹ Rb ⫹ Rc)
aid in transforming one to the other. R1 R2 ⫹ R2 R3 ⫹ R3 R1 ⫽ 2 25 Ω
(Ra ⫹ Rb ⫹ Rc)
(2.52) 5Ω 7.5 Ω
Ra Rb Rc R1 R2
⫽
Ra ⫹ Rb ⫹ Rc 10 Ω 15 Ω
Rb Ra
Dividing Eq. (2.52) by each of Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51) leads to the fol- R3 3Ω
lowing equations:

c c
R1 R2 ⫹ R2 R3 ⫹ R3 R1
Ra ⫽ (2.53)
R1
(a) (b)
Figure 2.50
For Example 2.14: (a) original ¢ network, (b) Y equivalent network.
R1 R2 ⫹ R2 R3 ⫹ R3 R1
Rb ⫽ (2.54)
R2
Solution:
Using Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51), we obtain
R1 R2 ⫹ R2 R3 ⫹ R3 R1 Rb Rc 10 ⫻ 25 250
Rc ⫽ (2.55) R1 ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫽5⍀
R3 Ra ⫹ Rb ⫹ Rc 15 ⫹ 10 ⫹ 25 50
Rc Ra 25 ⫻ 15
From Eqs. (2.53) to (2.55) and Fig. 2.49, the conversion rule for Y to R2 ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 7.5 ⍀
Ra ⫹ Rb ⫹ Rc 50
¢ is as follows:
Ra Rb 15 ⫻ 10
R3 ⫽ ⫽ ⫽3⍀
Each resistor in the ¢ network is the sum of all possible products of Y Ra ⫹ Rb ⫹ Rc 50
resistors taken two at a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.
The equivalent Y network is shown in Fig. 2.50(b).
56 Chapter 2 Basic Laws 2.7 Wye-Delta Transformations 57

a
Practice Problem 2.14 Transform the wye network in Fig. 2.51 to a delta network.
R1 R2 4.545 Ω
a b Answer: Ra ⫽ 140 ⍀, Rb ⫽ 70 ⍀, Rc ⫽ 35 ⍀. a
10 Ω 20 Ω d
12.5 Ω 2.273 Ω 1.8182 Ω
40 Ω 17.5 Ω a 30 Ω
R3
70 Ω 30 Ω 7.292 Ω c n
35 Ω 21 Ω
c 15 Ω 15 Ω 20 Ω
10.5 Ω
Figure 2.51 b b b
For Practice Prob. 2.14.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.53
Equivalent circuits to Fig. 2.52, with the voltage source removed.
Example 2.15 Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab for the circuit in Fig. 2.52 and use
it to find current i.

i
With the Y converted to ¢, the equivalent circuit (with the
a a Solution: voltage source removed for now) is shown in Fig. 2.53(a).
1. Define. The problem is clearly defined. Please note, this part Combining the three pairs of resistors in parallel, we obtain
12.5 Ω 10 Ω normally will deservedly take much more time.
70 ⫻ 30
2. Present. Clearly, when we remove the voltage source, we end 70 储 30 ⫽ ⫽ 21 ⍀
5Ω
up with a purely resistive circuit. Since it is composed of deltas 70 ⫹ 30
120 V +
− c n 30 Ω
and wyes, we have a more complex process of combining the 12.5 ⫻ 17.5
12.5 储 17.5 ⫽ ⫽ 7.292 ⍀
15 Ω 20 Ω elements together. We can use wye-delta transformations as one 12.5 ⫹ 17.5
approach to find a solution. It is useful to locate the wyes (there 15 ⫻ 35
are two of them, one at n and the other at c) and the deltas 15 储 35 ⫽ ⫽ 10.5 ⍀
15 ⫹ 35
b b (there are three: can, abn, cnb).
Figure 2.52 3. Alternative. There are different approaches that can be used to so that the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.53(b). Hence, we
For Example 2.15. solve this problem. Since the focus of Sec. 2.7 is the wye-delta find
transformation, this should be the technique to use. Another
approach would be to solve for the equivalent resistance by 17.792 ⫻ 21
Rab ⫽ (7.292 ⫹ 10.5) 储 21 ⫽ ⫽ 9.632 ⍀
injecting one amp into the circuit and finding the voltage 17.792 ⫹ 21
between a and b; we will learn about this approach in Chap. 4.
The approach we can apply here as a check would be to use Then
a wye-delta transformation as the first solution to the problem. vs 120
Later we can check the solution by starting with a delta-wye i⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 12.458 A
Rab 9.632
transformation.
4. Attempt. In this circuit, there are two Y networks and three ¢ We observe that we have successfully solved the problem.
networks. Transforming just one of these will simplify the circuit. Now we must evaluate the solution.
If we convert the Y network comprising the 5-⍀, 10-⍀, and 5. Evaluate. Now we must determine if the answer is correct and
20-⍀ resistors, we may select then evaluate the final solution.
R1 ⫽ 10 ⍀, R2 ⫽ 20 ⍀, R3 ⫽ 5 ⍀ It is relatively easy to check the answer; we do this by
solving the problem starting with a delta-wye transformation. Let
Thus from Eqs. (2.53) to (2.55) we have us transform the delta, can, into a wye.
R1 R2 ⫹ R2 R3 ⫹ R3 R1 10 ⫻ 20 ⫹ 20 ⫻ 5 ⫹ 5 ⫻ 10 Let Rc ⫽ 10 ⍀, Ra ⫽ 5 ⍀, and Rn ⫽ 12.5 ⍀. This will lead
Ra ⫽ ⫽ to (let d represent the middle of the wye):
R1 10
350 Rc Rn 10 ⫻ 12.5
⫽ ⫽ 35 ⍀ Rad ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 4.545 ⍀
10 Ra ⫹ Rc ⫹ Rn 5 ⫹ 10 ⫹ 12.5
R1 R2 ⫹ R2 R3 ⫹ R3 R1 350 Ra Rn 5 ⫻ 12.5
Rb ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 17.5 ⍀ Rcd ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 2.273 ⍀
R2 20 27.5 27.5
R1 R2 ⫹ R2 R3 ⫹ R3 R1 350 Ra Rc 5 ⫻ 10
Rc ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 70 ⍀ Rnd ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 1.8182 ⍀
R3 5 27.5 27.5
58 Chapter 2 Basic Laws

This now leads to the circuit shown in Figure 2.53(c). Looking

at the resistance between d and b, we have two series
combination in parallel, giving us
(2.273 ⫹ 15)(1.8182 ⫹ 20) 376.9
Rdb ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 9.642 ⍀
2.273 ⫹ 15 ⫹ 1.8182 ⫹ 20 39.09
This is in series with the 4.545-⍀ resistor, both of which are in
parallel with the 30-⍀ resistor. This then gives us the equivalent
resistance of the circuit.
(9.642 ⫹ 4.545)30 425.6
Rab ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 9.631 ⍀
9.642 ⫹ 4.545 ⫹ 30 44.19
This now leads to
vs 120
i⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 12.46 A
Rab 9.631
We note that using two variations on the wye-delta transformation
leads to the same results. This represents a very good check.
6. Satisfactory? Since we have found the desired answer by
determining the equivalent resistance of the circuit first and the
answer checks, then we clearly have a satisfactory solution. This
represents what can be presented to the individual assigning the
problem.

Practice Problem 2.15 For the bridge network in Fig. 2.54, find Rab and i.

i
a 13 Ω Answer: 40 ⍀, 6 A.

24 Ω 10 Ω
20 Ω
240 V +
− 2.8 Applications
30 Ω 50 Ω
Resistors are often used to model devices that convert electrical energy
into heat or other forms of energy. Such devices include conducting
b wire, light bulbs, electric heaters, stoves, ovens, and loudspeakers. In
Figure 2.54 this section, we will consider two real-life problems that apply the con-
For Practice Prob. 2.15. cepts developed in this chapter: electrical lighting systems and design
of dc meters.

2.8.1 Lighting Systems

So far, we have assumed that connect- Lighting systems, such as in a house or on a Christmas tree, often con-
ing wires are perfect conductors (i.e., sist of N lamps connected either in parallel or in series, as shown in
conductors of zero resistance). In real Fig. 2.55. Each lamp is modeled as a resistor. Assuming that all the lamps
physical systems, however, the resist- are identical and Vo is the power-line voltage, the voltage across each
ance of the connecting wire may be lamp is Vo for the parallel connection and Vo兾N for the series connec-
appreciably large, and the modeling
tion. The series connection is easy to manufacture but is seldom used
of the system must include that
resistance.
in practice, for at least two reasons. First, it is less reliable; when a lamp
fails, all the lamps go out. Second, it is harder to maintain; when a lamp
is bad, one must test all the lamps one by one to detect the faulty one.
 Introduction
A division of mathematics called topology or graph theory deals with graphs of networks
and provides information that helps in the formulation of network equations.

Unit –II In circuit analysis, all the elements in a network must satisfy Kirchhoff's laws, besides their
own characteristics. Based on these laws, we can form number of equations. These
equations can be easily written by converting the network into a graph.

Network Topology Certain aspects of network behaviour are brought into better perspective if a graph of the
network is drawn. If each element or a branch of a network is represented on a diagram by
a line irrespective of the characteristics of the elements, we get a graph.

November 28, 2020 A network is an interconnection of elements in various branches at different nodes.
Important terms in Network Topology Important terms in Network Topology
Properties of a Tree:
Graph: When all the elements in a network like Resistors, Inductors, Capacitors etc. are replaced by line segments with their • It consists of all the nodes of the graph
end points shown as dots or circles, voltage source with short circuit and current source with open circuit is called the graph of • If the graph has N nodes, then the tree has (N-1) branches
the network. • There will be no closed path in a tree
Directed (or Oriented) graph: A graph is said to be directed (or oriented ) when all the nodes and branches are numbered or • There can be many possible different trees for a given graph depending on the number of nodes and branches
direction assigned to the branches by arrow. Cotree: Those branches that are not part of the tree form the cotree or complement of the tree.
Node: A point at which two or more elements have a common connection.
Degree of Node: Number of branches incident on it. Twig (Tree branch): All branches of a tree are called Twigs.
Link (Chord): It is that branch of a graph that does not form part of the tree and when included makes the tree or a part of it
Path: A set of elements that may be traversed in order without passing through the same node twice. a loop. In other words it is simply any branch belonging to the cotree.
Branch: A single path, containing one simple element, or a combination of elements which connects one node to any other Planar circuit: A circuit which may be drawn on a plane surface in such a way that no branch passes above or beneath any
node. A simple line segment with it’s two distinct end points (Nodes ) represent a branch. It does not indicate anything about other branch.
the nature of the element/s. Non-planar circuit: A non-planer graph cannot be drawn on a plane surface without a crossover
Loop: A closed path in the oriented graph is called as loop.
Mesh: A loop which does not contain any other loops within it.
Tree: It is that part of a Graph with an interconnected open set of branches which include all the nodes of the given graph. In a
tree of the graph there cannot be any closed path.
Intro. Network Topology The branches a, c and e are the twigs while the branches b, d and f are the links of this tree.

A network is an interconnection of elements in various branches at different nodes as shown It can be seen that for a network with b branches and n nodes, the number of twigs for a selected tree
in Fig. (a). The corresponding graph is shown in Fig. (b). (a) is (n-1) and the number of links l with respect to the tree is (b -n + 1).
It is interesting to note that the graphs (b), (c) and (d) may appear to be different but they
are topologically equivalent. The number of twigs (n-1) is known as the tree value of the graph. It is also called the rank of the tree.
A branch is represented by a line segment connecting a pair of nodes in the graph of a
If a link is added to the tree, the resulting graph contains one closed path, called a loop.
network.
A node is a terminal of a branch, which is represented by a point. The addition of each subsequent link forms one or more additional loops.
Nodes are the end points of branches.
Loops which contain only one link are independent and are called as basic loops.
All these graphs have identical relationships between branches and nodes.
(b) (c) (d)
(a) Network
(b), (c) and (d) are
graphs of the network
For the given graph draw the number of possible trees Incidence Matrix (A)
1 1 1
1 1 Any oriented graph can be described completely in a compact matrix form.
Here we specify the orientation of each branch in the graph and the nodes at which this branch is
4
incident.
4 4 4 4
2
This branch is called incident matrix.
2 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
When one row is completely deleted from the matrix the remaining matrix is called a reduced
1 1 1 1 1 1 incidence matrix.
Order of incidence matrix is (n*b).
4 4 4 4
Procedure to form Incidence Matrix
4 4
2 3
2 3 2 32 3 2 For a graph having n nodes and b branches, dimensions of a matrix A is n x b. In the matrix A with n
3 2 3
rows and b columns, an entry 𝑎𝑖𝑗 in the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗𝑡ℎ column has the following values
1 1 1 1 1 1
• 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 1, if 𝑗𝑡ℎ branch is incidence to 𝑖 𝑡ℎ node and direction is away from node.
• 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = −1, if 𝑗𝑡ℎ branch is incidence to 𝑖 𝑡ℎ node and direction is towards from node
4 4
4
4
4 4 • 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0, if 𝑗𝑡ℎ branch is not incidence to 𝑖 𝑡ℎ node
2 2 3 2 3 2 2
3 2 3 3 3
Problem 1: Obtain the Incidence Matrix (A) from the given graph Problem 2: Draw the graph corresponding to the Incidence Matrix

Properties of Incidence Matrix

• Each column representing a branch contains two non-zero entries +1 and -1; the rest being zero
• The unit entries in a row identify the branches incident at a node. Their number is called the degree of the node
• A degree of 1 for a row means that there is one branch incident at the node
• If two columns has same entries then they are in parallel
• Given the incidence matrix, the corresponding graph can be drawn
Problem 3: Draw the graph corresponding to the reduced Incidence Matrix

For a given tree of a graph, addition of

each link between any 2 nodes forms a
loop called the fundamental loop.
In a loop there exists a closed path and a

Tie-set Matrix circulating current, which is called the link

current. The current in any branch of the
graph can be found by using link currents.
The fundamental loop formed by one link
has a unique path in the tree joining the
two nodes of the link.
This loop is called as f-loop or tie-set.
Procedure to form Fundamental Tie-set Matrix Write the tie-set matrix of the given graph
2 b 2 b
a d a d
A tree is selected arbitrarily in the graph.
3 3
1 5
Fundamental loops are formed with each link in the graph for the entire tree. 5

Directions of the loop currents are oriented in the same direction as that of the concerned link. c c

Fundamental tie-set matrix [𝒃𝒊𝒋 ] is formed where

2 b 4 6
a d
𝒃𝒊𝒋 = 𝟏, when branch bj is in the fundamental loop i and their reference directions are same a
2 b
d
𝒃𝒊𝒋 = −𝟏, when branch bj is in the fundamental loop i and their reference directions are opposite. 3
𝒃𝒊𝒋 = 𝟎, when branch bj is not in the fundamental loop i. 5 3
5
c
c
 Write the tie-set matrix of the given graph
Tie-set Matrix
An oriented Graph One of it’s Tree Tie-sets of the Tree

4
The oriented graph has 4 nodes (n=4) and 6 branches (b=6). One of its trees is arbitrarily chosen.
The twigs ([n-1]=3) of this tree are branches 4,5 and 6. The links ([b-n+1]=3)of this tree are branches 1,2 and 3.
Let 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , ….., 𝑖6 be the branch currents with directions as shown in fig.
There are three fundamental loops Let 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , and 𝐼3 corresponding to the link branches 1, 2, and 3 respectively. If
𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , …, 𝑉6 are the branch voltages the KVL equations for the three f-loops can be written as
𝑉1 + 𝑉5 − 𝑉6 = 0
𝑉2 + 𝑉4 − 𝑉5 = 0
𝑉3 − 𝑉4 = 0
Branches
The above equations can be written in matrix form as:
1 2 3 4 5 B𝑉𝑏 = 0
Loops or
Tie-sets where
Loop(1) 1 0 0 1 1 B is an lX b matrix called the tie-set matrix or
fundamental loop matrix and
Loop(2) -1 -1 1 0 -1
𝑉𝑏 is a column vector of branch voltages.
Tie-set matrix and Branch currents Tie-set matrix and Branch currents
It is possible to express branch currents as a linear combination of link currents using matrix B. The link-current transformation equation is given by
If 𝐼𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑙 represents the branch currents matrix and loop currents matrix respectively and B is the Tie-set matrix, 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐵𝑇 𝐼𝑙
then
𝐼𝑏 = 𝐵𝑇 𝐼𝑙
where 𝐵𝑇 is the transpose of the matrix 𝐵

The branch currents are

The branch current vector 𝐼𝑏 is a column vector

The loop-current vector 𝐼𝑙 is a column vector

Fundamental cut-set
Cut-set: It is that set of elements or branches of a graph that separates two main
1. Draw the graph of given network.
parts of a network. 2. Then draw its tree. The branches of the tree
The term cut-set is derived from the property by which the network can be divided will be twigs.
into two parts. 3. Then draw the remaining branches of the
graph by dotted line(links).
A cut-set is shown on a graph by a dashed line which passes through the branches
defining the cutest.
A graph should have at least one cutest though there can be more than one cut-set in
Cut-set Matrix 4. Each branch or twig of tree will form an
independent cut-set.
5. Write the matrix with rows as cut-set and
any graph.
A fundamental cut set of a graph with respect to a tree is a cut set formed by one and
Procedure column as branches.
6. Fundamental cut-set matrix [Qkj] is formed
where
only one twig and a set of links.
➢ Qkj = 1 when branch bj has same orientation as
Thus in a graph, for each twig of a chosen tree, there would be a fundamental cut-set. that of the cut-set k
➢ Qkj = -1 when branch bj has opposite
For a graph having N nodes there will be (N-1) fundamental cut-sets (i.e. equal to the orientation to that of the cu-set k
number of twigs). ➢ Qkj = 0 when branch bj is not in the cut-set k
Obtain the fundamental cut-set matrix of the given graph Obtain the fundamental cut-set matrix 𝑸𝒇 of the given graph
b 2 b b
1
a c 1 b 2 𝑪𝟏
a c
𝐶1
4 2 1 2
3 1 b 2
1 𝑪𝟐
5 a c 3 3
5
4 e 4 e 5
4 5 a c
a c
d 3
d 5
7 7
The 3 fundamental cut-sets are given 8 8
below 𝐶3 𝑪𝟑
d 𝐶2 6 6
1. Cut-Set-1 : Twig-2 and Link-3
2. Cut-Set-2 : Twig-5 and Links- 3 & 4
Branches d d
3. Cut-Set-3 : Twig-1 and Links- 4 & 3 𝑪𝟒
1 2 3 4 5
Cut-sets
Cut-set(1) 0 1 1 0 0
Cut-set(2) 0 0 1 -1 1
Cut-set(3) 1 0 1 -1 0
Develop the fundamental tie-set and cut-set matrix of the given Fig. Duality
The concept of duality is a time-saving, effort-effective measure of
6 solving circuit problems.
b 4 6 Thus, it sometimes occurs in circuit analysis that two different circuits
2
a c b
2 4 have the same equations and solutions, except that the roles of
a c
3
certain complementary elements are interchanged.
5 3 This interchangeability is known as the principle of duality.
1
5
1 Two circuits are said to be duals of each other if they are described by
the same characterizing equations with dual quantities interchanged.
d
d Find the dual of a given circuit, we do not need to write down the mesh or node equations. We can
use a graphical technique given a planar circuit, we construct the dual circuit by taking the following
3 steps:
1. Place a node at the center of each mesh of the given circuit. Place the reference node (the
ground) of the dual circuit outside the given circuit.
2. Draw lines between the nodes such that each line crosses an element. Replace that element by
its dual.
3. To determine the polarity of voltage sources and direction of current sources, follow this rule:
A voltage source that produces a positive (clockwise) mesh current has its dual a current source
whose reference direction is from the ground to the non reference node.
Construct the dual circuit for the given circuit Construct the dual circuit for the given circuit
 SYLLABUS
BEEE (B.TECH, 1ST YEAR)
UNIT III
Network Theorems with DC Excitations
 Superposition Theorem,

 Thevenin’s Theorem,

 Norton’s Theorem,

 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem,

 Reciprocity Theorem,
Prepared By
 Millman’s Theorem.
Dr. Sachidananda Sen
1
Asst. Professor, EEE Dept.
 LINEARITY PROPERTY LINEARITY PROPERTY
 The additivity property requires that the response to a
 Linearity is the property of an element describing a
sum of inputs is the sum of the responses to each input applied
linear relationship between cause and effect. separately.
 The property is a combination of both the homogeneity
 Using the voltage-current relationship of a resistor, if
(scaling) property and the additivity property.
 The homogeneity property requires that if the input (also
called the excitation) is multiplied by a constant, then the
 We say that a resistor is a linear element because the
output (also called the response) is multiplied by the voltage-current relationship satisfies both the homogeneity
same constant. and the additivity properties.
 For a resistor, for example, Ohm’s law relates the input i  In general, a circuit is linear if it is both additive and
to the output v, homogeneous. A linear circuit consists of only linear
v = iR elements, linear dependent sources, and independent sources.
 A linear circuit is one whose output
 If the current is increased by a constant k, then the is linearly related (or directly
voltage increases correspondingly by k; that is proportional) to its input.
kiR = kv
 LINEARITY PROPERTY SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
 Note that since p=i2R=v2∕R (making it a quadratic  The superposition principle states that the voltage
function rather than a linear one), the relationship across (or current through) an element in a linear
between power and voltage (or current) is nonlinear . circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or
Therefore, the theorems covered in this unit are not currents through) that element due to each
applicable to power. independent source acting alone.
 The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a
linear circuit with more than one independent source by
calculating the contribution of each independent
source separately.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
 To apply the superposition principle, keep these steps in  Analyzing a circuit using superposition has one major
mind: disadvantage:
 1. We consider one independent source at a time  It may very likely involve more work.
while all other independent sources are turned off. This  If the circuit has three independent sources, we may have to
implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a analyze three simpler circuits each providing the contribution
short circuit), and every current source by 0 A (or an due to the respective individual source.
open circuit). This way we obtain a simpler and more  However, superposition does help reduce a complex circuit to
manageable circuit. simpler circuits through replacement of voltage sources by
 2. Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active short circuits and of current sources by open circuits.
source using the techniques using earlier methods.  Keep in mind that superposition is based on linearity.
 3. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.  For this reason, it is not applicable to the effect on power due
 4. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all to each source, because the power absorbed by a resistor
the contributions due to the independent sources. depends on the square of the voltage or current.
 5. Dependent sources are left intact because they are  If the power value is needed, the current through (or
voltage across) the element must be calculated first using
controlled by circuit variables.
superposition.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM THEVENIN’S THEOREM
 It often occurs in practice that a particular element in a  According to Thevenin’s
circuit is variable (usually called the load) while other theorem, the linear circuit in
elements are fixed. Fig. (a) can be replaced by
 As a typical example, a household outlet terminal may be that in Fig. (b).
connected to different appliances constituting a variable load.  The load in Fig. may be a single
 Each time the variable element is changed, the entire circuit resistor or another circuit.)
has to be analyzed all over again.  The circuit to the left of the
 To avoid this problem, Thevenin’s theorem provides a technique terminals a-b in Fig. (b) is
by which the fixed part of the circuit is replaced by an known as the Thevenin
equivalent circuit. equivalent circuit;
 Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit  It was developed in 1883 by M.
can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage Leon Thevenin (1857–1926),
source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open- a French telegraph engineer.
circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM THEVENIN’S THEOREM
 Our major concern now is how to find the Thevenin equivalent
voltage VTh and resistance RTh.  Again, with the load disconnected and terminals a-b
 To do so, suppose the two circuits in Figure are equivalent. Two open-circuited, we turn off all independent sources.
circuits are said to be equivalent if they have the same voltage-  The input resistance (or equivalent resistance) of the dead
current relation at their terminals. circuit at the terminals a-b in Fig. (a) must be equal to RTh
 Let us find out what will make the two circuits equivalent. in Fig. (b) because the two circuits are equivalent.
 If the terminals a-b are made open-circuited (by removing the load),  Thus, RTh is the input resistance at the terminals when the
no current flows, so that the open-circuit voltage across the independent sources are turned off, as in Fig. (b); that is,
terminals a-b in Fig. (a) must be equal to the voltage source VTh in
Fig. (b), since the two circuits are equivalent.
 Thus, VTh is the open-circuit voltage across the terminals as shown
in Fig. (a); that is,
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
THEVENIN’S THEOREM  We apply a voltage source vo at terminals a and b and determine
 To apply this idea in finding the Thevenin resistance RTh, the resulting current io. Then RTh = vo/io, as shown in figure (a).
we need to consider two cases.  Alternatively, we may insert a current source io at terminals a-b as
 ■ CASE 1 If the network has no dependent sources, in figure (b) and find the terminal voltage vo. Again RTh = vo/io.
we turn off all independent sources.  Either of the two approaches will give the same result. In
 RTh is the input resistance of the network looking either approach we may assume any value of vo and io.
between terminals a and b, as shown in Fig. (b).  For example, we may use vo = 1 V or io = 1 A, or even use
 ■ CASE 2 If the network has dependent sources, we unspecified values of vo or io.
turn off all independent sources.
 As with superposition, dependent sources are not to
be turned off because they are controlled by circuit
variables.

 It often occurs that RTh takes a negative value. In this case, the
negative resistance (v = −iR) implies that the circuit is supplying
power. This is possible in a circuit with dependent sources.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM NORTON’S THEOREM
 A linear circuit with a variable load can be replaced by the  In 1926, about 43 years after Thevenin published his theorem,
Thevenin equivalent, exclusive of the load. E. L. Norton, an American engineer at Bell Telephone
 The equivalent network behaves the same way externally as the Laboratories, proposed a similar theorem.
original circuit. • Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-
 Consider a linear circuit terminated by a load RL, as shown in Fig. (a). terminal circuit can be replaced by an
 The current IL through the load and the voltage VL across the load are equivalent circuit consisting of a
easily determined once the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit at the current source IN in parallel with a
load’s terminals is obtained, as in Fig. (b). resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit
current through the terminals and RN
is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.
• We find RN in the same way we find RTh.
• In fact, from what we know about source
Note from Fig. (b) that the Thevenin
equivalent is a simple voltage divider, transformation, the Thevenin and Norton
yielding VL by mere inspection. resistances are equal; that is,
 NORTON’S THEOREM NORTON’S THEOREM
 To find the Norton current IN, we determine the short-  Since VTh, IN, and RTh are related, to determine the Thevenin
circuit current flowing from terminal a to b in both circuits. or Norton equivalent circuit requires that we find:
 It is evident that the short-circuit current in Fig. (b) is IN.  • The open-circuit voltage voc across terminals a and b.
 This must be the same short-circuit current from terminal a to  • The short-circuit current isc at terminals a and b.
b in Fig. (a), since the two circuits are equivalent. Thus,  • The equivalent or input resistance Rin at terminals a and b
when all independent sources are turned off.
 We can calculate any two of the three using the method that
 Observe the close relationship between Norton’ s and takes the least effort and use them to get the third using
Thevenin’s theorems: RN = RTh Ohm’s law.
 Also, since

 This is essentially source transformation. For this reason,  the open-circuit and short-circuit tests are sufficient to
source transformation is often called Thevenin-Norton find any Thevenin or Norton equivalent, of a circuit which
transformation. contains at least one independent source.
 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
 In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to  It is assumed that one can adjust/vary the load resistance RL.
provide power to a load.  If the entire circuit is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent
 There are applications in areas such as communications except for the load, as shown in figure, the power delivered
where it is desirable to maximize the power delivered to a to the load is
load.
 We now address the problem of delivering the maximum
• For a given circuit, VTh and RTh are fixed.
power to a load when given a system with known • By varying the load resistance RL, the
internal losses/resistance. power delivered to the load varies as
sketched in figure below.
 It should be noted that this will result in significant
• We notice from figure that the power is
internal losses greater than or equal to the power small for small or large values of RL but
delivered to the load. maximum for some value of RL between 0
 The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the and ∞.
• We now want to show that this
maximum power a linear circuit can deliver to a load. maximum power occurs when RL is
equal to RTh. This is known as the
maximum power theorem.
 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM MILLMAN’S THEOREM
 Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load  A number of parallel voltage sources V1, V2, V3 …, Vn with internal
resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from resistances R1, R2, R3…, Rn, respectively can be replaced by a
the load (RL = RTh). single voltage source V in series with equivalent resistance R.
 To prove the maximum power transfer theorem, we
differentiate p in previous equation with respect to RL
and set the result equal to zero. We obtain

 This implies that

 The maximum power transferred is obtained by substituting this in

power equation and it is given as
 RECIPROCITY THEOREM RECIPROCITY THEOREM
 In a linear bilateral network, if a voltage source V in a ‘branch A’  In the representative network in Fig. (a), the current I
produces a current I in any other ‘branch B’, then the same voltage due to the voltage source E was determined. If the
source V acting in the ‘branch B’ would produce the same position of each is interchanged as shown in Fig. (b), the
current I in ‘branch A’. current I will be the same value as indicated.
 In other words, the location of the voltage source and the
resulting current may be interchanged without a
change in current.
 The theorem requires that the polarity of the voltage
source have the same correspondence with the direction
of the branch current in each position.
 The ratio V/I is known as the transfer resistance.

 The reciprocity theorem is applicable only to single-

source networks. It is, therefore, not a theorem used in
the analysis of multisource networks.
 UNIT-III
Network Theorems with DC Excitation

Syllabus: Superposition, Thevenin’s, Norton’s, Maximum Power Transfer, Reciprocity and Millman’s
Theorem

RECIPROCITY THEOREM
 Validation of Reciprocity Theorem:
 From Fig a.

(a)
 From Fig b.

(b)
130 Chapter 4 Circuit Theorems 4.3 Superposition 131

The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with

Example 4.2 Assume Io ⫽ 1 A and use linearity to find the actual value of Io in the
more than one independent source by calculating the contribution of
circuit of Fig. 4.4.
each independent source separately. However, to apply the superposi-
tion principle, we must keep two things in mind:
I4 6Ω 2 V I 2Ω 1 V 3Ω
2 2 1
1. We consider one independent source at a time while all other inde- Other terms such as killed, made inac-
I3 I1 Io pendent sources are turned off. This implies that we replace every tive, deadened, or set equal to zero
voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit), and every current source are often used to convey the same
I s = 15 A 7Ω 4Ω 5Ω
by 0 A (or an open circuit). This way we obtain a simpler and more idea.
manageable circuit.
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by
circuit variables.
Figure 4.4
For Example 4.2.
With these in mind, we apply the superposition principle in three
steps:
Solution:
If Io ⫽ 1 A, then V1 ⫽ (3 ⫹ 5)Io ⫽ 8 V and I1 ⫽ V1兾4 ⫽ 2 A. Applying
KCL at node 1 gives Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:
I2 ⫽ I1 ⫹ Io ⫽ 3 A 1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the
V2 output (voltage or current) due to that active source using
V2 ⫽ V1 ⫹ 2I2 ⫽ 8 ⫹ 6 ⫽ 14 V, I3 ⫽ ⫽2A the techniques covered in Chapters 2 and 3.
7
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
Applying KCL at node 2 gives 3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.
I4 ⫽ I3 ⫹ I2 ⫽ 5 A
Therefore, Is ⫽ 5 A. This shows that assuming Io ⫽ 1 gives Is ⫽ 5 A,
the actual source current of 15 A will give Io ⫽ 3 A as the actual value. Analyzing a circuit using superposition has one major disadvan-
tage: It may very likely involve more work. If the circuit has three
independent sources, we may have to analyze three simpler circuits
each providing the contribution due to the respective individual source.
However, superposition does help reduce a complex circuit to simpler
Practice Problem 4.2 Assume that Vo ⫽ 1 V and use linearity to calculate the actual value circuits through replacement of voltage sources by short circuits and
of Vo in the circuit of Fig. 4.5. of current sources by open circuits.
12 Ω Keep in mind that superposition is based on linearity. For this
+ Answer: 16 V. reason, it is not applicable to the effect on power due to each source,
40 V +
− 5Ω 8Ω Vo because the power absorbed by a resistor depends on the square of
− the voltage or current. If the power value is needed, the current
through (or voltage across) the element must be calculated first using
Figure 4.5 superposition.
For Practice Prob. 4.2.

4.3 Superposition
If a circuit has two or more independent sources, one way to determine Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit of Fig. 4.6. Example 4.3
the value of a specific variable (voltage or current) is to use nodal or
mesh analysis as in Chapter 3. Another way is to determine the con- 8Ω
Solution:
tribution of each independent source to the variable and then add them Since there are two sources, let +
up. The latter approach is known as the superposition. 6V + 4Ω v 3A
v ⫽ v1 ⫹ v2 −
Superposition is not limited to circuit The idea of superposition rests on the linearity property. −
analysis but is applicable in many where v1 and v2 are the contributions due to the 6-V voltage source
fields where cause and effect bear a Figure 4.6
The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current and the 3-A current source, respectively. To obtain v1, we set the current
linear relationship to one another. For Example 4.3.
through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the volt- source to zero, as shown in Fig. 4.7(a). Applying KVL to the loop in
ages across (or currents through) that element due to each independ- Fig. 4.7(a) gives
ent source acting alone.
12i1 ⫺ 6 ⫽ 0 1 i1 ⫽ 0.5 A
132 Chapter 4 Circuit Theorems 4.3 Superposition 133

8Ω Thus, 2Ω 2Ω

+
v1 ⫽ 4i1 ⫽ 2 V
6V + i1 4Ω v1 i4
− We may also use voltage division to get v1 by writing 3Ω i2 3Ω
− i1 5io⬙
5io⬘ 1Ω
4 1Ω
v1 ⫽ (6) ⫽ 2 V +− +−
(a) 4A
4⫹8 io⬙

8Ω i5
i2 To get v2, we set the voltage source to zero, as in Fig. 4.7(b). Using i3
5Ω 4Ω
5Ω 4Ω
i3 current division,
+
i1 io⬘ i3 +−
4Ω v2 3A
8
i3 ⫽ (3) ⫽ 2 A 0 20 V
− 4⫹8
Hence, (a) (b)

v2 ⫽ 4i3 ⫽ 8 V Figure 4.10

(b) For Example 4.4: Applying superposition to (a) obtain i¿o, (b) obtain i–o.
Figure 4.7 And we find
For Example 4.3: (a) calculating v1,
(b) calculating v2. v ⫽ v1 ⫹ v2 ⫽ 2 ⫹ 8 ⫽ 10 V
For loop 3,
⫺5i1 ⫺ 1i2 ⫹ 10i3 ⫹ 5i¿o ⫽ 0 (4.4.4)
But at node 0,
i3 ⫽ i1 ⫺ i¿o ⫽ 4 ⫺ i¿o (4.4.5)
Practice Problem 4.3 Using the superposition theorem, find vo in the circuit of Fig. 4.8.
Substituting Eqs. (4.4.2) and (4.4.5) into Eqs. (4.4.3) and (4.4.4) gives
3Ω 5Ω two simultaneous equations
Answer: 7.4 V.
+
3i2 ⫺ 2i¿o ⫽ 8 (4.4.6)
vo 2Ω 5A + 12 V
− i2 ⫹ 5i¿o ⫽ 20 (4.4.7)
−
which can be solved to get
Figure 4.8
For Practice Prob. 4.3. 52
i¿o ⫽ A (4.4.8)
17
To obtain i–o, we turn off the 4-A current source so that the circuit
becomes that shown in Fig. 4.10(b). For loop 4, KVL gives
6i4 ⫺ i5 ⫺ 5i–o ⫽ 0 (4.4.9)
Example 4.4 Find io in the circuit of Fig. 4.9 using superposition. and for loop 5,
2Ω Solution: ⫺i4 ⫹ 10i5 ⫺ 20 ⫹ 5i–o ⫽ 0 (4.4.10)
The circuit in Fig. 4.9 involves a dependent source, which must be left But i5 ⫽ ⫺i–o. Substituting this in Eqs. (4.4.9) and (4.4.10) gives
intact. We let
3Ω 6i4 ⫺ 4i–o ⫽ 0 (4.4.11)
5io
1Ω io ⫽ i¿o ⫹ i–o (4.4.1)
4A +− i4 ⫹ 5i–o ⫽ ⫺20 (4.4.12)
io where i¿o and i–o are due to the 4-A current source and 20-V voltage
source respectively. To obtain i¿o, we turn off the 20-V source so that which we solve to get
5Ω 4Ω
we have the circuit in Fig. 4.10(a). We apply mesh analysis in order to 60
obtain i¿o. For loop 1, i–o ⫽ ⫺ A (4.4.13)
+− 17
20 V i1 ⫽ 4 A (4.4.2) Now substituting Eqs. (4.4.8) and (4.4.13) into Eq. (4.4.1) gives
Figure 4.9 For loop 2,
For Example 4.4. 8
io ⫽ ⫺ ⫽ ⫺0.4706 A
⫺3i1 ⫹ 6i2 ⫺ 1i3 ⫺ 5i¿o ⫽ 0 (4.4.3) 17
134 Chapter 4 Circuit Theorems 4.4 Source Transformation 135

8Ω
Practice Problem 4.4 Use superposition to find vx in the circuit of Fig. 4.11.
4Ω 4Ω 3Ω
20 Ω vx Answer: vx ⫽ 31.25 V.
i1 i1

25 V + 5A 4Ω 0.1vx 12 V + 3Ω + 3Ω
− − 12 V −

(a)
Figure 4.11
For Practice Prob. 4.4. 24 V 8Ω 8Ω
+−

ia
4Ω 4Ω 4Ω v1 4Ω
Example 4.5 For the circuit in Fig. 4.12, use the superposition theorem to find i.
i2 i3
v2

24 V 8Ω 3Ω 3Ω 3A
Solution: ib
+−
In this case, we have three sources. Let
4Ω 4Ω
i ⫽ i1 ⫹ i2 ⫹ i3
i
(b) (c)
+ where i1, i2, and i3 are due to the 12-V, 24-V, and 3-A sources respec-
12 V − 3Ω 3A Figure 4.13
tively. To get i1, consider the circuit in Fig. 4.13(a). Combining 4 ⍀ For Example 4.5.
(on the right-hand side) in series with 8 ⍀ gives 12 ⍀. The 12 ⍀ in
parallel with 4 ⍀ gives 12 ⫻ 4兾16 ⫽ 3 ⍀. Thus,
Figure 4.12
For Example 4.5. 12 Find I in the circuit of Fig. 4.14 using the superposition principle. Practice Problem 4.5
i1 ⫽ ⫽2A
6
2Ω
6Ω I 8Ω
To get i2, consider the circuit in Fig. 4.13(b). Applying mesh analysis
gives
8V +
−
+ 6V
−
16ia ⫺ 4ib ⫹ 24 ⫽ 0 1 4ia ⫺ ib ⫽ ⫺6 (4.5.1) 2A

7
7ib ⫺ 4ia ⫽ 0 1 ia ⫽ ib (4.5.2) Figure 4.14
4
For Practice Prob. 4.5.
Substituting Eq. (4.5.2) into Eq. (4.5.1) gives
Answer: 375 mA.
i2 ⫽ ib ⫽ ⫺1
To get i3, consider the circuit in Fig. 4.13(c). Using nodal analysis gives
v2 v2 ⫺ v1
3⫽ ⫹ 1 24 ⫽ 3v2 ⫺ 2v1 (4.5.3)
8 4 4.4 Source Transformation
v2 ⫺ v1 v1 v1 10 We have noticed that series-parallel combination and wye-delta trans-
⫽ ⫹ 1 v2 ⫽ v1 (4.5.4) formation help simplify circuits. Source transformation is another tool
4 4 3 3
for simplifying circuits. Basic to these tools is the concept of equiva-
Substituting Eq. (4.5.4) into Eq. (4.5.3) leads to v1 ⫽ 3 and lence. We recall that an equivalent circuit is one whose v-i character-
istics are identical with the original circuit.
v1
i3 ⫽ ⫽1A In Section 3.6, we saw that node-voltage (or mesh-current) equa-
3 tions can be obtained by mere inspection of a circuit when the sources
Thus, are all independent current (or all independent voltage) sources. It is
therefore expedient in circuit analysis to be able to substitute a voltage
i ⫽ i1 ⫹ i2 ⫹ i3 ⫽ 2 ⫺ 1 ⫹ 1 ⫽ 2 A source in series with a resistor for a current source in parallel with a
 4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem 139 140 Chapter 4 Circuit Theorems

I a a
io To apply this idea in finding the Thevenin resistance RTh, we need
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem Circuit with to consider two cases.
Linear +
It often occurs in practice that a particular element in a circuit is vari- two-terminal Load all independent +
V − vo
able (usually called the load) while other elements are fixed. As a typ- circuit − sources set equal ■ CASE 1 If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all
to zero independent sources. RTh is the input resistance of the network look-
ical example, a household outlet terminal may be connected to different b b ing between terminals a and b, as shown in Fig. 4.24(b).
appliances constituting a variable load. Each time the variable element vo
(a) RTh =
is changed, the entire circuit has to be analyzed all over again. To avoid io
this problem, Thevenin’s theorem provides a technique by which the R Th I ■ CASE 2 If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all
a (a)
fixed part of the circuit is replaced by an equivalent circuit. independent sources. As with superposition, dependent sources are not
+ a to be turned off because they are controlled by circuit variables. We
According to Thevenin’s theorem, the linear circuit in Fig. 4.23(a) + Load Circuit with
VTh − V + apply a voltage source vo at terminals a and b and determine the result-
can be replaced by that in Fig. 4.23(b). (The load in Fig. 4.23 may be − all independent
a single resistor or another circuit.) The circuit to the left of the ter- sources set equal
vo io ing current io. Then RTh ⫽ vo兾io, as shown in Fig. 4.25(a). Alterna-
minals a-b in Fig. 4.23(b) is known as the Thevenin equivalent circuit; b to zero − tively, we may insert a current source io at terminals a-b as shown in
it was developed in 1883 by M. Leon Thevenin (1857–1926), a French (b) b Fig. 4.25(b) and find the terminal voltage vo. Again RTh ⫽ vo兾io. Either
vo of the two approaches will give the same result. In either approach we
telegraph engineer. Figure 4.23 RTh =
io
Replacing a linear two-terminal circuit may assume any value of vo and io. For example, we may use vo ⫽ 1 V
by its Thevenin equivalent: (a) original (b) or io ⫽ 1 A, or even use unspecified values of vo or io.
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be circuit, (b) the Thevenin equivalent
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in circuit. Figure 4.25
Finding RTh when circuit has dependent It often occurs that RTh takes a negative value. In this case, the
series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the
sources. negative resistance (v ⫽ ⫺iR) implies that the circuit is supplying
terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned off. Later we will see that an alternative way
power. This is possible in a circuit with dependent sources; Example 4.10
of finding RTh is RTh ⫽ voc兾isc. will illustrate this.
The proof of the theorem will be given later, in Section 4.7. Our Thevenin’s theorem is very important in circuit analysis. It helps
major concern right now is how to find the Thevenin equivalent volt- a simplify a circuit. A large circuit may be replaced by a single indepen-
age VTh and resistance RTh. To do so, suppose the two circuits in IL dent voltage source and a single resistor. This replacement technique
Fig. 4.23 are equivalent. Two circuits are said to be equivalent if they
Linear
RL
is a powerful tool in circuit design.
circuit As mentioned earlier, a linear circuit with a variable load can be
have the same voltage-current relation at their terminals. Let us find
out what will make the two circuits in Fig. 4.23 equivalent. If the ter- replaced by the Thevenin equivalent, exclusive of the load. The equiv-
minals a-b are made open-circuited (by removing the load), no current
b alent network behaves the same way externally as the original circuit.
flows, so that the open-circuit voltage across the terminals a-b in (a) Consider a linear circuit terminated by a load RL, as shown in Fig. 4.26(a).
Fig. 4.23(a) must be equal to the voltage source VTh in Fig. 4.23(b), The current IL through the load and the voltage VL across the load are
R Th easily determined once the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit at the
since the two circuits are equivalent. Thus VTh is the open-circuit volt- a
age across the terminals as shown in Fig. 4.24(a); that is, IL load’s terminals is obtained, as shown in Fig. 4.26(b). From Fig. 4.26(b),
we obtain
VTh ⫽ voc (4.6) VTh + RL
− VTh
IL ⫽ (4.8a)
RTh ⫹ RL
a a
+ Linear circuit with
Linear b RL
all independent R in
two-terminal voc (b) VL ⫽ RLIL ⫽ VTh (4.8b)
circuit −
sources set equal
Figure 4.26 RTh ⫹ RL
b to zero b A circuit with a load: (a) original circuit, Note from Fig. 4.26(b) that the Thevenin equivalent is a simple volt-
V Th = voc RTh = R in (b) Thevenin equivalent.
age divider, yielding VL by mere inspection.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.24
Finding VTh and RTh. Example 4.8 Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig. 4.27, to
the left of the terminals a-b. Then find the current through RL ⫽ 6, 16,
Again, with the load disconnected and terminals a-b open- 4Ω 1Ω a and 36 ⍀.
circuited, we turn off all independent sources. The input resistance
(or equivalent resistance) of the dead circuit at the terminals a-b in 32 V +
− 12 Ω 2A RL Solution:
Fig. 4.23(a) must be equal to RTh in Fig. 4.23(b) because the two circuits We find RTh by turning off the 32-V voltage source (replacing it
are equivalent. Thus, RTh is the input resistance at the terminals when the with a short circuit) and the 2-A current source (replacing it with an
b
independent sources are turned off, as shown in Fig. 4.24(b); that is,
Figure 4.27
RTh ⫽ Rin (4.7) For Example 4.8.
 4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem 141 142 Chapter 4 Circuit Theorems

open circuit). The circuit becomes what is shown in Fig. 4.28(a).

Thus,
Practice Problem 4.8 Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent circuit to the left of the
terminals in the circuit of Fig. 4.30. Then find I.
6Ω 6Ω
4 ⫻ 12 a
RTh ⫽ 4 储 12 ⫹ 1 ⫽ ⫹1⫽4⍀ I Answer: VTh ⫽ 6 V, RTh ⫽ 3 ⍀, I ⫽ 1.5 A.
16
12 V + 2A 4Ω 1Ω
−
4Ω 1Ω 4Ω VTh 1Ω
a a b
+
R Th Figure 4.30
12 Ω 32 V + i1 12 Ω i2 2A VTh
− For Practice Prob. 4.8.
−
b b
(a) (b)
Figure 4.28 Example 4.9 Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 4.31 at terminals a-b.
For Example 4.8: (a) finding RTh, (b) finding VTh.
2vx Solution:
To find VTh, consider the circuit in Fig. 4.28(b). Applying mesh − + This circuit contains a dependent source, unlike the circuit in the
analysis to the two loops, we obtain previous example. To find RTh, we set the independent source equal to
2Ω 2Ω zero but leave the dependent source alone. Because of the presence of
⫺32 ⫹ 4i1 ⫹ 12(i1 ⫺ i2) ⫽ 0, i2 ⫽ ⫺2 A a the dependent source, however, we excite the network with a voltage
+
vx
source vo connected to the terminals as indicated in Fig. 4.32(a). We
Solving for i1, we get i1 ⫽ 0.5 A. Thus, 5A 4Ω 6Ω
− may set vo ⫽ 1 V to ease calculation, since the circuit is linear. Our
VTh ⫽ 12(i1 ⫺ i2) ⫽ 12(0.5 ⫹ 2.0) ⫽ 30 V goal is to find the current io through the terminals, and then obtain
b
RTh ⫽ 1兾io. (Alternatively, we may insert a 1-A current source, find the
Figure 4.31
Alternatively, it is even easier to use nodal analysis. We ignore the For Example 4.9. corresponding voltage vo, and obtain RTh ⫽ vo兾1.)
1-⍀ resistor since no current flows through it. At the top node, KCL
gives 2vx 2vx

32 ⫺ VTh VTh − + − +
⫹2⫽
4 12
i1 i3
or
2Ω 2Ω a 2Ω 2Ω
96 ⫺ 3VTh ⫹ 24 ⫽ VTh 1 VTh ⫽ 30 V a
4Ω io +
a + +
as obtained before. We could also use source transformation to find VTh. vx + vx
IL 4Ω i2 6Ω i3 − vo = 1 V 5A i1 4Ω i2 6Ω voc
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.29. The current − −
through RL is 30 V + RL −
− b
b
VTh 30
IL ⫽ ⫽ (a) (b)
RTh ⫹ RL 4 ⫹ RL b Figure 4.32
Finding RTh and VTh for Example 4.9.
When RL ⫽ 6, Figure 4.29
The Thevenin equivalent circuit for
30 Example 4.8. Applying mesh analysis to loop 1 in the circuit of Fig. 4.32(a)
IL ⫽ ⫽3A
10 results in
When RL ⫽ 16, ⫺2vx ⫹ 2(i1 ⫺ i2) ⫽ 0 or vx ⫽ i1 ⫺ i2

30 But ⫺4i2 ⫽ vx ⫽ i1 ⫺ i2; hence,

IL ⫽ ⫽ 1.5 A
20 i1 ⫽ ⫺3i2 (4.9.1)
When RL ⫽ 36, For loops 2 and 3, applying KVL produces

30 4i2 ⫹ 2(i2 ⫺ i1) ⫹ 6(i2 ⫺ i3) ⫽ 0 (4.9.2)

IL ⫽ ⫽ 0.75 A
40 6(i3 ⫺ i2) ⫹ 2i3 ⫹ 1 ⫽ 0 (4.9.3)
 4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem 143 144 Chapter 4 Circuit Theorems

Solving these equations gives a The simplest approach is to excite the circuit with either a
ix 1-V voltage source or a 1-A current source. Since we will end
1
i3 ⫽ ⫺ A 2ix 4Ω 2Ω up with an equivalent resistance (either positive or negative), I
6 prefer to use the current source and nodal analysis which will
But io ⫽ ⫺i3 ⫽ 1兾6 A. Hence, b
yield a voltage at the output terminals equal to the resistance
(with 1 A flowing in, vo is equal to 1 times the equivalent
1V (a)
RTh ⫽ ⫽6⍀ resistance).
io vo a As an alternative, the circuit could also be excited by a 1-V
To get VTh, we find voc in the circuit of Fig. 4.32(b). Applying voltage source and mesh analysis could be used to find the
ix
mesh analysis, we get equivalent resistance.
2ix 4Ω 2Ω io 4. Attempt. We start by writing the nodal equation at a in Fig. 4.35(b)
i1 ⫽ 5 (4.9.4) assuming io ⫽ 1 A.
⫺2vx ⫹ 2(i3 ⫺ i2) ⫽ 0 1 vx ⫽ i3 ⫺ i2 (4.9.5) 2ix ⫹ (vo ⫺ 0)兾4 ⫹ (vo ⫺ 0)兾2 ⫹ (⫺1) ⫽ 0 (4.10.1)
b
4(i2 ⫺ i1) ⫹ 2(i2 ⫺ i3) ⫹ 6i2 ⫽ 0 (b) Since we have two unknowns and only one equation, we will
or 6Ω need a constraint equation.
4Ω a 9Ω
a
12i2 ⫺ 4i1 ⫺ 2i3 ⫽ 0 (4.9.6) ix ⫽ (0 ⫺ vo)兾2 ⫽ ⫺vo兾2 (4.10.2)
+ ix
20 V −
But 4(i1 ⫺ i2) ⫽ vx. Solving these equations leads to i2 ⫽ 10兾3. 8ix − i2 + 10 V Substituting Eq. (4.10.2) into Eq. (4.10.1) yields
+ i1 2Ω −
Hence, b
2(⫺vo兾2) ⫹ (vo ⫺ 0)兾4 ⫹ (vo ⫺ 0)兾2 ⫹ (⫺1) ⫽ 0
VTh ⫽ voc ⫽ 6i2 ⫽ 20 V Figure 4.33
The Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in b ⫽ (⫺1 ⫹ 14 ⫹ 21)vo ⫺ 1 or vo ⫽ ⫺4 V
The Thevenin equivalent is as shown in Fig. 4.33. Fig. 4.31.
(c) Since vo ⫽ 1 ⫻ RTh, then RTh ⫽ vo兾1 ⫽ ⫺4 ⍀.
The negative value of the resistance tells us that, according
−4 Ω a 9Ω
to the passive sign convention, the circuit in Fig. 4.35(a) is
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. 4.34 to the Practice Problem 4.9 supplying power. Of course, the resistors in Fig. 4.35(a) cannot
left of the terminals. supply power (they absorb power); it is the dependent source
Ix i + 10 V
5Ω 3Ω − that supplies the power. This is an example of how a
Answer: VTh ⫽ 5.333 V, RTh ⫽ 444.4 m⍀. a
dependent source and resistors could be used to simulate
6V + 1.5Ix 4Ω negative resistance.
− b
5. Evaluate. First of all, we note that the answer has a negative
(d)
b value. We know this is not possible in a passive circuit, but in
Figure 4.34 Figure 4.35 this circuit we do have an active device (the dependent current
For Example 4.10.
For Practice Prob. 4.9. source). Thus, the equivalent circuit is essentially an active
circuit that can supply power.
Now we must evaluate the solution. The best way to do this
is to perform a check, using a different approach, and see if we
Determine the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 4.35(a) at Example 4.10 obtain the same solution. Let us try connecting a 9-⍀ resistor in
terminals a-b. series with a 10-V voltage source across the output terminals of
the original circuit and then the Thevenin equivalent. To make
Solution: the circuit easier to solve, we can take and change the parallel
1. Define. The problem is clearly defined; we are to determine the current source and 4-⍀ resistor to a series voltage source and
Thevenin equivalent of the circuit shown in Fig. 4.35(a). 4-⍀ resistor by using source transformation. This, with the new
2. Present. The circuit contains a 2-⍀ resistor in parallel with a load, gives us the circuit shown in Fig. 4.35(c).
4-⍀ resistor. These are, in turn, in parallel with a dependent We can now write two mesh equations.
current source. It is important to note that there are no
8ix ⫹ 4i1 ⫹ 2(i1 ⫺ i2) ⫽ 0
independent sources.
3. Alternative. The first thing to consider is that, since we have no 2(i2 ⫺ i1) ⫹ 9i2 ⫹ 10 ⫽ 0
independent sources in this circuit, we must excite the circuit Note, we only have two equations but have 3 unknowns, so we
externally. In addition, when you have no independent need a constraint equation. We can use
sources you will not have a value for VTh; you will only have
to find RTh. ix ⫽ i2 ⫺ i1
 4.6 Norton’s Theorem 145 146 Chapter 4 Circuit Theorems

This leads to a new equation for loop 1. Simplifying leads to a that the short-circuit current in Fig. 4.37(b) is IN. This must be the same
Linear short-circuit current from terminal a to b in Fig. 4.37(a), since the two
(4 ⫹ 2 ⫺ 8)i1 ⫹ (⫺2 ⫹ 8)i2 ⫽ 0
two-terminal isc = IN circuits are equivalent. Thus,
or circuit
⫺2i1 ⫹ 6i2 ⫽ 0 or i1 ⫽ 3i2 b
IN ⫽ isc (4.10)
⫺2i1 ⫹ 11i2 ⫽ ⫺10 Figure 4.38 shown in Fig. 4.38. Dependent and independent sources are treated the
Substituting the first equation into the second gives Finding Norton current IN. same way as in Thevenin’s theorem.
Observe the close relationship between Norton’s and Thevenin’s
⫺6i2 ⫹ 11i2 ⫽ ⫺10 or i2 ⫽ ⫺10兾5 ⫽ ⫺2 A theorems: RN ⫽ RTh as in Eq. (4.9), and
Using the Thevenin equivalent is quite easy since we have only
one loop, as shown in Fig. 4.35(d). VTh
IN ⫽ (4.11)
⫺4i ⫹ 9i ⫹ 10 ⫽ 0 or i ⫽ ⫺10兾5 ⫽ ⫺2 A RTh

6. Satisfactory? Clearly we have found the value of the equivalent

The Thevenin and Norton equivalent This is essentially source transformation. For this reason, source trans-
circuit as required by the problem statement. Checking does
circuits are related by a source formation is often called Thevenin-Norton transformation.
validate that solution (we compared the answer we obtained by
transformation. Since VTh, IN, and RTh are related according to Eq. (4.11), to deter-
using the equivalent circuit with one obtained by using the load
mine the Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit requires that we find:
with the original circuit). We can present all this as a solution to
the problem. • The open-circuit voltage voc across terminals a and b.
• The short-circuit current isc at terminals a and b.
• The equivalent or input resistance Rin at terminals a and b when
all independent sources are turned off.
Obtain the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 4.36. Practice Problem 4.10 We can calculate any two of the three using the method that takes the
4vx
least effort and use them to get the third using Ohm’s law. Example 4.11
Answer: VTh ⫽ 0 V, RTh ⫽ ⫺7.5 ⍀. 10 Ω will illustrate this. Also, since
+− a
+ VTh ⫽ voc (4.12a)
vx 5Ω 15 Ω
− IN ⫽ isc (4.12b)
b
voc
4.6 Norton’s Theorem Figure 4.36 RTh ⫽ ⫽ RN (4.12c)
For Practice Prob. 4.10. isc
In 1926, about 43 years after Thevenin published his theorem, E. L.
Norton, an American engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories, pro- the open-circuit and short-circuit tests are sufficient to find any Thevenin
posed a similar theorem. or Norton equivalent, of a circuit which contains at least one inde-
pendent source.
Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in Example 4.11 Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. 4.39 at
parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit current through terminals a-b.
8Ω
the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the termi-
a
nals when the independent sources are turned off. a Solution:
Linear
4Ω We find RN in the same way we find RTh in the Thevenin equivalent
two-terminal
Thus, the circuit in Fig. 4.37(a) can be replaced by the one in Fig. 4.37(b). circuit 2A 5Ω circuit. Set the independent sources equal to zero. This leads to the
b + 12 V
The proof of Norton’s theorem will be given in the next section. − circuit in Fig. 4.40(a), from which we find RN. Thus,
For now, we are mainly concerned with how to get RN and IN. We find b 20 ⫻ 5
(a) RN ⫽ 5 储 (8 ⫹ 4 ⫹ 8) ⫽ 5 储 20 ⫽ ⫽4⍀
RN in the same way we find RTh. In fact, from what we know about 8Ω
25
source transformation, the Thevenin and Norton resistances are equal; a Figure 4.39
that is, For Example 4.11. To find IN, we short-circuit terminals a and b, as shown in Fig. 4.40(b).
IN RN We ignore the 5-⍀ resistor because it has been short-circuited.
b
Applying mesh analysis, we obtain
RN ⫽ RTh (4.9)
(b) i1 ⫽ 2 A, 20i2 ⫺ 4i1 ⫺ 12 ⫽ 0
Figure 4.37 From these equations, we obtain
To find the Norton current IN, we determine the short-circuit current (a) Original circuit, (b) Norton equivalent
flowing from terminal a to b in both circuits in Fig. 4.37. It is evident circuit. i2 ⫽ 1 A ⫽ isc ⫽ IN
 4.6 Norton’s Theorem 147 148 Chapter 4 Circuit Theorems

8Ω 8Ω a
a Example 4.12 Using Norton’s theorem, find RN and IN of the circuit in Fig. 4.43 at
isc = IN terminals a-b.
i2 2 ix
i1 4Ω
RN
4Ω 5Ω 2A Solution:
+ 12 V 5Ω To find RN, we set the independent voltage source equal to zero and
− 5Ω connect a voltage source of vo ⫽ 1 V (or any unspecified voltage vo)
8Ω 8Ω ix a
b to the terminals. We obtain the circuit in Fig. 4.44(a). We ignore the
b 4Ω + 10 V 4-⍀ resistor because it is short-circuited. Also due to the short circuit,
(a) −
(b) the 5-⍀ resistor, the voltage source, and the dependent current source
1v
b are all in parallel. Hence, ix ⫽ 0. At node a, io ⫽ 5⍀ ⫽ 0.2 A, and
8Ω
a Figure 4.43 vo 1
+ For Example 4.12. RN ⫽ ⫽ ⫽5⍀
i4 io 0.2
i3 4Ω
2A VTh = voc To find IN, we short-circuit terminals a and b and find the current
5Ω
+ 12 V isc, as indicated in Fig. 4.44(b). Note from this figure that the 4-⍀
−
resistor, the 10-V voltage source, the 5-⍀ resistor, and the dependent
8Ω −
b current source are all in parallel. Hence,
(c) 10
ix ⫽ ⫽ 2.5 A
Figure 4.40 4
For Example 4.11; finding: (a) RN, (b) IN ⫽ isc, (c) VTh ⫽ voc.
At node a, KCL gives
10
Alternatively, we may determine IN from VTh兾RTh. We obtain VTh isc ⫽ ⫹ 2ix ⫽ 2 ⫹ 2(2.5) ⫽ 7 A
5
as the open-circuit voltage across terminals a and b in Fig. 4.40(c).
Using mesh analysis, we obtain Thus,

i3 ⫽ 2 A IN ⫽ 7 A

25i4 ⫺ 4i3 ⫺ 12 ⫽ 0 1 i4 ⫽ 0.8 A 2ix 2ix

and
voc ⫽ VTh ⫽ 5i4 ⫽ 4 V
5Ω a 5Ω a
Hence, ix ix
io
a + + 10 V isc = IN
VTh 4 4Ω − vo = 1 V 4Ω −
IN ⫽ ⫽ ⫽1A
RTh 4 1A 4Ω
b b
as obtained previously. This also serves to confirm Eq. (4.12c) that b
RTh ⫽ voc 兾isc ⫽ 4 兾1 ⫽ 4 ⍀. Thus, the Norton equivalent circuit is as Figure 4.41 (a) (b)
shown in Fig. 4.41. Norton equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 4.39. Figure 4.44
For Example 4.12: (a) finding RN, (b) finding IN.

Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit in Fig. 4.42, at Practice Problem 4.11
terminals a-b. Practice Problem 4.12 Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. 4.45 at
terminals a-b.
Answer: RN ⫽ 3 ⍀, IN ⫽ 4.5 A. 2vx
3Ω 3Ω
a + − a Answer: RN ⫽ 1 ⍀, IN ⫽ 10 A.
+
15 V + 4A 6Ω 6Ω 10 A 2Ω vx
−
−
b b
Figure 4.42 Figure 4.45
For Practice Prob. 4.11. For Practice Prob. 4.12.
150 Chapter 4 Circuit Theorems 4.8 Maximum Power Transfer 151

i ⫽ D0 ⫽ ⫺isc, where isc is the short-circuit current flowing out of ter- This implies that
minal a, which is the same as the Norton current IN, i.e.,
0 ⫽ (RTh ⫹ RL ⫺ 2RL) ⫽ (RTh ⫺ RL) (4.22)
D0 ⫽ ⫺IN (4.19)
which yields
When all the internal independent sources are turned off, D0 ⫽ 0 and
the circuit can be replaced by an equivalent resistance Req (or an equiv- RL ⫽ RTh (4.23)
alent conductance Geq ⫽ 1兾Req), which is the same as RTh or RN. Thus
Eq. (4.19) becomes
showing that the maximum power transfer takes place when the load The source and load are said to be
v resistance RL equals the Thevenin resistance RTh. We can readily confirm matched when RL ⫽ RTh.
i⫽ ⫺ IN (4.20) that Eq. (4.23) gives the maximum power by showing that d 2p 兾dR 2L 6 0.
RTh
The maximum power transferred is obtained by substituting
This expresses the voltage-current relation at terminals a-b of the cir- Eq. (4.23) into Eq. (4.21), for
cuit in Fig. 4.47(b), confirming that the two circuits in Fig. 4.47(a) and
4.47(b) are equivalent.
V 2Th
pmax ⫽ (4.24)
4RTh

4.8 Maximum Power Transfer Equation (4.24) applies only when RL ⫽ RTh. When RL ⫽ RTh, we
In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to compute the power delivered to the load using Eq. (4.21).
a load. There are applications in areas such as communications where
RTh
it is desirable to maximize the power delivered to a load. We now
a
address the problem of delivering the maximum power to a load when
i given a system with known internal losses. It should be noted that this
will result in significant internal losses greater than or equal to the
VTh +
− RL Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit of Example 4.13
power delivered to the load.
The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power Fig. 4.50. Find the maximum power.

b
a linear circuit can deliver to a load. We assume that we can adjust the
load resistance RL. If the entire circuit is replaced by its Thevenin 6Ω 3Ω 2Ω a
Figure 4.48
The circuit used for maximum power equivalent except for the load, as shown in Fig. 4.48, the power deliv-
transfer. ered to the load is 12 V + 12 Ω 2A RL
−
2
p ⫽ i RL ⫽ a b RL
2 VTh
(4.21)
RTh ⫹ RL b
p For a given circuit, VTh and RTh are fixed. By varying the load resist- Figure 4.50
ance RL, the power delivered to the load varies as sketched in Fig. 4.49. For Example 4.13.
pmax
We notice from Fig. 4.49 that the power is small for small or large val-
ues of RL but maximum for some value of RL between 0 and ⬁. We Solution:
now want to show that this maximum power occurs when RL is equal We need to find the Thevenin resistance RTh and the Thevenin voltage
to RTh. This is known as the maximum power theorem. VTh across the terminals a-b. To get RTh, we use the circuit in Fig. 4.51(a)
0 RTh RL and obtain
Figure 4.49 Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance 6 ⫻ 12
Power delivered to the load as a function RTh ⫽ 2 ⫹ 3 ⫹ 6 储 12 ⫽ 5 ⫹ ⫽9⍀
equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load (RL ⫽ RTh). 18
of RL.
6Ω 3Ω 2Ω 6Ω 3Ω 2Ω
To prove the maximum power transfer theorem, we differentiate p
in Eq. (4.21) with respect to RL and set the result equal to zero. We +
RTh
obtain 12 Ω 12 V + 12 Ω 2A VTh
− i1 i2

(RTh ⫹ RL )2 ⫺ 2RL(RTh ⫹ RL )
⫽ V 2Th c d
dp −

dRL (RTh ⫹ RL )4
(a) (b)

⫽ V 2Th c d ⫽0
(RTh ⫹ RL ⫺ 2RL ) Figure 4.51
(RTh ⫹ RL )3 For Example 4.13: (a) finding RTh, (b) finding VTh.
152 Chapter 4 Circuit Theorems

To get VTh, we consider the circuit in Fig. 4.51(b). Applying mesh

analysis gives
⫺12 ⫹ 18i1 ⫺ 12i2 ⫽ 0, i2 ⫽ ⫺2 A
Solving for i1, we get i1 ⫽ ⫺2兾3. Applying KVL around the outer loop
to get VTh across terminals a-b, we obtain
⫺12 ⫹ 6i1 ⫹ 3i2 ⫹ 2(0) ⫹ VTh ⫽ 0 1 VTh ⫽ 22 V
For maximum power transfer,
RL ⫽ RTh ⫽ 9 ⍀
and the maximum power is
V 2Th 222
pmax ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 13.44 W
4RL 4⫻9

Practice Problem 4.13 Determine the value of RL that will draw the maximum power from
the rest of the circuit in Fig. 4.52. Calculate the maximum power.
2Ω 4Ω

+ vx − Answer: 4.222 ⍀, 2.901 W.

1Ω
9V + RL
−
+ 3vx
−

Figure 4.52
4.9 Verifying Circuit Theorems with PSpice
For Practice Prob. 4.13. In this section, we learn how to use PSpice to verify the theorems cov-
ered in this chapter. Specifically, we will consider using DC Sweep analy-
sis to find the Thevenin or Norton equivalent at any pair of nodes in a
circuit and the maximum power transfer to a load. The reader is advised
to read Section D.3 of Appendix D in preparation for this section.
To find the Thevenin equivalent of a circuit at a pair of open ter-
minals using PSpice, we use the schematic editor to draw the circuit
and insert an independent probing current source, say, Ip, at the termi-
nals. The probing current source must have a part name ISRC. We then
perform a DC Sweep on Ip, as discussed in Section D.3. Typically, we
may let the current through Ip vary from 0 to 1 A in 0.1-A increments.
After saving and simulating the circuit, we use Probe to display a plot
of the voltage across Ip versus the current through Ip. The zero inter-
cept of the plot gives us the Thevenin equivalent voltage, while the
slope of the plot is equal to the Thevenin resistance.
To find the Norton equivalent involves similar steps except that we
insert a probing independent voltage source (with a part name VSRC),
say, Vp, at the terminals. We perform a DC Sweep on Vp and let Vp
vary from 0 to 1 V in 0.1-V increments. A plot of the current through
Vp versus the voltage across Vp is obtained using the Probe menu after
simulation. The zero intercept is equal to the Norton current, while the
slope of the plot is equal to the Norton conductance.
To find the maximum power transfer to a load using PSpice
involves performing a DC parametric Sweep on the component value
of RL in Fig. 4.48 and plotting the power delivered to the load as a
function of RL. According to Fig. 4.49, the maximum power occurs
 Superposition Theorem
The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than one current or
voltage sources sometimes it is easier to find out the voltage across or current in a branch of the
circuit by considering the effect of one source at a time by replacing the other sources with their
ideal internal resistances.
UNIT III: Statement:
Network Theorems With DC Excitation Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of more than one sources, the total
current or voltage in any part of a network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or
voltages in the required branch with each source acting individually while other sources are
replaced by their ideal internal resistances. (i.e. Voltage sources by a short circuit and current
sources by open circuit)
21 January 2022
 Prob 1: By using the Superposition theorem find I in the circuit shown in Fig.
Superposition Theorem
Case 2: By considering only 5 A current source
Steps to Apply Superposition Principle: Similarly, the current I5 in the resistance of 3Ω
Step 1: Replace all independent sources with their internal resistances except one source. Find the due to the current source of 5A alone with
output (voltage or current) due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis. voltage source of 20V short circuited is given
by:
Step 2: Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
Case 1: By considering only 20 V voltage source
Step 3: Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the
Applying the Superposition theorem, the current I2
independent sources. in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the voltage source of
20V alone, with current source of 5A open
circuited is given by:
I5= 5 x 5/(3+5) = 3.125 A

I2 = 20/(5+3) = 2.5A The total current passing through the

resistance of 3Ω is then
= I2 + I5= 2.5 + 3.125 = 5.625 A
Prob 2: By using the Superposition theorem find i in the circuit shown in Fig.
To get 𝑖2 , consider the circuit in Fig. (b). Thevenins Theorem
16𝑖𝑎 − 4𝑖𝑏 = −24 (1)
It often occurs in practice that a particular element in a circuit is variable (usually called the
7
−4𝑖𝑎 +7𝑖𝑏 = 0 or 4𝑖𝑎 = 7𝑖𝑏 or 𝑖𝑎 = 𝑖𝑏 (2) load) while other elements are fixed. Each time the variable element is changed, the entire circuit
4
Substitute Eqn. (2) in Eqn. (1) has to be analyzed all over again. To avoid this problem, Thevenin’s theorem provides a
16
7
𝑖 − 4𝑖𝑏 = −24 or 𝑖𝑏 = −1 = 𝑖2 technique by which the fixed part of the circuit is replaced by an equivalent circuit.
Case 2: 4 𝑏

Case 1: Statement:
To get 𝑖3 , consider the circuit in Fig. (c). Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
𝑣2 𝑣2 −𝑣1
3= + or 3𝑣2 − 2𝑣1 = 24 (3) replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source 𝑽𝑻𝒉
8 4
𝑣2 −𝑣1 𝑣1 𝑣1 10 in series with a resistor 𝑹𝑻𝒉, where 𝑽𝑻𝒉 is the open-circuit voltage at
= + or 𝑣2 = 𝑣1 (4)
4 4 3 3
the terminals and 𝑹𝑻𝒉 is the input or equivalent resistance at the
Substitute Eqn. (4) in Eqn. (3)
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
10 𝑣1
To get 𝑖1 , consider the circuit Case 3: 3 𝑣1 − 2𝑣1 = 24 𝑜𝑟 𝑣1 = 3 & 𝑖3 = =1𝐴
3 3
in Fig. (a). 𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 =2-1+1= 2 A
12 (a) original circuit,
𝑖1 = =2𝐴 (b) the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
6
Steps to Apply Thevenins Principle: Prob 4: Find VTh, RTh and the load current and load voltage flowing through 𝑹𝑳
resistor as shown in fig. by using Thevenin’s Theorem
Step 1: The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are Calculate the Open Circuit Voltage (VTH). By removing
marked as say A & B after removing the concerned branch/element. the load resistor from fig.(a), so the circuit became an
open circuit as shown in fig (3). Since 3mA Current
Step 2: Open circuit voltage 𝑽𝑶𝑪 across these two terminals (A & B)is found out using the flows in both 12kΩ and 4kΩ resistors. So 12V (3mA x
conventional network mesh/node analysis methods and this would be 𝑽𝑻𝒉 . 4kΩ) will appear across the 4kΩ resistor. Therefore,
12V will appear across the AB. So, VTH = 12V.
Step 3: Thevenin resistance 𝑹𝑻𝒉 is found out by the method depending upon whether the network
The resistance RL is removed Calculate the Open Circuit Resistance (RTH). We have
contains dependent sources or not. and the terminals of the Reduced the 48V DC source to zero is equivalent to
(a) With dependent sources: 𝑹𝑻𝒉 = 𝑽𝑶𝑪 / 𝑰𝑺𝑪 resistance RL are marked as replace it with a short circuit as shown in figure (2).
A & B as shown in the fig. (1) We can see that 8kΩ resistor is in series with a parallel
(b) Without dependent sources: 𝑹𝑻𝒉 = Equivalent resistance looking into the connection of 4kΩ resistor and 12k Ω resistor. i.e.
concerned terminals with all voltage & current sources replaced by their internal 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 8 𝑘Ω+(4 kΩ || 12 kΩ)
𝑅𝑇ℎ = 8 𝑘Ω + 3 kΩ = 11 k Ω
impedances
Connect the RTH in series with VTH and re-connect the
load resistor across the load terminals (A&B) as shown
in fig (5) This is the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
IL = VTH/ (RTH + RL) = 12V / (11kΩ + 5kΩ) =
The voltage source replaced 12/16kΩ= 0.75mA
Step 4: Replace the network with 𝑽𝑻𝒉 in series with 𝑹𝑻𝒉 and the concerned branch by their internal impedances as
shown in fig.(2) VL = ILx RL= 0.75mA x 5kΩ= 3.75V
resistance (or) load resistance across the load terminals(A & B).
 Steps to Apply Nortons Principle:
Nortons Theorem Step 1: The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are
In 1926, about 43 years after Thevenin published his theorem, E. L. Norton, an American marked as say A & B after removing the concerned branch/element.
engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories, proposed a similar theorem. Step 2: Short circuit the terminals A and B and determine the current flowing through the short
Statement: circuited branch 𝐼𝑁 .
Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent Step 3: Norton resistance 𝑅𝑁 is found out by the method depending upon whether the network
circuit consisting of a current source 𝐼𝑁 in parallel with a resistor 𝑅𝑁 , where 𝐼𝑁 is the short- contains dependent sources or not.
circuit current through the terminals and 𝑅𝑁 is the equivalent resistance at the terminals 𝑅𝑁 = Equivalent resistance looking into the concerned terminals with all voltage &
when the independent sources are turned off. current sources replaced by their internal impedances

Step 4: Replace the network with 𝐼𝑁 in parallel with 𝑅𝑁 and the concerned branch
(a) original circuit (b) the Norton equivalent circuit.
resistance (or) load resistance across the load terminals(A&B).
Prob 6: Find the current through the resistance 𝑅𝐿 (1.5 Ω) of the circuit shown in Prob 7: Find the Norton equivalent of the circuit in Fig. at terminals a-b.
the Fig. using Norton’s equivalent circuit.

To find 𝐼𝑁 , we short-circuit terminals a and b, To find 𝐼𝑁 , we short-circuit terminals Applying mesh analysis, we obtain We find 𝑅𝑁 in the same way
We find 𝑅𝑁 in the same way we find 𝑅𝑇ℎ . Set the we find 𝑅𝑇ℎ in the Thevenin
as shown in Fig. a and b, as shown in Fig. We ignore 𝒊𝟏 = 𝟐 𝑨, 𝟐𝟎𝒊𝟐 − 𝟒𝒊𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐
independent sources equal to zero. the resistor 5 Ω because it has been From above two Eqns. 𝒊𝟐 = 𝟏 𝐀 = 𝑰𝑵 equivalent circuit. Set the
The 6Ω and 3Ω are then in parallel and this We can see that 3Ω resistor is in series with a parallel short-circuited. independent sources equal
parallel combination is connected in series combination of 6Ω resistor and 2Ω resistor. i.e.: to zero.
with 2Ω. Total Resistance of the circuit is 𝑅𝑁 = 𝟑Ω + (𝟐Ω||𝟔Ω)= 𝟒. 𝟓 Ω 𝑹𝑵 = 5 || (8+4+8) = 5 || 20
𝟐𝟎 𝑿 𝟓
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = (3 || 6 ) + 2 = 2 + 2 = 𝟒 Ω Load Current through Load Resistor is, 𝐼𝐿 By
Norton equivalent of the circuit =
𝟐𝟎 + 𝟓
=𝟒Ω
𝑽 𝟏𝟐 applying current division rule,
Total current, 𝐼𝑇 = = =3A
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝟒 𝟒.𝟓
𝐼𝐿 = 2 ( ) = 1.5 A
By applying current division rule, 𝟒.𝟓+𝟏.𝟓
𝟔
𝐼𝑁 = 3 ( )=2A
𝟔+𝟑
Prob 9: Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the current flowing through 1.5 Ω
resistance between A and B for the network shown in Figure Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
The resistance 1.5 Ω is removed & the terminals are marked as A & B In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to a load. There are
applications such as communications where it is desirable to maximize the power delivered to a
load.
Statement:
Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin
resistance as seen from the load (𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ )
 Prob 10: Find the maximum power for the given circuit.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝑝 = 𝑖 2 𝑅𝐿 = (𝑅 ) 2 𝑅𝐿
𝑇ℎ +𝑅𝐿

Differentiate p with respect to 𝑅𝐿 and set the result equal to zero. We obtain
𝑑𝑝 2 (𝑅𝑇ℎ +𝑅𝐿 )2 −2𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑇ℎ +𝑅𝐿 ) 2 𝑅𝑇ℎ +𝑅𝐿 −2𝑅𝐿
= 𝑉𝑇ℎ [ ] = 𝑉𝑇ℎ =0 To find 𝑅𝑇ℎ , we open-circuit terminals a and b, and We find 𝑉𝑇ℎ , we consider the circuit shown in
𝑑𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑇ℎ +𝑅𝐿 )4 𝑅𝑇ℎ +𝑅𝐿 3
deactivate the sources as shown in Fig. Fig. (b).
This implies that
The 6Ω and 12Ω are then in parallel and this parallel By applying mesh analysis
0 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 − 2𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ − 𝑅𝐿 18𝑖1 − 12𝑖2 = 12, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖2 = −2
combination is connected in series with 3Ω and 2Ω.
which yields, 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ Total Resistance of the circuit is For the outer loop by applying KVL, we obtain
The maximum power transferred is obtained as, 𝑹𝑻𝒉 = (6 || 12 ) + 3 + 2 = 𝟗 Ω 6𝑖1 + 3𝑖2 + 2 0 + 𝑉𝑇ℎ = 12 or 𝑉𝑇ℎ =22 V
2
𝑉𝑇ℎ For maximum power transfer,
𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑅𝑇ℎ 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 9 Ω
For maximum power transfer the 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ of the network to which it is connected . Under And the maximum power is
the condition of maximum power transfer the efficiency of the system is 50 %. 2
𝑉𝑇ℎ 222
𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 13.44 𝑊
4𝑅𝑇ℎ 4𝑋9
Reciprocity Theorem Steps to Reciprocity Theorem:
In any linear bilateral network, if a single voltage source 𝑽𝒂 in branch ‘a’ produces a current 𝑰𝒃 Step 1: The branches between which reciprocity is to be established to be selected first.
in branch ‘b’, then if the voltage source 𝑽𝒂 is removed and inserted in branch ‘b’ will produce a
Step 2: The current in the branch is obtained using conventional network analysis.
current 𝑰𝒃 in branch ‘a’. The ratio of excitation to response is same for the two conditioned.
This is called the reciprocity theorem. Step 3: The voltage source is interchanged between the branches concerned.

Step 4: The current in the branch where the voltage source was existing earlier is calculated.
Statement:
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network the ratio of excitation to response is constant It may observe that the currents obtained in step 2 & 4 are identical to each other.
even though the source is interchanged from input terminals to the output terminals.
 Millman’s Theorem
Prob 12: Verify the reciprocity theorem for the network shown in the Fig.

This theorem helps in simplifying electrical networks with a bunch of parallel branches.
The utility of this theorem that, any number of parallel voltage sources can be reduced to
one equivalent one.
𝑹𝑻 = (((2 || 2 ) + 2) || 3) + 2 = 𝟑. 𝟓 Ω 𝑹𝑻 = (((2 || 3 ) + 2) || 2) + 2 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟑 Ω Statement:
The total current drawn by the circuit, The total current drawn by the
If we compare the The Millman’s Theorem states that when number of voltage sources (𝑽𝟏 , 𝑽𝟐 , 𝑽𝟑 ,… 𝑽𝒏 ) are
𝑽 𝟐𝟎 circuit,
𝑰𝑻 = = = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟏 𝑨 𝑽 𝟐𝟎
results in both the in parallel having internal resistance (𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 , 𝑹𝟑 ,… 𝑹𝒏 ) respectively, the arrangement can
𝑹𝑻 𝟑.𝟓
𝑰𝑻 = = = 𝟔. 𝟏𝟗 𝑨 cases, the ratio of
By applying current division rule,
𝑹𝑻 𝟑.𝟐𝟑 replace by a single equivalent voltage source V in series with an equivalent resistance R.
input to response is
By applying current division rule,
The current through 2Ω, same.
𝟑 The current 𝑰𝟏 in the 2Ω is, i.e.
𝟐𝟎
= 𝟏𝟒. 𝟎𝟏 As per Millman’s theorem,
𝑰𝟏 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟏 𝑿 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟓𝟓𝑨 𝟐 𝟏.𝟒𝟐𝟕
𝟑+𝟑 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟔. 𝟏𝟗 𝑿 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟖 𝑨 ±𝑉1 𝐺1 ± 𝑉2 𝐺2 ±. … . . ±𝑉𝑛 𝐺𝑛
𝟐 + 𝟑. 𝟐 Hence, the reciprocity 𝑉= 𝑎𝑛𝑑
By applying current division rule,
theorem is verified
𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑛
By applying current division rule,
The current I in the ‘cd’ branch is,
𝟐 The current I in the ‘ab’ branch is, 1 1
𝑰 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟓𝟓 𝑿 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟐𝟕𝑨 𝟑 𝑅=𝐺=𝐺
𝟐+𝟐 𝑰 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟖 𝑿 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟐𝟕𝑨 1 +𝐺2 +⋯+𝐺𝑛
𝟑+𝟐
Millman’s – Explanation Millman’s – Explanation
Assuming a DC network of numerous parallel current sources 𝐼 ±𝐼1 ± 𝐼2 ±. … . . ±𝐼𝑛
𝑉= =
with internal resistances supplying power to a load resistance 𝐺 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑛
𝑹𝑳 as shown in the Fig. We know that,
or
𝑉 1 1
Let I represent the resultant current of the parallel current 𝐼= , we can also write 𝑅 = as 𝐺 =
𝑅 𝐺 𝑅 σ𝑛𝐾=1 𝑉𝐾 𝐺𝐾
sources while G the equivalent conductance as shown in the 𝑉=
σ𝑛𝐾=1 𝐺𝐾
figure below So, the voltage equation may be written as
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐺 = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑛 ± 𝑅1 ± 𝑅2 ±. … . . ± 𝑅𝑛
1 2 𝑛
𝑉=
The resulting current source is converted to an equivalent 1 1 1
+ + ⋯+
voltage source as shown in the Fig. 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛
𝐼 ±𝐼1 ± 𝐼2 ±. … . . ±𝐼𝑛 The final equation becomes
𝑉= =
𝐺 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑛 ±𝑉1 𝐺1 ± 𝑉2 𝐺2 ±. … . . ±𝑉𝑛 𝐺𝑛
Positive (+) and negative (-) sign appeared to include the cases 𝑉=
𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑛
where the sources may not be supplying current in the same
direction.
Steps to solve Millman’s Theorem: Prob 15: Find the current flowing through 𝑹𝑳 using Millman’s theorem.

Step 1: Obtain the conductance (G1, G2,… 𝐺𝑛 ) of each voltage source (V1, V2,… 𝑉𝑛 ).

Step 2: Find the value of equivalent conductance G by removing the load from the network.

Step 3: Apply Millman’s Theorem to find the equivalent voltage source V by the equation
shown below.
Given, 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 4 Ω ±𝑉1 𝐺1 ± 𝑉2 𝐺2 ±. … . . ±𝑉𝑛 𝐺𝑛
𝑉=
±𝑉1 𝐺1 ± 𝑉2 𝐺2 ±. … . . ±𝑉𝑛 𝐺𝑛 𝐺 = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + 𝐺3 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑛
𝑉= 1 1 1
𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑛 1 1 1 −4
4
+ −2 + (10)
4 4
𝐺= + + 𝑉=
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 1 1 1
+ +
Step 4: Determine the equivalent series resistance (R) with the equivalent voltage sources 4 4 4
1 1 1 3 4
1 𝐺= + + = 𝑉= 𝑉
(V) by the equation. 𝑅 = 4 4 4 4 3
𝐺
1 4
𝑅= = Ω Current flowing through 𝑅𝐿 ,
Step 5: Find the current IL flowing in the circuit across the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 by the 𝐺 3
4
𝑉 𝑉 3 4
equation 𝐼𝐿 =𝑅+𝑅 𝐼𝐿 = =4 = = 117.64 𝑚𝐴
𝑅+𝑅𝐿 +10 34
𝐿 3
 SYLLABUS
BEEE (B.TECH, 1ST YEAR) UNIT IV
Semiconductor Diodes
 Energy bands in solids (metals, insulator and
semiconductors),
 Intrinsic semiconductor, p-type & n-type semiconductors,
 Drift and diffusion phenomenon
 PN junction diode,
 V-I characteristics,
Prepared By  Basic concepts of diode resistances (static and dynamic),

Dr. Sachidananda Sen  Junction Capacitances (drift and diffusion),

1
Asst. Professor, EEE Dept.  Junction breakdown mechanisms,
 Zener diode,
 Problems related to: diode current, voltage, and
resistance, diode circuits and temperature effects;
 TYPES OF MATERIALS: INSULATOR ENERGY LEVELS
 Based on the electrical conductivity all the materials in  The farther an electron is from the nucleus, the
nature are classified as insulators, semiconductors, higher is the energy state, and any electron that has left
and conductors. its parent atom has a higher energy state than any
electron in the atomic structure.

 Insulator: An insulator is a material that offers

a very low level (or negligible) of conductivity Let W = Energy,
Q = Charge, V = Voltage
when voltage is applied.
 Eg: Paper, Mica, glass, quartz.

 Typical resistivity level of an insulator is of the

order of 10^10 to 10^12 Ω-cm.
Discrete levels in isolated atomic structures
 The energy gap is more than 5 eV.
 ENERGY LEVELS ENERGY BANDS
 An electron in the valence band of silicon must absorb  The energy band structure of an insulator is shown.
more energy than one in the valence band of germanium  Band structure of a material defines the band of energy
to become a free carrier. levels that an electron can occupy.
 Similarly, an electron in the valence band of gallium  Valence band (VB) is the range of electron energy
arsenide must gain more energy than one in silicon or where the electron remain bonded to the atom and do not
germanium to enter the conduction band. contribute to the electric current.
 Conduction band (CB) is the range of electron energies
higher than valence band where electrons are free to
accelerate under the influence of external voltage source
resulting in the flow of charge.
 The energy band between the VB and CB is called as
forbidden band gap.
 It is the energy required by an electron to move from VB
conduction and valence bands of an to CB i.e. the energy required for a valence electron to
insulator, a semiconductor, and a
conductor
become a free electron.
 TYPES OF MATERIALS: CONDUCTOR TYPES OF MATERIALS: SEMICONDUCTOR
 A conductor is a material which supports a generous  A semiconductor is a material that has its
flow of charge when a voltage is applied across its conductivity somewhere between the insulator and
terminals. i.e. it has very high conductivity. conductor.
 Eg: Copper, Aluminum, Silver, Gold.  The resistivity level is in the range of 10^1 and

 The resistivity of a conductor is in the order of 10^-4 and 10^4 Ω-cm.

10^-6 Ω-cm.  Two of the most commonly used are Silicon (Si=14

 The Valence and conduction bands overlap and atomic no.) and Germanium (Ge=32 atomic no.). Both
there is no energy gap (0 eV) for the electrons to move have 4 valance electrons.
from valance band to conduction band.  The energy gap is in the order of 1 eV. Eg., the band

 This implies that there are free electrons in CB even at gap energy for Si, Ge and GaAs is 1.1, 0.67 and 1.43 eV,
absolute zero temperature (0K). respectively at 0K.
 Therefore, at room temperature when electric field is  At 0K and at low temperatures, the valence band

applied large current flows through the conductor. electrons do not have sufficient energy to move from VB
 It has positive temperature coefficient.
to CB.
 Thus, semiconductors act a insulators at 0K.
 As α = +ve, resistance increases with temperature.
 TYPES OF MATERIALS: SEMICONDUCTOR SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES
 As the temperature increases, a large number of  A pure form of semiconductors is called as intrinsic
valance electrons acquire sufficient energy to leave the semiconductor.
VB, cross the forbidden band gap and reach CB.  Conduction in intrinsic semiconductors is either
These are now free electrons as they can move freely due to thermal excitation or crystal defects.
under the influence of electric field.
 At room temperature there are sufficient electrons in
the CB, and hence, the semiconductor is capable of
conducting some current even at room temperature.
 It has negative temperature coefficient, i.e., α = – ve,
resistance decreases with temperature.
 SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES: INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES: INTRINSIC
 The term intrinsic is applied to any semiconductor
material that has been carefully refined to reduce the The Bohr model for
number of impurities to a very low level – essentially as the three materials
pure as can be made available through modern
technology.
 Si and Ge are the two most important semiconductors
used. Silicon has 14 orbiting electrons,
Germanium has 32 electrons,
 Other examples include Gallium arsenide (GaAs),
Gallium has 31 electrons,
Indium Antimonide (InSb) etc. and Arsenic has 33 orbiting electrons
 The fundamental components of an atom are the
electron, proton, and neutron.
 In the lattice structure, neutrons and protons form
the nucleus and electrons appear in fixed orbits around
the nucleus.
 SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES: INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES: INTRINSIC
 For germanium and silicon there are four electrons in
the outermost shell, which are referred to as valence Covalent bonding of the silicon atom
electrons.
 Gallium has three valence electrons and arsenic has five
valence electrons.
 Atoms that have four valence electrons are called
tetravalent, those with three are called trivalent,
and those with five are called pentavalent.
 The term valence is used to indicate that the potential
(ionization potential) required to remove any one of these
electrons from the atomic structure is significantly lower
than that required for any other electron in the structure.
 This bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of Covalent bonding of the GaAs crystal
electrons, is called covalent bonding.
 SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES: INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES: INTRINSIC
 The term “free” is applied to any electron that has  Ge has the highest number and GaAs the lowest.
separated from the fixed lattice structure and is  In fact, Ge has more than twice the number as GaAs.
very sensitive to any applied electric fields such as  The number of carriers in the intrinsic form is important,
established by voltage sources or any difference in
but other characteristics of the material are more
potential.
significant in determining its use in the field.
 The external causes include effects such as light
 One such factor is the relative mobility (μn) of the free
energy in the form of photons and thermal energy (heat)
carriers in the material, that is, the ability of the free
from the surrounding medium.
carriers to move throughout the material.
 At room temperature there are approximately 1.5 : 10^10
free carriers in 1 cm^3 of intrinsic silicon material, that
is, 15,000,000,000 (15 billion) electrons in a space
smaller than a small sugar cube—an enormous number.
 The free electrons in a material due only to external
causes are referred to as intrinsic carriers.
 SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES: INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES: EXTRINSIC
 Free carriers in GaAs have more than five times the  The ability to change the characteristics of a material
mobility of free carriers in Si, a factor that results in through this process (adding impurity into a pure
response times using GaAs electronic devices that can be semiconductor) is called doping, something that
up to five times those of the same devices made from Si. germanium, silicon, and gallium arsenide readily and
easily accept.
 Impurity levels of 1 part in 10 billion are common today,
 Intrinsic semiconductor has very limited applications as
with higher levels attainable for large-scale integrated
they conduct very small amounts of current at room
circuits.
temperature.
 One might ask whether these extremely high levels of
 The current conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor
purity are necessary. can be increased significantly by adding a small amounts
They certainly are if one considers impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor.
that the addition of one part of
 By adding impurities it becomes impure or extrinsic
impurity (of the proper type) per
million in a wafer of silicon
semiconductor.
material can change that material  A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the
from a relatively poor conductor doping process is called an extrinsic semiconductor.
to a good conductor of electricity.  The amount of impurity added is 1 part in 10^6 atoms.
 SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES: N – TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES: N – TYPE
 There are two extrinsic materials of high importance to  Note that the four covalent bonds
semiconductor device fabrication: n-type and p-type are still present.
materials.  There is, however, an additional
fifth electron due to the impurity
 Both n-type and p-type materials are formed by
atom, which is unassociated with
adding a predetermined number of impurity atoms to a any particular covalent bond.
silicon base (called substrate).
 This remaining electron, loosely
n-type material: bound to its parent (antimony)
atom, is relatively free to
 An n-type material is created by introducing impurity
move within the newly formed
elements that have five valence electrons n-type material.
(pentavalent), such as antimony (Sb), arsenic (As),
 Since the inserted impurity
and phosphorus (P). atom has donated a relatively
 Each is a member of a subset group of elements in the “free” electron to the structure: Antimony impurity
Periodic Table of Elements referred to as Group V  Diffused impurities with five in n-type material
because each has five valence electrons. valence electrons are called
donor atoms.
 SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES: N – TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES: N – TYPE
 The effect of this doping process on the conductivity can  The result is that at room temperature, there are a
best be described using the energy-band diagram. large number of carriers (electrons) in the conduction
 Note that a discrete energy level (called the donor level) level, and the conductivity of the material increases
appears in the forbidden band with an Eg significantly less significantly.
than that of the intrinsic material.
 At room temperature in an intrinsic Si material there
 Those free electrons due to the added impurity sit at this is about one free electron for every 10^12 atoms.
energy level and have less difficulty absorbing a sufficient
 If the doping level is 1 in 10 million (10^7 ), the ratio
measure of thermal energy to move into the conduction band
at room temperature. 10^12/10^7 = 10^5 indicates that the carrier
concentration has increased by a ratio of 100,000:1.
 It is important to realize that even though a large
number of free carriers have been established in the n-
type material, it is still electrically neutral since
ideally the number of positively charged protons in the
nuclei is still equal to the number of free and orbiting
Effect of donor impurities on
the energy band structure
negatively charged electrons in the structure.
 SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES: P – TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES: P – TYPE
p-type material:  Since the resulting vacancy will readily accept a free
 The p-type material is formed by doping a pure electron: The diffused impurities with three valence
germanium or silicon crystal with impurity atoms having electrons are called acceptor atoms.
three valence electrons.  The resulting p-type material is also electrically

 The elements most frequently used for this purpose are

neutral, for the same reasons described for the n-type
boron, gallium, and indium. material.
 Each is a member of a subset group of elements in the
Periodic Table of Elements referred to as Group III
because each has three valence electrons.
 Note that there is now an insufficient number of
electrons to complete the covalent bonds of the newly
formed lattice. Boron impurity in p-type material
 The resulting vacancy is called a hole and is
represented by a small circle or a plus sign,
indicating the absence of a negative charge.
 ELECTRON VERSUS HOLE FLOW MAJORITY AND MINORITY CARRIERS
 The effect of the hole on conduction is shown in figure.  In the intrinsic state, the number of free electrons in
 If a valence electron acquires sufficient kinetic Ge or Si is due only to those few electrons in the valence
energy to break its covalent bond and fills the void band that have acquired sufficient energy from
created by a hole, then a vacancy, or hole, will be created thermal or light sources to break the covalent bond or to
in the covalent bond that released the electron. the few impurities that could not be removed.
 There is, therefore, a transfer of holes to the left and  The vacancies left behind in the covalent bonding

electrons to the right. structure represents a very limited supply of holes.

 The direction to be used in this text is that of  In an n-type material, the number of holes has not

conventional flow, which is indicated by the direction changed significantly from this intrinsic level.
of hole flow.  The net result, therefore, is that the number of
electrons far outweighs the number of holes.
 For this reason: In an n-type material (figure a) the
electron is called the majority carrier and the hole the
minority carrier.
Holes and electrons flow
Electron versus hole flow
in opposite direction.
 MAJORITY AND MINORITY CARRIERS SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
 For the p-type material the number of holes far  The n- and p-type materials represent the basic building
outweighs the number of electrons, as shown in (figure b). blocks of semiconductor devices.
 Therefore: In a p-type material the hole is the majority  Now that both n- and p-type materials are available, we
carrier and the electron is the minority carrier. can construct our first solid-state electronic device:
 When the fifth electron of a donor atom leaves the parent  The semiconductor diode is created by simply joining an
atom, the atom remaining acquires a net positive charge: n-type and a p-type material together, nothing more.
hence, the plus sign in the donor-ion representation.  Just the joining of one material with a majority carrier of
 For similar reasons, the minus sign appears in the electrons to one with a majority carrier of holes.
acceptor ion.  At the instant the two materials are “joined” the
electrons and the holes in the region of the junction will
combine, resulting in a lack of free carriers in the region
near the junction.
 Note that the only particles displayed in this region
are the positive and the negative ions remaining once the
free carriers have been absorbed.
a) n-type material; (b) p-type material
 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE NO/ZERO APPLIED BIAS (VOLTAGE = 0 V)
 This region of uncovered positive and negative ions is  The term bias refers to the application of an external voltage
called the depletion region due to the “depletion” of free across the two terminals of the device to extract a
carriers in the region. response.
 If leads are connected to the ends of each material, a two-  The condition shown in previous figure is the no-bias situation
terminal device results, as shown in figure a and b. because there is no external voltage applied.
 Three options then become available: no bias, forward bias,  The symbol for a semiconductor diode is provided to show its
and reverse bias. correspondence with the p–n junction.
A p–n junction with no external bias:
 It is clear that the applied voltage is 0 V (no bias) and the
(a) an internal distribution of charge;
(b) a diode symbol, with the defined resulting current is 0 A, much like an isolated resistor.
polarity and the current direction  Also, it is important to note the polarity of the voltage across the
diode in fig. b and the direction given to the current.
 Those polarities will be recognized as the defined polarities for
the semiconductor diode.
 If a voltage applied across the diode has the same polarity
across the diode, it will be considered a positive voltage.
 If the reverse, it is a negative voltage. The same standards
can be applied to the defined direction of current.
 NO/ZERO APPLIED BIAS (VOLTAGE = 0 V) NO/ZERO APPLIED BIAS (VOLTAGE = 0 V)
 Under no-bias conditions, any minority carriers (holes) in the n-type  However, the number of majority carriers is so large in the n-type
material that find themselves within the depletion region will material that there will invariably be a small number of majority
pass quickly into the p-type material. carriers with sufficient kinetic energy to pass through the
 The closer the minority carrier is to the junction, the greater depletion region into the p-type material.
is the attraction for the layer of negative ions and the less is the  Again, the same type of discussion can be applied to the majority
opposition offered by the positive ions in the depletion region of the carriers (holes) of the p-type material. The resulting flow due to the
n-type material. majority carriers is shown at the bottom of figure c.
 This carrier flow is indicated at the top of figure c for the minority  A close examination reveals that the relative magnitudes of the flow
carriers of each material. vectors are such that the net flow in either direction is zero.
 The majority carriers (electrons) of the n-type must overcome the  This cancellation of vectors for each type of carrier flow is indicated
attractive forces of the layer of positive ions in the n-type material by the crossed lines.
and the shield of negative ions in the p-type material to migrate into  The length of the vector representing hole flow is drawn longer than
the area beyond the depletion region of the p-type material. that of electron flow to demonstrate that the two magnitudes need
not be the same for cancellation and that the doping levels for each
material may result in an unequal carrier flow of holes and electrons.
 In summary, therefore: In the absence of an applied bias across a
semiconductor diode, the net flow of charge in one direction is zero.
The net carrier flow  In other words, the current under no-bias conditions is zero.
is zero when VD = 0 V
 REVERSE – BIAS CONDITION (VD < 0 V) REVERSE – BIAS CONDITION (VD < 0 V)
 If an external potential of V volts is applied across the p–n junction  The number of minority carriers, however, entering the
such that the positive terminal is connected to the n-type
depletion region will not change, resulting in minority current
material and the negative terminal is connected to the p-type
material as shown in figure.
flow of the same magnitude indicated earlier in with no
applied voltage.
 The number of uncovered positive ions in the depletion region of the
n-type material will increase due to the large number of free  The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called
electrons drawn to the positive potential of the applied voltage. the reverse saturation current Is.
 For similar reasons, the number of uncovered negative ions will  Its value remains in few microamperes (μA) and typically in
increase in the p-type material. Nano amperes (nA).
The net effect, therefore,  The term saturation comes from the fact that it reaches its
is a widening of the maximum level quickly and does not change significantly
depletion region, which with increases in the reverse-bias potential.
will establish too great a  The reverse-biased conditions are depicted in figure b for the
barrier for the majority diode symbol and p–n junction.
carriers to overcome,
effectively reducing the  Note, in particular, that the direction of Is is against the arrow
majority carrier flow of the symbol.
to zero. Reverse-biased p–n junction
 FORWARD – BIAS CONDITION (VD > 0 V) FORWARD – BIAS CONDITION (VD > 0 V)
 A forward-bias or “on” condition is established by applying  The resulting minority-carrier flow of electrons from the p-type
the positive potential to the p-type material and the negative material to the n-type material (and of holes from the n-type to the p-
potential to the n-type material as shown in figure. type material) has not changed in magnitude (since the conduction
level is controlled primarily by the limited number of impurities in
 The application of a forward-bias potential VD will “pressure” the material), but the reduction in the width of the depletion region
electrons in the n-type material and holes in the p-type has resulted in a heavy majority flow across the junction.
material to recombine with the ions near the boundary and  An electron of the n-type material now “sees” a reduced barrier
reduce the width of the depletion region. at the junction due to the reduced depletion region and a strong
attraction for the positive potential applied to the p-type material.
 As the applied bias increases in magnitude, the depletion region
Forward-biased p–n junction will continue to decrease in width until a flood of electrons can pass
through the junction, resulting in an exponential rise in current
as shown in the forward-bias region of the characteristics of figure.
 Note that the vertical scale of figure is measured in mA, and the
horizontal scale in the forward-bias region has a maximum of 1 V.
 Typically, therefore, the voltage across a forward-biased diode
will be less than 1 V. Note also how quickly the current rises
beyond the knee of the curve.
VI CHARACTERISTICS OF DIODE IDEAL AND ACTUAL/PRACTICAL DIODE
 A p–n junction will permit a generous flow of charge
when forward-biased and a very small level of current when
reverse-biased.
 An analogy often used to describe the behavior of a
semiconductor diode is a mechanical switch.
 In figure a the diode is acting like a closed switch permitting
a generous flow of charge in the direction indicated.
 In figure b the level of current is so small in most cases that it
can be approximated as 0 A and represented by an open
switch.
Comparison of VI characteristics of Ge,
Si, and GaAs semiconductor diodes

Ideal semiconductor diode:

(a) Forward biased;
(b) Reverse-biased
 IDEAL AND ACTUAL/PRACTICAL DIODE IDEAL AND ACTUAL/PRACTICAL DIODE
 The semiconductor diode behaves in a manner similar to a  When a switch is closed the resistance between the contacts is
mechanical switch in that it can control whether current will assumed to be 0 V.
flow between its two terminals.  At the plot point chosen on the vertical axis the diode current is 5
 The semiconductor diode is different from a mechanical switch in mA and the voltage across the diode is 0 V.
the sense that when the switch is closed it will only permit  Substituting into Ohm’s law results in
current to flow in one direction.
• Ideally, if the semiconductor
diode is to behave like a closed
switch in the forward-bias region,  In fact: At any current level on the vertical line, the voltage across
the resistance of the diode the ideal diode is 0 V and the resistance is 0 V (a short-circuit).
should be 0 ohm.  For the horizontal section, if we again apply Ohm’s law, we find
• In the reverse-bias region its
resistance should be ∞ ohm to
represent the open-circuit
equivalent.  Because the current is 0 mA anywhere on the horizontal
• Such levels of resistance in the line, the resistance is considered to be ∞ ohms (an open-circuit) at
forward and reverse-bias regions any point on the axis.
result in the characteristics of
figure.
Ideal versus actual semiconductor characteristics
 DRIFT AND DIFFUSION PHENOMENON DRIFT AND DIFFUSION PHENOMENON
 Drift and diffusion are responsible for generating current in Diffusion Current
semiconductors and the overall current density is the sum of the  The movement of charge carriers from higher concentration to lower
drift and diffusion currents. concentration generates diffusion current.
where q is the charge, μn is the mobility of the carriers  This occurs when a semiconductor is doped non-uniformly then there is

through the semiconductor crystal, n is the electron a non-uniform distribution of carriers or a concentration gradient.
concentration and Dn is the diffusion coefficient.  Diffusion of particles (carriers) gives rise to diffusion current.

Drift Current  This process does not require an external electric field and is
primarily dependent on the repulsive forces between carriers of the
 Drift current arises from the movement of carriers in response to an
same charge that are highly concentrated in an area.
applied electric field E.
 The repulsive forces will drive the diffusion of carriers leading to a
 Holes move in the same direction as the electric field while
change in concentrations and eventually a uniform distribution.
electrons move in the opposite direction.
 The initial carrier concentrations also determine the direction of the
The net motion of charged particles generates a drift current that is
diffusion current – current moves in the direction where there is initially

in the same direction as the applied electric field.
a higher concentration of electrons or a lower concentration of holes.
 The drift velocity increases with increasing electric field and
 If a strong electric field is applied, then drift current dominates
contributes to the mobility μ of the carriers.
the overall current density.
 The drift current follows Ohm’s law and is mainly influenced by
 If no field is applied, then the current is due to the carrier concentration
the external field and charge carrier concentration.
gradient.
 TYPES OF DIODE RESISTANCE: STATIC TYPES OF DIODE RESISTANCE: DYNAMIC
DC or static resistance AC or dynamic resistance
 The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor  The dc resistance of a diode is independent of the shape of the
diode will result in an operating point on the characteristic characteristic in the region surrounding the point of interest.
curve that will not change with time.  If a sinusoidal rather than a dc input is applied, the situation will
 The resistance of the diode at the operating point can be found simply change completely.
by finding the corresponding levels of VD and ID as shown in figure.  The varying input will move the instantaneous operating point up
 The dc resistance levels at the knee and below will be greater than and down a region of the characteristics and thus defines a specific
the resistance levels obtained for the vertical rise section of the change in current and voltage.
characteristics. The resistance levels in the reverse-bias region will
naturally be quite high. The designation Q-point
is derived from the word
• In general, therefore, the quiescent, which means
higher the current through a “still or unvarying.”
diode, the lower is the dc
resistance level. Determining the dc The lower the Q-point of
• Typically, the dc resistance resistance of a diode operation on the VI
of a diode in the active at a particular characteristics (smaller
(most utilized) will range operating point current or lower voltage), the
from about 10 to 80 ohms. higher is the ac resistance.
 TYPES OF DIODE RESISTANCE: AVERAGE TYPES OF DIODE RESISTANCE: SUMMARY
Average resistance
 If the input signal is sufficiently
large to produce a broad swing
such as indicated in figure, the
resistance associated with the
device for this region is called the
average ac resistance.
 The average ac resistance is, by
definition, the resistance
determined by a straight line
drawn between the two
intersections established by the
maximum and minimum values of
input voltage.
 As with the dc and ac resistance
levels, the lower the level of
currents used to determine the
average resistance, the higher is
the resistance level.
 DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS PIECEWISE-LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
 An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements  One technique for obtaining an equivalent Sometimes the
properly chosen to best represent the actual circuit for a diode is to approximate the resistance rav can be
characteristics of the device by straight- approximated by the
terminal characteristics of a device or system in a
line segments, as shown in figure. ac resistance rd
particular operating region.
 The resulting equivalent circuit is called a
 In other words, once the equivalent circuit is defined, the
piecewise-linear equivalent circuit.
device symbol can be removed from a schematic and the
 It should be obvious from figure that the
equivalent circuit inserted in its place without severely straight-line segments do not result in
affecting the actual behavior of the system. an exact duplication of the actual
 The result is often a network that can be solved using characteristics, especially in the knee
traditional circuit analysis techniques. region. Piecewise-linear equivalent circuit
using straight-line segments to
approximate the characteristic curve
Components of the piecewise-
linear equivalent circuit
 SIMPLIFIED EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS IDEAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
 For most applications, the resistance rav is sufficiently  Now that rav has been removed from the equivalent
small to be ignored in comparison to the other elements of circuit, let us take the analysis a step further and
the network. establish that a 0.7-V level can often be ignored in
 It states that a forward-biased silicon diode in an electronic comparison to the applied voltage level.
system under dc conditions has a drop of 0.7 V across it in  In this case the equivalent circuit will be reduced to that
the conduction state at any level of diode current
of an ideal diode as shown in figure with its
(within rated values, of course).
characteristics.

Simplified equivalent circuit for the Ideal diode and its characteristics
silicon semiconductor diode
DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS: SUMMARY JUNCTION CAPACITANCE
 Every electronic or electrical device is frequency sensitive, i.e.,
the terminal characteristics of any device will change
with frequency.
 For the diode it is the stray capacitance levels that have the
greatest effect.
 At low frequencies and relatively small levels of capacitance
the reactance of a capacitor, determined by XC = 1/2pfC, is
usually so high it can be considered infinite in
magnitude, represented by an open circuit, and ignored.
 At high frequencies, however, the level of XC can drop to the
point where it will introduce a low-reactance “shorting” path.
 If this shorting path is across the diode, it can essentially keep
the diode from affecting the response of the network.
 JUNCTION CAPACITANCE JUNCTION CAPACITANCE
Transition/drift capacitance Diffusion capacitance
 In a diode the depletion region (free of carriers) behaves  Although the effect described above will also be present in the
essentially like an insulator between the layers of opposite charge. forward-bias region, it is overshadowed by a capacitance effect
 Since the depletion width (d) will increase with increased reverse-bias directly dependent on the rate at which charge is injected into the
potential, the resulting transition capacitance will decrease, as regions just outside the depletion region.
shown in figure.  The result is that increased levels of current will result in increased

 The fact that the capacitance is dependent on the applied reverse-bias levels of diffusion capacitance (CD) as demonstrated by the equation:
potential has application in a number of electronic systems. where τT is the minority carrier lifetime—the time
 This capacitance, called the drift or transition (CT), barriers, or is world take for a minority carrier such as a hole to
depletion region capacitance, is determined by recombine with an electron in the n-type material.

The transition capacitance

is the predominant
 where C(0) is the capacitance under no-bias conditions and VR capacitive effect in the RB
is the applied reverse bias potential. region whereas the
 The power n is 1 ⁄2 or 1 ⁄3 depending on the manufacturing process diffusion capacitance is the
for the diode. predominant capacitive
effect in the FB region
 JUNCTION BREAKDOWN MECHANISM AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN
 In the negative region or under reverse-bias (RB)  As the voltage across the diode increases in the reverse-bias
condition, there is a point where the application of region, the velocity of the minority carriers responsible for the
too negative a voltage with the reverse polarity will reverse saturation current will also increase.
result in a sharp change in the characteristics.  Eventually, their velocity and associated kinetic energy
(WK = 1/2mv^2 ) will be sufficient to release additional carriers
 The current increases at a very rapid rate in a
through collisions with otherwise stable atomic structures.
direction opposite to that of the positive
voltage region.  That is, an ionization process will result whereby valence
electrons absorb sufficient energy to leave the parent atom.
 The reverse-bias potential that results in this
 These additional carriers can then aid the ionization process to
dramatic change in characteristics is called the the point where a high avalanche current is established and
breakdown potential and is given the label VBV. the avalanche breakdown region determined.
Breakdown region  The avalanche region (VBV) can be brought closer to the
vertical axis by increasing the doping levels in the p- and n-
type materials. VBV for Si is 1000 V and for Ge is 400 V.
 However, as VBV decreases to very low levels, such as 25 V,
another mechanism, called Zener breakdown, will contribute
to the sharp change in the characteristic.
 ZENER BREAKDOWN ZENER BREAKDOWN
 It occurs because there is a strong electric field in the  If an application requires a PIV rating greater than that
region of the junction that can disrupt the bonding forces of a single unit, a number of diodes of the same
within the atom and “generate” carriers. characteristics can be connected in series.
 Although the Zener breakdown mechanism is a  Diodes are also connected in parallel to increase the current-
significant contributor only at lower levels of VBV, this sharp carrying capacity.
change in the characteristic at any level is called the Zener  In general, the breakdown voltage of GaAs diodes is about 10%
region, and diodes employing this unique portion of the higher those for silicon diodes but after 200% higher than
characteristic of a p–n junction are called Zener diodes. levels for Ge diodes.
 The breakdown region of the semiconductor diode described
must be avoided if the response of a system is not to be
completely altered by the sharp change in characteristics in
this reverse-voltage region.
 The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before
entering the breakdown region is called the peak inverse
voltage (referred to simply as the PIV rating) or the peak
reverse voltage (denoted the PRV rating).
 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
 Temperature can have a marked effect on the characteristics of
a semiconductor diode, as shown for a silicon diode in figure.
 In the forward-bias region the characteristics of a silicon
diode shift to the left at a rate of 2.5 mV per °C increase in
temperature.
 An increase from room temperature (20°C) to 100°C (the
boiling point of water) results Semiconductor diode in a drop
of 80*(2.5 mV) = 200 mV, or 0.2 V, which is significant on a
graph scaled in tenths of volts.
 A decrease in temperature has the reverse effect, as shown:
 In the reverse-bias region the reverse current of a silicon diode
doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature.
 The reverse breakdown voltage of a semiconductor diode will
Variation in Si diode characteristics
increase or decrease with temperature. with temperature change
 However, if the initial breakdown voltage is < 5 V, the
breakdown voltage may actually decrease with temperature.
 ZENER DIODES ZENER DIODES
 The Zener region as discussed earlier, the characteristic drops in an  This region of unique characteristics is employed in the design of
almost vertical manner at a reverse-bias potential denoted VZ. Zener diodes, which have the graphic symbol appearing in figure a.
 The fact that the curve drops down and away from the  The semiconductor diode and the Zener diode are presented side by
horizontal axis rather than up and away for the positive-VD region side to ensure that the direction of conduction of each is clearly
reveals that the current in the Zener region has a direction opposite understood together with the required polarity of the applied voltage.
to that of a forward-biased diode.
 For the semiconductor diode the “on” state will support a
 The slight slope to the curve in the Zener region reveals that current in the direction of the arrow in the symbol.
there is a level of resistance to be associated with the Zener diode in
 For the Zener diode the direction of conduction is opposite to that of
the conduction mode.
the arrow in the symbol, as pointed out in the introduction to this
• The location of the Zener region can be section.
controlled by varying the doping levels.
• An increase in doping that produces an  Note also that the polarity of VD and VZ are the same as would be
increase in the number of added impurities, obtained if each were a resistive element as shown in figure c.
will decrease the Zener potential.
• Zener diodes are available having Zener Conduction direction:
potentials of 1.8 V to 200 V with power (a) Zener diode;
ratings from 1 ⁄4 W to 50 W. (b) Semiconductor diode;
• Because of its excellent temperature and Zener region (c) Resistive element
current capabilities, silicon is the preferred
material in the manufacture of Zener diodes.
 ZENER DIODES PROBLEMS
 The general characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be defined
by the following equation, referred to as Shockley’s equation, for
the forward- and reverse-bias regions:

Zener diode characteristics

with the equivalent model
for each region
 PROBLEMS PROBLEMS
Ques 1: At a temperature of 27°C (common temperature for components Ques 2: Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode of figure at
in an enclosed operating system), determine the thermal voltage VT. a. ID = 2 mA (low level)
Answer: b. ID = 20 mA (high level)
c. VD = 210 V (reverse-biased.
Answer:

Diode current:
For positive values of VD the first term of the above equation will grow
very quickly and totally overpower the effect of the second term.
The result is the following equation, which only has positive values and
takes on the exponential format e^x.

For negative values of VD the exponential term drops very

quickly below the level of I, Semiconductor diode and the resulting
equation for ID is simply

At V = 0 V, becomes
 PROBLEMS PROBLEMS
Ques 3: For the characteristics Answer:
of figure.
a. Determine the ac resistance
at ID = 2 mA.
b. Determine the ac resistance
at ID = 25 mA.
c. Compare the results of parts
(a) and (b) to the dc
resistances at each current
level.
 UNIT – IV
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

Syllabus:
Energy bands in solids (metals, insulator and semiconductors), intrinsic semiconductor, p-type & n-type
semiconductors, drift and diffusion phenomenon
PROBLEMS PN junction diode, V-I characteristics, Basic concepts of diode resistances (static and dynamic), Junction
Capacitances (drift and diffusion), Junction breakdown mechanisms, Problems related to: diode current,
Answer: voltage, and resistance, diode circuits and temperature effects; Zener diode,
 p n

p n Ideally, a diode will conduct current in the direction defined by the arrow in the
symbol and act like an open circuit to any attempt to establish current in the oppo-
site direction. In essence:
The characteristics of an ideal diode are those of a switch that can conduct
CHAPTER current in only one direction.
In the description of the elements to follow, it is critical that the various letter

1
symbols, voltage polarities, and current directions be defined. If the polarity of the
Semiconductor applied voltage is consistent with that shown in Fig. 1.1a, the portion of the charac-
teristics to be considered in Fig. 1.1b is to the right of the vertical axis. If a reverse
voltage is applied, the characteristics to the left are pertinent. If the current through
Diodes the diode has the direction indicated in Fig. 1.1a, the portion of the characteristics to
be considered is above the horizontal axis, while a reversal in direction would require
the use of the characteristics below the axis. For the majority of the device charac-
teristics that appear in this book, the ordinate (or “y” axis) will be the current axis,
while the abscissa (or “x” axis) will be the voltage axis.
1.1 INTRODUCTION One of the important parameters for the diode is the resistance at the point or re-
gion of operation. If we consider the conduction region defined by the direction of ID
It is now some 50 years since the first transistor was introduced on December 23, and polarity of VD in Fig. 1.1a (upper-right quadrant of Fig. 1.1b), we will find that
1947. For those of us who experienced the change from glass envelope tubes to the the value of the forward resistance, RF, as defined by Ohm’s law is
solid-state era, it still seems like a few short years ago. The first edition of this text VF 0V
contained heavy coverage of tubes, with succeeding editions involving the important RF      0 ⍀ (short circuit)
IF 2, 3, mA, . . . , or any positive value
decision of how much coverage should be dedicated to tubes and how much to semi-
conductor devices. It no longer seems valid to mention tubes at all or to compare the where VF is the forward voltage across the diode and IF is the forward current through
advantages of one over the other—we are firmly in the solid-state era. the diode.
The miniaturization that has resulted leaves us to wonder about its limits. Com- The ideal diode, therefore, is a short circuit for the region of conduction.
plete systems now appear on wafers thousands of times smaller than the single ele- Consider the region of negatively applied potential (third quadrant) of Fig. 1.1b,
ment of earlier networks. New designs and systems surface weekly. The engineer be-
comes more and more limited in his or her knowledge of the broad range of advances— VR 5, 20, or any reverse-bias potential
RR       ⴥ ⍀ (open-circuit)
it is difficult enough simply to stay abreast of the changes in one area of research or IR 0 mA
development. We have also reached a point at which the primary purpose of the con-
where VR is reverse voltage across the diode and IR is reverse current in the diode.
tainer is simply to provide some means of handling the device or system and to pro-
vide a mechanism for attachment to the remainder of the network. Miniaturization The ideal diode, therefore, is an open circuit in the region of nonconduction.
appears to be limited by three factors (each of which will be addressed in this text): In review, the conditions depicted in Fig. 1.2 are applicable.
the quality of the semiconductor material itself, the network design technique, and
VD Short circuit
the limits of the manufacturing and processing equipment. + – ID

I D (limited by circuit)

(a)
1.2 IDEAL DIODE 0 VD

The first electronic device to be introduced is called the diode. It is the simplest of VD Open circuit
semiconductor devices but plays a very vital role in electronic systems, having char-
– +
acteristics that closely match those of a simple switch. It will appear in a range of ap-
ID = 0
plications, extending from the simple to the very complex. In addition to the details
of its construction and characteristics, the very important data and graphs to be found (b)
on specification sheets will also be covered to ensure an understanding of the termi-
Figure 1.2 (a) Conduction and (b) nonconduction states of the ideal diode as
nology employed and to demonstrate the wealth of information typically available determined by the applied bias.
from manufacturers.
The term ideal will be used frequently in this text as new devices are introduced. In general, it is relatively simple to determine whether a diode is in the region of
It refers to any device or system that has ideal characteristics—perfect in every way. conduction or nonconduction simply by noting the direction of the current ID estab-
It provides a basis for comparison, and it reveals where improvements can still be lished by an applied voltage. For conventional flow (opposite to that of electron flow),
made. The ideal diode is a two-terminal device having the symbol and characteris- Figure 1.1 Ideal diode: (a) if the resultant diode current has the same direction as the arrowhead of the diode
tics shown in Figs. 1.1a and b, respectively. symbol; (b) characteristics. symbol, the diode is operating in the conducting region as depicted in Fig. 1.3a. If

1 2 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

 p n p n

the resulting current has the opposite direction, as shown in Fig. 1.3b, the open- TABLE 1.1 Typical Resistivity Values
circuit equivalent is appropriate.
Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

 ⬵ 106 -cm  ⬵ 50 -cm (germanium)  ⬵ 1012 -cm

ID ID Figure 1.3 (a) Conduction (copper)  ⬵ 50  103 -cm (silicon) (mica)
and (b) nonconduction states of
(a)
the ideal diode as determined by
the direction of conventional
current established by the mica from your past studies, the characteristics of the semiconductor materials of ger-
ID = 0 network.
manium (Ge) and silicon (Si) may be relatively new. As you will find in the chapters
ID
(b) to follow, they are certainly not the only two semiconductor materials. They are, how-
ever, the two materials that have received the broadest range of interest in the devel-
As indicated earlier, the primary purpose of this section is to introduce the char- opment of semiconductor devices. In recent years the shift has been steadily toward
acteristics of an ideal device for comparison with the characteristics of the commer- silicon and away from germanium, but germanium is still in modest production.
cial variety. As we progress through the next few sections, keep the following ques- Note in Table 1.1 the extreme range between the conductor and insulating mate-
tions in mind: rials for the 1-cm length (1-cm2 area) of the material. Eighteen places separate the
How close will the forward or “on” resistance of a practical diode compare placement of the decimal point for one number from the other. Ge and Si have re-
with the desired 0- level? ceived the attention they have for a number of reasons. One very important consid-
eration is the fact that they can be manufactured to a very high purity level. In fact,
Is the reverse-bias resistance sufficiently large to permit an open-circuit ap-
recent advances have reduced impurity levels in the pure material to 1 part in 10 bil-
proximation?
lion (1⬊10,000,000,000). One might ask if these low impurity levels are really nec-
essary. They certainly are if you consider that the addition of one part impurity (of
1.3 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS the proper type) per million in a wafer of silicon material can change that material
from a relatively poor conductor to a good conductor of electricity. We are obviously
The label semiconductor itself provides a hint as to its characteristics. The prefix semi- dealing with a whole new spectrum of comparison levels when we deal with the semi-
is normally applied to a range of levels midway between two limits. conductor medium. The ability to change the characteristics of the material signifi-
The term conductor is applied to any material that will support a generous cantly through this process, known as “doping,” is yet another reason why Ge and Si
flow of charge when a voltage source of limited magnitude is applied across have received such wide attention. Further reasons include the fact that their charac-
its terminals. teristics can be altered significantly through the application of heat or light—an im-
An insulator is a material that offers a very low level of conductivity under portant consideration in the development of heat- and light-sensitive devices.
pressure from an applied voltage source. Some of the unique qualities of Ge and Si noted above are due to their atomic
structure. The atoms of both materials form a very definite pattern that is periodic in
A semiconductor, therefore, is a material that has a conductivity level some-
nature (i.e., continually repeats itself). One complete pattern is called a crystal and
where between the extremes of an insulator and a conductor.
the periodic arrangement of the atoms a lattice. For Ge and Si the crystal has the
Inversely related to the conductivity of a material is its resistance to the flow of three-dimensional diamond structure of Fig. 1.5. Any material composed solely of re-
charge, or current. That is, the higher the conductivity level, the lower the resistance peating crystal structures of the same kind is called a single-crystal structure. For
level. In tables, the term resistivity (, Greek letter rho) is often used when compar- semiconductor materials of practical application in the electronics field, this single-
ing the resistance levels of materials. In metric units, the resistivity of a material is crystal feature exists, and, in addition, the periodicity of the structure does not change
measured in -cm or -m. The units of -cm are derived from the substitution of significantly with the addition of impurities in the doping process.
the units for each quantity of Fig. 1.4 into the following equation (derived from the Let us now examine the structure of the atom itself and note how it might affect
basic resistance equation R  l/A): the electrical characteristics of the material. As you are aware, the atom is composed
of three basic particles: the electron, the proton, and the neutron. In the atomic lat-
RA ()(cm2)
     ⇒ -cm (1.1) tice, the neutrons and protons form the nucleus, while the electrons revolve around
l cm the nucleus in a fixed orbit. The Bohr models of the two most commonly used semi-
2
In fact, if the area of Fig. 1.4 is 1 cm and the length 1 cm, the magnitude of the Figure 1.5 Ge and Si conductors, germanium and silicon, are shown in Fig. 1.6.
resistance of the cube of Fig. 1.4 is equal to the magnitude of the resistivity of the single-crystal structure. As indicated by Fig. 1.6a, the germanium atom has 32 orbiting electrons, while
material as demonstrated below: Figure 1.4 Defining the metric silicon has 14 orbiting electrons. In each case, there are 4 electrons in the outermost
units of resistivity.
(valence) shell. The potential (ionization potential) required to remove any one of
l (1 cm)
R        ohms these 4 valence electrons is lower than that required for any other electron in the struc-
A (1 cm2) ture. In a pure germanium or silicon crystal these 4 valence electrons are bonded to
This fact will be helpful to remember as we compare resistivity levels in the discus- 4 adjoining atoms, as shown in Fig. 1.7 for silicon. Both Ge and Si are referred to as
sions to follow. tetravalent atoms because they each have four valence electrons.
In Table 1.1, typical resistivity values are provided for three broad categories of A bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of electrons, is called cova-
materials. Although you may be familiar with the electrical properties of copper and lent bonding.

1.3 Semiconductor Materials 3 4 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

 p n p n

not increase significantly with temperature, but their vibration pattern about a rela-
tively fixed location will make it increasingly difficult for electrons to pass through.
An increase in temperature therefore results in an increased resistance level and a pos-
itive temperature coefficient.

1.4 ENERGY LEVELS

In the isolated atomic structure there are discrete (individual) energy levels associated
with each orbiting electron, as shown in Fig. 1.8a. Each material will, in fact, have
its own set of permissible energy levels for the electrons in its atomic structure.
The more distant the electron from the nucleus, the higher the energy state,
and any electron that has left its parent atom has a higher energy state than
any electron in the atomic structure.

Energy

Figure 1.6 Atomic structure: (a) germanium; Figure 1.7 Covalent bonding of the silicon Valance Level (outermost shell)
(b) silicon. atom. Energy gap
Second Level (next inner shell)
Energy gap
Third Level (etc.)
etc.
Although the covalent bond will result in a stronger bond between the valence
electrons and their parent atom, it is still possible for the valence electrons to absorb Nucleus
sufficient kinetic energy from natural causes to break the covalent bond and assume
the “free” state. The term free reveals that their motion is quite sensitive to applied
electric fields such as established by voltage sources or any difference in potential.
(a)
These natural causes include effects such as light energy in the form of photons and
thermal energy from the surrounding medium. At room temperature there are approx-
Energy Energy Energy
imately 1.5  1010 free carriers in a cubic centimeter of intrinsic silicon material. Electrons
Conduction band "free" to
Intrinsic materials are those semiconductors that have been carefully refined establish
conduction Conduction band
to reduce the impurities to a very low level—essentially as pure as can be Conduction band
made available through modern technology. The bands
overlap
E g > 5 eV
E Eg
The free electrons in the material due only to natural causes are referred to as Valence band
intrinsic carriers. At the same temperature, intrinsic germanium material will have Valence
electrons
approximately 2.5  1013 free carriers per cubic centimeter. The ratio of the num- bound to
Valence band
ber of carriers in germanium to that of silicon is greater than 103 and would indi- Valence band the atomic
cate that germanium is a better conductor at room temperature. This may be true, stucture
but both are still considered poor conductors in the intrinsic state. Note in Table 1.1 E g = 1.1 eV (Si)
that the resistivity also differs by a ratio of about 1000⬊1, with silicon having the E g = 0.67 eV (Ge)
larger value. This should be the case, of course, since resistivity and conductivity are Figure 1.8 Energy levels: (a) E g = 1.41 eV (GaAs)
inversely related. discrete levels in isolated atomic
structures; (b) conduction and Insulator Semiconductor Conductor
An increase in temperature of a semiconductor can result in a substantial in- valence bands of an insulator,
crease in the number of free electrons in the material. semiconductor, and conductor. (b)

As the temperature rises from absolute zero (0 K), an increasing number of va-
lence electrons absorb sufficient thermal energy to break the covalent bond and con- Between the discrete energy levels are gaps in which no electrons in the isolated
tribute to the number of free carriers as described above. This increased number of atomic structure can appear. As the atoms of a material are brought closer together to
carriers will increase the conductivity index and result in a lower resistance level. form the crystal lattice structure, there is an interaction between atoms that will re-
Semiconductor materials such as Ge and Si that show a reduction in resis- sult in the electrons in a particular orbit of one atom having slightly different energy
tance with increase in temperature are said to have a negative temperature levels from electrons in the same orbit of an adjoining atom. The net result is an ex-
coefficient. pansion of the discrete levels of possible energy states for the valence electrons to
that of bands as shown in Fig. 1.8b. Note that there are boundary levels and maxi-
You will probably recall that the resistance of most conductors will increase with mum energy states in which any electron in the atomic lattice can find itself, and there
temperature. This is due to the fact that the numbers of carriers in a conductor will remains a forbidden region between the valence band and the ionization level. Recall

1.3 Semiconductor Materials 5 6 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

 p n p n

that ionization is the mechanism whereby an electron can absorb sufficient energy to
break away from the atomic structure and enter the conduction band. You will note – – –
that the energy associated with each electron is measured in electron volts (eV). The – Si – – Si – – Si –
unit of measure is appropriate, since – – –
Fifth valence
W  QV eV (1.2) electron
of antimony
– – – –
as derived from the defining equation for voltage V  W/Q. The charge Q is the charge – Si – – Sb – – Si –
associated with a single electron. – – –
Substituting the charge of an electron and a potential difference of 1 volt into Eq.
(1.2) will result in an energy level referred to as one electron volt. Since energy is Antimony (Sb)
impurity
also measured in joules and the charge of one electron  1.6  1019 coulomb, – – –
W  QV  (1.6  1019 C)(1 V) – Si – – Si – – Si –
– – – Figure 1.9 Antimony impurity
and 1 eV  1.6  10 19
J (1.3) in n-type material.

At 0 K or absolute zero (273.15°C), all the valence electrons of semiconductor

materials find themselves locked in their outermost shell of the atom with energy Fig. 1.9 (using antimony as the impurity in a silicon base). Note that the four cova-
levels associated with the valence band of Fig. 1.8b. However, at room temperature lent bonds are still present. There is, however, an additional fifth electron due to the
(300 K, 25°C) a large number of valence electrons have acquired sufficient energy to impurity atom, which is unassociated with any particular covalent bond. This re-
leave the valence band, cross the energy gap defined by Eg in Fig. 1.8b and enter the maining electron, loosely bound to its parent (antimony) atom, is relatively free to
conduction band. For silicon Eg is 1.1 eV, for germanium 0.67 eV, and for gallium move within the newly formed n-type material. Since the inserted impurity atom has
arsenide 1.41 eV. The obviously lower Eg for germanium accounts for the increased donated a relatively “free” electron to the structure:
number of carriers in that material as compared to silicon at room temperature. Note Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are called donor atoms.
for the insulator that the energy gap is typically 5 eV or more, which severely limits
the number of electrons that can enter the conduction band at room temperature. The It is important to realize that even though a large number of “free” carriers have
conductor has electrons in the conduction band even at 0 K. Quite obviously, there- been established in the n-type material, it is still electrically neutral since ideally the
fore, at room temperature there are more than enough free carriers to sustain a heavy number of positively charged protons in the nuclei is still equal to the number of
flow of charge, or current. “free” and orbiting negatively charged electrons in the structure.
We will find in Section 1.5 that if certain impurities are added to the intrinsic The effect of this doping process on the relative conductivity can best be described
semiconductor materials, energy states in the forbidden bands will occur which will through the use of the energy-band diagram of Fig. 1.10. Note that a discrete energy
cause a net reduction in Eg for both semiconductor materials—consequently, increased level (called the donor level) appears in the forbidden band with an Eg significantly
carrier density in the conduction band at room temperature! less than that of the intrinsic material. Those “free” electrons due to the added im-
purity sit at this energy level and have less difficulty absorbing a sufficient measure
of thermal energy to move into the conduction band at room temperature. The result
1.5 EXTRINSIC MATERIALS— is that at room temperature, there are a large number of carriers (electrons) in the
conduction level and the conductivity of the material increases significantly. At room
n- AND p-TYPE temperature in an intrinsic Si material there is about one free electron for every 1012
atoms (1 to 109 for Ge). If our dosage level were 1 in 10 million (107), the ratio
The characteristics of semiconductor materials can be altered significantly by the ad- (1012/107  105) would indicate that the carrier concentration has increased by a ra-
dition of certain impurity atoms into the relatively pure semiconductor material. These tio of 100,000⬊1.
impurities, although only added to perhaps 1 part in 10 million, can alter the band
structure sufficiently to totally change the electrical properties of the material.
Energy
A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping process is
called an extrinsic material.
Conduction band
There are two extrinsic materials of immeasurable importance to semiconductor
E g = 0.05 eV (Si), 0.01 eV (Ge)
device fabrication: n-type and p-type. Each will be described in some detail in the
following paragraphs. E g as before
E Donor energy level

Valence band
n-Type Material
Both the n- and p-type materials are formed by adding a predetermined number of
impurity atoms into a germanium or silicon base. The n-type is created by introduc-
ing those impurity elements that have five valence electrons (pentavalent), such as an- Figure 1.10 Effect of donor impurities on the energy band
timony, arsenic, and phosphorus. The effect of such impurity elements is indicated in structure.

1.5 Extrinsic Materials—n- and p-Type 7 8 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

 p n p n

p-Type Material Majority and Minority Carriers

The p-type material is formed by doping a pure germanium or silicon crystal with In the intrinsic state, the number of free electrons in Ge or Si is due only to those few
impurity atoms having three valence electrons. The elements most frequently used for electrons in the valence band that have acquired sufficient energy from thermal or
this purpose are boron, gallium, and indium. The effect of one of these elements, light sources to break the covalent bond or to the few impurities that could not be re-
boron, on a base of silicon is indicated in Fig. 1.11. moved. The vacancies left behind in the covalent bonding structure represent our very
limited supply of holes. In an n-type material, the number of holes has not changed
significantly from this intrinsic level. The net result, therefore, is that the number of
electrons far outweighs the number of holes. For this reason:
In an n-type material (Fig. 1.13a) the electron is called the majority carrier
and the hole the minority carrier.
For the p-type material the number of holes far outweighs the number of elec-
trons, as shown in Fig. 1.13b. Therefore:
In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the
minority carrier.
When the fifth electron of a donor atom leaves the parent atom, the atom remaining
acquires a net positive charge: hence the positive sign in the donor-ion representation.
For similar reasons, the negative sign appears in the acceptor ion.
The n- and p-type materials represent the basic building blocks of semiconductor
Figure 1.11 Boron impurity in devices. We will find in the next section that the “joining” of a single n-type mater-
p-type material. ial with a p-type material will result in a semiconductor element of considerable im-
portance in electronic systems.
Note that there is now an insufficient number of electrons to complete the cova-
lent bonds of the newly formed lattice. The resulting vacancy is called a hole and is Donor ions Acceptor ions
represented by a small circle or positive sign due to the absence of a negative charge.
+ – + – Majority +
Since the resulting vacancy will readily accept a “free” electron: + ––
+ carriers + – –
– + +–
The diffused impurities with three valence electrons are called acceptor atoms. – + + –+ – + + – –+ +
– –
The resulting p-type material is electrically neutral, for the same reasons described + +
– +
– + – + + –
for the n-type material. + – + Minority Majority + – +
– + – – + carrier carriers – + – + –
Electron versus Hole Flow Minority
n-type p-type carrier
The effect of the hole on conduction is shown in Fig. 1.12. If a valence electron ac-
quires sufficient kinetic energy to break its covalent bond and fills the void created (a) (b)
by a hole, then a vacancy, or hole, will be created in the covalent bond that released Figure 1.13 (a) n-type material; (b) p-type material.
the electron. There is, therefore, a transfer of holes to the left and electrons to the
right, as shown in Fig. 1.12. The direction to be used in this text is that of conven-
tional flow, which is indicated by the direction of hole flow.
1.6 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
In Section 1.5 both the n- and p-type materials were introduced. The semiconductor
diode is formed by simply bringing these materials together (constructed from the
same base—Ge or Si), as shown in Fig. 1.14, using techniques to be described in
Chapter 20. At the instant the two materials are “joined” the electrons and holes in
the region of the junction will combine, resulting in a lack of carriers in the region
near the junction.
This region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the depletion re-
gion due to the depletion of carriers in this region.
Since the diode is a two-terminal device, the application of a voltage across its
terminals leaves three possibilities: no bias (VD  0 V), forward bias (VD 0 V), and
Figure 1.12 Electron versus reverse bias (VD 0 V). Each is a condition that will result in a response that the
hole flow. user must clearly understand if the device is to be applied effectively.

1.5 Extrinsic Materials—n- and p-Type 9 10 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

 p n p n

The symbol for a diode is repeated in Fig. 1.15 with the associated n- and p-type
regions. Note that the arrow is associated with the p-type component and the bar with
the n-type region. As indicated, for VD  0 V, the current in any direction is 0 mA.

Reverse-Bias Condition (VD 0 V)

If an external potential of V volts is applied across the p-n junction such that the pos-
Figure 1.15 No-bias conditions itive terminal is connected to the n-type material and the negative terminal is con-
for a semiconductor diode. nected to the p-type material as shown in Fig. 1.16, the number of uncovered posi-
tive ions in the depletion region of the n-type material will increase due to the large
number of “free” electrons drawn to the positive potential of the applied voltage. For
similar reasons, the number of uncovered negative ions will increase in the p-type
material. The net effect, therefore, is a widening of the depletion region. This widen-
ing of the depletion region will establish too great a barrier for the majority carriers to
overcome, effectively reducing the majority carrier flow to zero as shown in Fig. 1.16.

Figure 1.14 p-n junction with

no external bias.

No Applied Bias (VD  0 V)

Under no-bias (no applied voltage) conditions, any minority carriers (holes) in the
Figure 1.16 Reverse-biased
n-type material that find themselves within the depletion region will pass directly into p-n junction.
the p-type material. The closer the minority carrier is to the junction, the greater the
attraction for the layer of negative ions and the less the opposition of the positive ions
in the depletion region of the n-type material. For the purposes of future discussions The number of minority carriers, however, that find themselves entering the de-
we shall assume that all the minority carriers of the n-type material that find them- pletion region will not change, resulting in minority-carrier flow vectors of the same
selves in the depletion region due to their random motion will pass directly into the magnitude indicated in Fig. 1.14 with no applied voltage.
p-type material. Similar discussion can be applied to the minority carriers (electrons) The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called the reverse sat-
of the p-type material. This carrier flow has been indicated in Fig. 1.14 for the mi- uration current and is represented by Is.
nority carriers of each material.
The majority carriers (electrons) of the n-type material must overcome the at- The reverse saturation current is seldom more than a few microamperes except for
tractive forces of the layer of positive ions in the n-type material and the shield of high-power devices. In fact, in recent years its level is typically in the nanoampere
negative ions in the p-type material to migrate into the area beyond the depletion re- range for silicon devices and in the low-microampere range for germanium. The term
gion of the p-type material. However, the number of majority carriers is so large in saturation comes from the fact that it reaches its maximum level quickly and does not
the n-type material that there will invariably be a small number of majority carriers change significantly with increase in the reverse-bias potential, as shown on the diode
with sufficient kinetic energy to pass through the depletion region into the p-type ma- characteristics of Fig. 1.19 for VD 0 V. The reverse-biased conditions are depicted
terial. Again, the same type of discussion can be applied to the majority carriers (holes) in Fig. 1.17 for the diode symbol and p-n junction. Note, in particular, that the direc-
Figure 1.17 Reverse-bias
of the p-type material. The resulting flow due to the majority carriers is also shown tion of Is is against the arrow of the symbol. Note also that the negative potential is
conditions for a semiconductor
in Fig. 1.14. diode. connected to the p-type material and the positive potential to the n-type material—the
A close examination of Fig. 1.14 will reveal that the relative magnitudes of the difference in underlined letters for each region revealing a reverse-bias condition.
flow vectors are such that the net flow in either direction is zero. This cancellation of
vectors has been indicated by crossed lines. The length of the vector representing hole Forward-Bias Condition (VD 0 V)
flow has been drawn longer than that for electron flow to demonstrate that the mag- A forward-bias or “on” condition is established by applying the positive potential to
nitude of each need not be the same for cancellation and that the doping levels for the p-type material and the negative potential to the n-type material as shown in Fig.
each material may result in an unequal carrier flow of holes and electrons. In sum- 1.18. For future reference, therefore:
mary, therefore:
A semiconductor diode is forward-biased when the association p-type and pos-
In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in any one itive and n-type and negative has been established.
direction for a semiconductor diode is zero.

1.6 Semiconductor Diode 11 12 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

 p n p n

sulting in an exponential rise in current as shown in the forward-bias region of the

characteristics of Fig. 1.19. Note that the vertical scale of Fig. 1.19 is measured in
milliamperes (although some semiconductor diodes will have a vertical scale mea-
sured in amperes) and the horizontal scale in the forward-bias region has a maximum
of 1 V. Typically, therefore, the voltage across a forward-biased diode will be less
than 1 V. Note also, how quickly the current rises beyond the knee of the curve.
It can be demonstrated through the use of solid-state physics that the general char-
acteristics of a semiconductor diode can be defined by the following equation for the
forward- and reverse-bias regions:

Figure 1.18 Forward-biased p-n ID  Is(ekVD/TK  1) (1.4)

junction.
where Is  reverse saturation current
The application of a forward-bias potential VD will “pressure” electrons in the k  11,600/ with  1 for Ge and  2 for Si for relatively low levels
n-type material and holes in the p-type material to recombine with the ions near the of diode current (at or below the knee of the curve) and  1 for Ge
boundary and reduce the width of the depletion region as shown in Fig. 1.18. The re- and Si for higher levels of diode current (in the rapidly increasing sec-
sulting minority-carrier flow of electrons from the p-type material to the n-type ma- tion of the curve)
terial (and of holes from the n-type material to the p-type material) has not changed TK  TC 273°
in magnitude (since the conduction level is controlled primarily by the limited num- A plot of Eq. (1.4) is provided in Fig. 1.19. If we expand Eq. (1.4) into the fol-
ber of impurities in the material), but the reduction in the width of the depletion re- lowing form, the contributing component for each region of Fig. 1.19 can easily be
gion has resulted in a heavy majority flow across the junction. An electron of the described:
n-type material now “sees” a reduced barrier at the junction due to the reduced de- ID  IsekVD/TK  Is
pletion region and a strong attraction for the positive potential applied to the p-type
material. As the applied bias increases in magnitude the depletion region will con- For positive values of VD the first term of the equation above will grow very
tinue to decrease in width until a flood of electrons can pass through the junction, re- quickly and overpower the effect of the second term. The result is that for positive
values of VD, ID will be positive and grow as the function y  ex appearing in Fig.
ID (mA) 1.20. At VD  0 V, Eq. (1.4) becomes ID  Is(e0  1)  Is(1  1)  0 mA as ap-
pearing in Fig. 1.19. For negative values of VD the first term will quickly drop off be-
20 low Is, resulting in ID  Is, which is simply the horizontal line of Fig. 1.19. The
19 break in the characteristics at VD  0 V is simply due to the dramatic change in scale
Eq. (1.4) Actual commercially
18
available unit
from mA to A.
17 Note in Fig. 1.19 that the commercially available unit has characteristics that are
16 shifted to the right by a few tenths of a volt. This is due to the internal “body” resis-
15 tance and external “contact” resistance of a diode. Each contributes to an additional
14 voltage at the same current level as determined by Ohm’s law (V  IR). In time, as
13 production methods improve, this difference will decrease and the actual characteris-
12 Figure 1.20 Plot of e x. tics approach those of Eq. (1.4).
Defined polarity and
11 direction for graph It is important to note the change in scale for the vertical and horizontal axes. For
10 VD positive values of ID the scale is in milliamperes and the current scale below the axis
+ – is in microamperes (or possibly nanoamperes). For VD the scale for positive values is
9
8 ID in tenths of volts and for negative values the scale is in tens of volts.
7 Forward-bias region
Initially, Eq. (1.4) does appear somewhat complex and may develop an unwar-
6 (V
VD > 0 V, II D > 0 mA) ranted fear that it will be applied for all the diode applications to follow. Fortunately,
5 however, a number of approximations will be made in a later section that will negate
4
the need to apply Eq. (1.4) and provide a solution with a minimum of mathematical
3
difficulty.
2
Before leaving the subject of the forward-bias state the conditions for conduction
Is 1
(the “on” state) are repeated in Fig. 1.21 with the required biasing polarities and the
resulting direction of majority-carrier flow. Note in particular how the direction of
–40 –30 –20 –10 0 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 V D (V) conduction matches the arrow in the symbol (as revealed for the ideal diode).
– 0.1 µ
uA
– 0.2 µ
uA No-bias
Reverse-bias region (VD = 0 V, ID = 0 mA) Zener Region
(VD < 0 V, ID = –Is ) – 0.3 µ
uA Figure 1.21 Forward-bias
– 0.4 µ
uA Figure 1.19 Silicon semiconductor conditions for a semiconductor Even though the scale of Fig. 1.19 is in tens of volts in the negative region, there is
diode characteristics. diode. a point where the application of too negative a voltage will result in a sharp change

1.6 Semiconductor Diode 13 14 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

 p n p n

Figure 1.22 Zener region.

in the characteristics, as shown in Fig. 1.22. The current increases at a very rapid rate
in a direction opposite to that of the positive voltage region. The reverse-bias poten-
tial that results in this dramatic change in characteristics is called the Zener potential
and is given the symbol VZ.
As the voltage across the diode increases in the reverse-bias region, the velocity
of the minority carriers responsible for the reverse saturation current Is will also in-
crease. Eventually, their velocity and associated kinetic energy (WK  12mv2) will be
sufficient to release additional carriers through collisions with otherwise stable atomic
structures. That is, an ionization process will result whereby valence electrons absorb
sufficient energy to leave the parent atom. These additional carriers can then aid the
ionization process to the point where a high avalanche current is established and the Figure 1.23 Comparison of Si
avalanche breakdown region determined. and Ge semiconductor diodes.
The avalanche region (VZ) can be brought closer to the vertical axis by increasing forward-bias voltage required to reach the region of upward swing. It is typically of
the doping levels in the p- and n-type materials. However, as VZ decreases to very low the order of magnitude of 0.7 V for commercially available silicon diodes and 0.3 V
levels, such as 5 V, another mechanism, called Zener breakdown, will contribute to for germanium diodes when rounded off to the nearest tenths. The increased offset
the sharp change in the characteristic. It occurs because there is a strong electric field for silicon is due primarily to the factor in Eq. (1.4). This factor plays a part in de-
in the region of the junction that can disrupt the bonding forces within the atom and termining the shape of the curve only at very low current levels. Once the curve starts
“generate” carriers. Although the Zener breakdown mechanism is a significant contrib- its vertical rise, the factor drops to 1 (the continuous value for germanium). This is
utor only at lower levels of VZ, this sharp change in the characteristic at any level is evidenced by the similarities in the curves once the offset potential is reached. The
called the Zener region and diodes employing this unique portion of the characteristic potential at which this rise occurs is commonly referred to as the offset, threshold, or
of a p-n junction are called Zener diodes. They are described in detail in Section 1.14. firing potential. Frequently, the first letter of a term that describes a particular quan-
The Zener region of the semiconductor diode described must be avoided if the re- tity is used in the notation for that quantity. However, to ensure a minimum of con-
sponse of a system is not to be completely altered by the sharp change in character- fusion with other terms, such as output voltage (Vo) and forward voltage (VF), the no-
istics in this reverse-voltage region. tation VT has been adopted for this book, from the word “threshold.”
The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering the In review:
Zener region is called the peak inverse voltage (referred to simply as the PIV
rating) or the peak reverse voltage (denoted by PRV rating). VT  0.7 (Si)
VT  0.3 (Ge)
If an application requires a PIV rating greater than that of a single unit, a num-
ber of diodes of the same characteristics can be connected in series. Diodes are also Obviously, the closer the upward swing is to the vertical axis, the more “ideal” the
connected in parallel to increase the current-carrying capacity. device. However, the other characteristics of silicon as compared to germanium still
make it the choice in the majority of commercially available units.
Silicon versus Germanium
Temperature Effects
Silicon diodes have, in general, higher PIV and current rating and wider temperature
ranges than germanium diodes. PIV ratings for silicon can be in the neighborhood of Temperature can have a marked effect on the characteristics of a silicon semicon-
1000 V, whereas the maximum value for germanium is closer to 400 V. Silicon can ductor diode as witnessed by a typical silicon diode in Fig. 1.24. It has been found
be used for applications in which the temperature may rise to about 200°C (400°F), experimentally that:
whereas germanium has a much lower maximum rating (100°C). The disadvantage The reverse saturation current Is will just about double in magnitude for
of silicon, however, as compared to germanium, as indicated in Fig. 1.23, is the higher every 10°C increase in temperature.

1.6 Semiconductor Diode 15 16 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

 p n p n

DC or Static Resistance
The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diode will re-
sult in an operating point on the characteristic curve that will not change with time.
The resistance of the diode at the operating point can be found simply by finding the
corresponding levels of VD and ID as shown in Fig. 1.25 and applying the following
equation:

VD
RD    (1.5)
ID

The dc resistance levels at the knee and below will be greater than the resistance
levels obtained for the vertical rise section of the characteristics. The resistance lev-
els in the reverse-bias region will naturally be quite high. Since ohmmeters typically
employ a relatively constant-current source, the resistance determined will be at a pre-
set current level (typically, a few milliamperes).

Figure 1.24 Variation in diode

characteristics with temperature
change.

Figure 1.25 Determining the dc

It is not uncommon for a germanium diode with an Is in the order of 1 or 2 A resistance of a diode at a particu-
at 25°C to have a leakage current of 100 A  0.1 mA at a temperature of 100°C. lar operating point.
Current levels of this magnitude in the reverse-bias region would certainly question
our desired open-circuit condition in the reverse-bias region. Typical values of Is for In general, therefore, the lower the current through a diode the higher the dc
silicon are much lower than that of germanium for similar power and current levels resistance level.
as shown in Fig. 1.23. The result is that even at high temperatures the levels of Is for
silicon diodes do not reach the same high levels obtained for germanium—a very im-
portant reason that silicon devices enjoy a significantly higher level of development EXAMPLE 1.1 Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode of Fig. 1.26 at
and utilization in design. Fundamentally, the open-circuit equivalent in the reverse- (a) ID  2 mA
bias region is better realized at any temperature with silicon than with germanium. (b) ID  20 mA
The increasing levels of Is with temperature account for the lower levels of thresh- (c) VD  10 V
old voltage, as shown in Fig. 1.24. Simply increase the level of Is in Eq. (1.4) and
note the earlier rise in diode current. Of course, the level of TK also will be increas-
ing in the same equation, but the increasing level of Is will overpower the smaller per-
cent change in TK. As the temperature increases the forward characteristics are actu-
ally becoming more “ideal,” but we will find when we review the specifications sheets
that temperatures beyond the normal operating range can have a very detrimental ef-
fect on the diode’s maximum power and current levels. In the reverse-bias region the
breakdown voltage is increasing with temperature, but note the undesirable increase
in reverse saturation current.

1.7 RESISTANCE LEVELS

As the operating point of a diode moves from one region to another the resistance of Figure 1.26 Example 1.1
the diode will also change due to the nonlinear shape of the characteristic curve. It
Solution
will be demonstrated in the next few paragraphs that the type of applied voltage or
signal will define the resistance level of interest. Three different levels will be intro- (a) At ID  2 mA, VD  0.5 V (from the curve) and
duced in this section that will appear again as we examine other devices. It is there-
VD 0.5 V
fore paramount that their determination be clearly understood. RD      250 ⍀
ID 2 mA

1.7 Resistance Levels 17 18 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

 p n p n

(b) At ID  20 mA, VD  0.8 V (from the curve) and

EXAMPLE 1.2 For the characteristics of Fig. 1.29:
VD 0.8 V (a) Determine the ac resistance at ID  2 mA.
RD      40 ⍀
ID 20 mA (b) Determine the ac resistance at ID  25 mA.
(c) Compare the results of parts (a) and (b) to the dc resistances at each current level.
(c) At VD  10 V, ID  Is  1 A (from the curve) and
VD 10 V II D (mA)
RD      10 M⍀
ID 1 A
clearly supporting some of the earlier comments regarding the dc resistance levels of
a diode.
30

AC or Dynamic Resistance
25 ∆ Id
It is obvious from Eq. 1.5 and Example 1.1 that the dc resistance of a diode is inde-
pendent of the shape of the characteristic in the region surrounding the point of inter-
est. If a sinusoidal rather than dc input is applied, the situation will change completely. 20
The varying input will move the instantaneous operating point up and down a region ∆Vd
of the characteristics and thus defines a specific change in current and voltage as shown 15
in Fig. 1.27. With no applied varying signal, the point of operation would
be the Q-point appearing on Fig. 1.27 determined by the applied dc levels. The des-
ignation Q-point is derived from the word quiescent, which means “still or unvarying.” 10

5
4
2 ∆ Id

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 VD (V)
∆Vd Figure 1.29 Example 1.2

Solution
(a) For ID  2 mA; the tangent line at ID  2 mA was drawn as shown in the figure
and a swing of 2 mA above and below the specified diode current was chosen.
At ID  4 mA, VD  0.76 V, and at ID  0 mA, VD  0.65 V. The resulting
changes in current and voltage are
 Id  4 mA  0 mA  4 mA
and Vd  0.76 V  0.65 V  0.11 V
Figure 1.27 Defining the and the ac resistance:
dynamic or ac resistance.
V 0.11 V
A straight line drawn tangent to the curve through the Q-point as shown in Fig. rd  d    27.5 ⍀
1.28 will define a particular change in voltage and current that can be used to deter- Id 4 mA
mine the ac or dynamic resistance for this region of the diode characteristics. An ef- (b) For ID  25 mA, the tangent line at ID  25 mA was drawn as shown on the fig-
fort should be made to keep the change in voltage and current as small as possible ure and a swing of 5 mA above and below the specified diode current was cho-
and equidistant to either side of the Q-point. In equation form, sen. At ID  30 mA, VD  0.8 V, and at ID  20 mA, VD  0.78 V. The result-
ing changes in current and voltage are
Vd
r d   where  signifies a finite change in the quantity. (1.6) Id  30 mA  20 mA  10 mA
 Id
and Vd  0.8 V  0.78 V  0.02 V
The steeper the slope, the less the value of Vd for the same change in  Id and the
less the resistance. The ac resistance in the vertical-rise region of the characteristic is and the ac resistance is
therefore quite small, while the ac resistance is much higher at low current levels. V 0.02 V
rd  d    2 ⍀
In general, therefore, the lower the Q-point of operation (smaller current or Figure 1.28 Determining the ac Id 10 mA
lower voltage) the higher the ac resistance. resistance at a Q-point.

1.7 Resistance Levels 19 20 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

 p n p n

(c) For ID  2 mA, VD  0.7 V and The significance of Eq. (1.7) must be clearly understood. It implies that the dynamic
resistance can be found simply by substituting the quiescent value of the diode cur-
VD 0.7 V rent into the equation. There is no need to have the characteristics available or to
RD      350 ⍀
ID 2 mA worry about sketching tangent lines as defined by Eq. (1.6). It is important to keep
which far exceeds the rd of 27.5 . in mind, however, that Eq. (1.7) is accurate only for values of ID in the vertical-rise
For ID  25 mA, VD  0.79 V and section of the curve. For lesser values of ID,  2 (silicon) and the value of rd ob-
tained must be multiplied by a factor of 2. For small values of ID below the knee of
VD 0.79 V the curve, Eq. (1.7) becomes inappropriate.
RD      31.62 ⍀
ID 25 mA All the resistance levels determined thus far have been defined by the p-n junc-
which far exceeds the rd of 2 . tion and do not include the resistance of the semiconductor material itself (called body
resistance) and the resistance introduced by the connection between the semiconduc-
tor material and the external metallic conductor (called contact resistance). These ad-
We have found the dynamic resistance graphically, but there is a basic definition ditional resistance levels can be included in Eq. (1.7) by adding resistance denoted
in differential calculus which states: by rB as appearing in Eq. (1.8). The resistance r d, therefore, includes the dynamic re-
The derivative of a function at a point is equal to the slope of the tangent line sistance defined by Eq. 1.7 and the resistance rB just introduced.
drawn at that point.
26 mV
r d   rB ohms (1.8)
Equation (1.6), as defined by Fig. 1.28, is, therefore, essentially finding the deriva- ID
tive of the function at the Q-point of operation. If we find the derivative of the gen-
eral equation (1.4) for the semiconductor diode with respect to the applied forward The factor rB can range from typically 0.1  for high-power devices to 2  for
bias and then invert the result, we will have an equation for the dynamic or ac resis- some low-power, general-purpose diodes. For Example 1.2 the ac resistance at 25 mA
tance in that region. That is, taking the derivative of Eq. (1.4) with respect to the ap- was calculated to be 2 . Using Eq. (1.7), we have
plied bias will result in 26 mV 26 mV
rd      1.04 ⍀
d d ID 25 mA
(ID)  [Is(ekVD /TK  1)]
dVD dV The difference of about 1  could be treated as the contribution of rB.
dID k For Example 1.2 the ac resistance at 2 mA was calculated to be 27.5 . Using
and   (ID Is)
dVD TK Eq. (1.7) but multiplying by a factor of 2 for this region (in the knee of the curve
 2),
following a few basic maneuvers of differential calculus. In general, ID  Is in the
vertical slope section of the characteristics and 26 mV 26 mV
dID k
冢 ID 2 mA冣 冢
rd  2   2   2(13 )  26 ⍀ 冣
 ⬵ ID
dVD TK The difference of 1.5  could be treated as the contribution due to rB.
In reality, determining rd to a high degree of accuracy from a characteristic curve
Substituting  1 for Ge and Si in the vertical-rise section of the characteristics, we using Eq. (1.6) is a difficult process at best and the results have to be treated with a
obtain grain of salt. At low levels of diode current the factor rB is normally small enough
11,600 11,600 compared to rd to permit ignoring its impact on the ac diode resistance. At high lev-
k      11,600 els of current the level of rB may approach that of rd, but since there will frequently
1
be other resistive elements of a much larger magnitude in series with the diode we
and at room temperature, will assume in this book that the ac resistance is determined solely by rd and the im-
TK  TC 273°  25° 273°  298° pact of rB will be ignored unless otherwise noted. Technological improvements of re-
cent years suggest that the level of rB will continue to decrease in magnitude and
k 11,600 eventually become a factor that can certainly be ignored in comparison to rd.
so that    ⬵ 38.93
TK 298 The discussion above has centered solely on the forward-bias region. In the re-
dID verse-bias region we will assume that the change in current along the Is line is nil
and   38.93ID from 0 V to the Zener region and the resulting ac resistance using Eq. (1.6) is suffi-
dVD
ciently high to permit the open-circuit approximation.
Flipping the result to define a resistance ratio (R  V/I) gives us
dV D 0.026
 ⬵ 
dID ID Average AC Resistance
26 mV If the input signal is sufficiently large to produce a broad swing such as indicated in
or rd   (1.7) Fig. 1.30, the resistance associated with the device for this region is called the aver-
ID
Ge,Si age ac resistance. The average ac resistance is, by definition, the resistance deter-

1.7 Resistance Levels 21 22 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

 p n p n

II D (mA) The more one is exposed to specification sheets, the “friendlier” they will become,
especially when the impact of each parameter is clearly understood for the applica-
20 tion under investigation.

1.10 TRANSITION AND DIFFUSION

15 CAPACITANCE
Electronic devices are inherently sensitive to very high frequencies. Most shunt ca-
pacitive effects that can be ignored at lower frequencies because the reactance XC 
∆ Id 10 1/2 f C is very large (open-circuit equivalent). This, however, cannot be ignored at
very high frequencies. XC will become sufficiently small due to the high value of f to
introduce a low-reactance “shorting” path. In the p-n semiconductor diode, there are
two capacitive effects to be considered. Both types of capacitance are present in the
5
forward- and reverse-bias regions, but one so outweighs the other in each region that
we consider the effects of only one in each region.
In the reverse-bias region we have the transition- or depletion-region capaci-
tance (CT), while in the forward-bias region we have the diffusion (CD ) or
storage capacitance.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 VD (V)
Recall that the basic equation for the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is
∆Vd defined by C  A/d, where  is the permittivity of the dielectric (insulator) between
Figure 1.30 Determining the average ac resistance between indicated limits. the plates of area A separated by a distance d. In the reverse-bias region there is a de-
pletion region (free of carriers) that behaves essentially like an insulator between the
layers of opposite charge. Since the depletion width (d) will increase with increased
mined by a straight line drawn between the two intersections established by the max- reverse-bias potential, the resulting transition capacitance will decrease, as shown in
imum and minimum values of input voltage. In equation form (note Fig. 1.30), Fig. 1.37. The fact that the capacitance is dependent on the applied reverse-bias po-
tential has application in a number of electronic systems. In fact, in Chapter 20 a
V
rav  d
 Id 冨 pt. to pt.
(1.9)
diode will be introduced whose operation is wholly dependent on this phenomenon.
Although the effect described above will also be present in the forward-bias re-
gion, it is overshadowed by a capacitance effect directly dependent on the rate at
For the situation indicated by Fig. 1.30, which charge is injected into the regions just outside the depletion region. The result
Id  17 mA  2 mA  15 mA is that increased levels of current will result in increased levels of diffusion capaci-
tance. However, increased levels of current result in reduced levels of associated re-
and Vd  0.725 V  0.65 V  0.075 V sistance (to be demonstrated shortly), and the resulting time constant (  RC ), which
Vd 0.075 V is very important in high-speed applications, does not become excessive.
with rav      5 ⍀
Id 15 mA
If the ac resistance (rd) were determined at ID  2 mA its value would be more
than 5 , and if determined at 17 mA it would be less. In between the ac resistance C (pF)
would make the transition from the high value at 2 mA to the lower value at 17 mA. 15
Equation (1.9) has defined a value that is considered the average of the ac values from
2 to 17 mA. The fact that one resistance level can be used for such a wide range of
the characteristics will prove quite useful in the definition of equivalent circuits for a 10
diode in a later section. Reverse-bias (C
C T)
As with the dc and ac resistance levels, the lower the level of currents used to
determine the average resistance the higher the resistance level. 5

Summary Table Forward-bias (C

CD )
(V) –25 –20 –15 –10 –5 0 0.25 0.5
Table 1.2 was developed to reinforce the important conclusions of the last few pages
and to emphasize the differences among the various resistance levels. As indicated Figure 1.37 Transition and diffusion capacitance versus applied bias for a
earlier, the content of this section is the foundation for a number of resistance calcu- silicon diode.
lations to be performed in later sections and chapters.

1.7 Resistance Levels 23 1.10 Transition and Diffusion Capacitance 31

 p n p n

The capacitive effects described above are represented by a capacitor in parallel

with the ideal diode, as shown in Fig. 1.38. For low- or mid-frequency applications
(except in the power area), however, the capacitor is normally not included in the
diode symbol.
Figure 1.38 Including the effect
of the transition or diffusion
capacitance on the semiconductor
1.11 REVERSE RECOVERY TIME
diode.
There are certain pieces of data that are normally provided on diode specification
sheets provided by manufacturers. One such quantity that has not been considered yet
is the reverse recovery time, denoted by trr . In the forward-bias state it was shown
earlier that there are a large number of electrons from the n-type material progress-
ing through the p-type material and a large number of holes in the n-type—a re-
quirement for conduction. The electrons in the p-type and holes progressing through
the n-type material establish a large number of minority carriers in each material. If
the applied voltage should be reversed to establish a reverse-bias situation, we would
ideally like to see the diode change instantaneously from the conduction state to the
nonconduction state. However, because of the large number of minority carriers in Figure 1.45 Curve tracer.
each material, the diode current will simply reverse as shown in Fig. 1.39 and stay at (Courtesy of Tektronix, Inc.)
this measurable level for the period of time ts (storage time) required for the minor-
ity carriers to return to their majority-carrier state in the opposite material. In essence,
the diode will remain in the short-circuit state with a current Ireverse determined by
the network parameters. Eventually, when this storage phase has passed, the current
will reduce in level to that associated with the nonconduction state. This second pe-
riod of time is denoted by tt (transition interval). The reverse recovery time is the sum
of these two intervals: trr  ts tt. Naturally, it is an important consideration in high-
speed switching applications. Most commercially available switching diodes have a
trr in the range of a few nanoseconds to 1 s. Units are available, however, with a trr
of only a few hundred picoseconds (1012).

ID

Change of state (on off)

I forward required at tt = tt1

Desired response Figure 1.46 Curve tracer

response to 1N4007 silicon diode.
t1 t

can be obtained. Note that the vertical scaling is 1 mA/div, resulting in the levels in-
I reverse
dicated. For the horizontal axis the scaling is 100 mV/div, resulting in the voltage lev-
ts tt
Figure 1.39 Defining the els indicated. For a 2-mA level as defined for a DDM, the resulting voltage would be
t rr reverse recovery time. about 625 mV  0.625 V. Although the instrument initially appears quite complex,
the instruction manual and a few moments of exposure will reveal that the desired re-
sults can usually be obtained without an excessive amount of effort and time. The
1.12 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE same instrument will appear on more than one occasion in the chapters to follow as
NOTATION we investigate the characteristics of the variety of devices.

The notation most frequently used for semiconductor diodes is provided in Fig. 1.40.
For most diodes any marking such as a dot or band, as shown in Fig. 1.40, appears 1.14 ZENER DIODES
at the cathode end. The terminology anode and cathode is a carryover from vacuum-
tube notation. The anode refers to the higher or positive potential, and the cathode The Zener region of Fig. 1.47 was discussed in some detail in Section 1.6. The char-
refers to the lower or negative terminal. This combination of bias levels will result in acteristic drops in an almost vertical manner at a reverse-bias potential denoted VZ.
a forward-bias or “on” condition for the diode. A number of commercially available The fact that the curve drops down and away from the horizontal axis rather than up
semiconductor diodes appear in Fig. 1.41. Some details of the actual construction of and away for the positive VD region reveals that the current in the Zener region has Figure 1.47 Reviewing the
devices such as those appearing in Fig. 1.41 are provided in Chapters 12 and 20. a direction opposite to that of a forward-biased diode. Zener region.

32 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes 1.14 Zener Diodes 35

 p n

This region of unique characteristics is employed in the design of Zener diodes,

which have the graphic symbol appearing in Fig. 1.48a. Both the semiconductor diode
and zener diode are presented side by side in Fig. 1.48 to ensure that the direction of
conduction of each is clearly understood together with the required polarity of the ap-
plied voltage. For the semiconductor diode the “on” state will support a current in the
direction of the arrow in the symbol. For the Zener diode the direction of conduction
is opposite to that of the arrow in the symbol as pointed out in the introduction to this
section. Note also that the polarity of VD and VZ are the same as would be obtained
Figure 1.48 Conduction direc- if each were a resistive element.
tion: (a) Zener diode; (b) semi-
The location of the Zener region can be controlled by varying the doping levels.
conductor diode.
An increase in doping, producing an increase in the number of added impurities, will
decrease the Zener potential. Zener diodes are available having Zener potentials of
1.8 to 200 V with power ratings from 14 to 50 W. Because of its higher temperature
and current capability, silicon is usually preferred in the manufacture of Zener diodes.
The complete equivalent circuit of the Zener diode in the Zener region includes Figure 2.8 Solution to Example 2.1 using the ideal diode model.
a small dynamic resistance and dc battery equal to the Zener potential, as shown in
Fig. 1.49. For all applications to follow, however, we shall assume as a first approx-
imation that the external resistors are much larger in magnitude than the Zener-equiv-
alent resistor and that the equivalent circuit is simply the one indicated in Fig. 1.49b. The results are sufficiently different from the solutions of Example 2.1 to cause
A larger drawing of the Zener region is provided in Fig. 1.50 to permit a descrip- some concern about their accuracy. Certainly, they do provide some indication of the
Figure 1.49 Zener equivalent tion of the Zener nameplate data appearing in Table 1.4 for a 10-V, 500-mW, 20% level of voltage and current to be expected relative to the other voltage levels of the
circuit: (a) complete; (b) approxi- diode. The term nominal associated with VZ indicates that it is a typical average value. network, but the additional effort of simply including the 0.7-V offset suggests that
mate. Since this is a 20% diode, the Zener potential can be expected to vary as 10 V  20% the approach of Example 2.3 is more appropriate.
Use of the ideal diode model therefore should be reserved for those occasions
when the role of a diode is more important than voltage levels that differ by tenths
of a volt and in those situations where the applied voltages are considerably larger
than the threshold voltage VT. In the next few sections the approximate model will be
employed exclusively since the voltage levels obtained will be sensitive to variations
that approach VT. In later sections the ideal model will be employed more frequently
since the applied voltages will frequently be quite a bit larger than VT and the authors
want to ensure that the role of the diode is correctly and clearly understood.

2.3 DIODE APPROXIMATIONS

In Section 2.2 we revealed that the results obtained using the approximate piecewise-
linear equivalent model were quite close, if not equal, to the response obtained using
the full characteristics. In fact, if one considers all the variations possible due to tol-
erances, temperature, and so on, one could certainly consider one solution to be “as
accurate” as the other. Since the use of the approximate model normally results in a
reduced expenditure of time and effort to obtain the desired results, it is the approach
that will be employed in this book unless otherwise specified. Recall the following:
Figure 1.50 Zener test The primary purpose of this book is to develop a general knowledge of the be-
characteristics.
havior, capabilities, and possible areas of application of a device in a manner
that will minimize the need for extensive mathematical developments.
TABLE 1.4 Electrical Characteristics (25°C Ambient Temperature Unless Otherwise Noted) The complete piecewise-linear equivalent model introduced in Chapter 1 was not
employed in the load-line analysis because rav is typically much less than the other
Zener Max Maximum Maximum Maximum
Voltage Test Dynamic Knee Reverse Test Regulator Typical series elements of the network. If rav should be close in magnitude to the other series
Nominal, Current, Impedance, Impedance, Current, Voltage, Current, Temperature elements of the network, the complete equivalent model can be applied in much the
VZ IZT ZZT at IZT ZZK at IZK IR at VR VR IZM Coefficient same manner as described in Section 2.2.
(V) (mA) () () (mA) ( A) (V) (mA) (%/°C) In preparation for the analysis to follow, Table 2.1 was developed to review the
important characteristics, models, and conditions of application for the approximate
10 12.5 8.5 700 0.25 10 7.2 32 0.072
and ideal diode models. Although the silicon diode is used almost exclusively due to

36 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes 2.3 Diode Approximations 57

TABLE 2.1 Approximate and Ideal Semiconductor Diode Models In the next few sections we demonstrate the impact of the models of Table 2.1 on
the analysis of diode configurations. For those situations where the approximate equiv-
alent circuit will be employed, the diode symbol will appear as shown in Fig. 2.9a
for the silicon and germanium diodes. If conditions are such that the ideal diode model
can be employed, the diode symbol will appear as shown in Fig. 2.9b.

2.4 SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS Figure 2.9 (a) Approximate

model notation; (b) ideal diode
WITH DC INPUTS notation.

In this section the approximate model is utilized to investigate a number of series

diode configurations with dc inputs. The content will establish a foundation in diode
analysis that will carry over into the sections and chapters to follow. The procedure
described can, in fact, be applied to networks with any number of diodes in a variety
of configurations.
For each configuration the state of each diode must first be determined. Which
diodes are “on” and which are “off”? Once determined, the appropriate equivalent as
defined in Section 2.3 can be substituted and the remaining parameters of the net-
work determined.
In general, a diode is in the “on” state if the current established by the
applied sources is such that its direction matches that of the arrow in the
diode symbol, and VD ⱖ 0.7 V for silicon and VD ⱖ 0.3 V for germanium.
For each configuration, mentally replace the diodes with resistive elements and
note the resulting current direction as established by the applied voltages (“pressure”).
Figure 2.10 Series diode config-
If the resulting direction is a “match” with the arrow in the diode symbol, conduc- uration.
tion through the diode will occur and the device is in the “on” state. The description
above is, of course, contingent on the supply having a voltage greater than the “turn-
on” voltage (VT) of each diode.
If a diode is in the “on” state, one can either place a 0.7-V drop across the
element, or the network can be redrawn with the VT equivalent circuit as defined in
I
Table 2.1. In time the preference will probably simply be to include the 0.7-V drop across + +
each “on” diode and draw a line through each diode in the “off” or open state. Ini- E R VR
tially, however, the substitution method will be utilized to ensure that the proper volt- – –
age and current levels are determined.
The series circuit of Fig. 2.10 described in some detail in Section 2.2 will be used
to demonstrate the approach described in the paragraphs above. The state of the diode
is first determined by mentally replacing the diode with a resistive element as shown Figure 2.11 Determining the
in Fig. 2.11. The resulting direction of I is a match with the arrow in the diode sym- state of the diode of Fig. 2.10.
bol, and since E ⬎ VT the diode is in the “on” state. The network is then redrawn as
shown in Fig. 2.12 with the appropriate equivalent model for the forward-biased sil-
icon diode. Note for future reference that the polarity of VD is the same as would re-
its temperature characteristics, the germanium diode is still employed and is there- sult if in fact the diode were a resistive element. The resulting voltage and current
fore included in Table 2.1. As with the silicon diode, a germanium diode is approxi- levels are the following:
mated by an open-circuit equivalent for voltages less than VT. It will enter the “on”
state when VD ⱖ VT ⫽ 0.3 V. VD ⫽ VT (2.4)
Keep in mind that the 0.7 and 0.3 V in the equivalent circuits are not independent
sources of energy but are there simply to remind us that there is a “price to pay” to VR ⫽ E ⫺ VT (2.5)
turn on a diode. An isolated diode on a laboratory table will not indicate 0.7 or 0.3
V if a voltmeter is placed across its terminals. The supplies specify the voltage drop VR Figure 2.12 Substituting the
across each when the device is “on” and specify that the diode voltage must be at ID ⫽ IR ⫽ ᎏᎏ (2.6) equivalent model for the “on”
R
least the indicated level before conduction can be established. diode of Fig. 2.10.

58 Chapter 2 Diode Applications 2.4 Series Diode Configurations with DC Inputs 59

 In particular, note in Example 2.7 the high voltage across the diode even though
it is an “off” state. The current is zero, but the voltage is significant. For review pur-
poses, keep the following in mind for the analysis to follow:

1. An open circuit can have any voltage across its terminals, but the current is al-
ways 0 A.
2. A short circuit has a 0-V drop across its terminals, but the current is limited
only by the surrounding network.

Figure 2.13 Reversing the diode Figure 2.14 Determining the Figure 2.15 Substituting the In the next example the notation of Fig. 2.18 will be employed for the applied volt-
of Fig. 2.10. state of the diode of Fig. 2.13. equivalent model for the “off” age. It is a common industry notation and one with which the reader should become very
diode of Figure 2.13. familiar. Such notation and other defined voltage levels are treated further in Chapter 4.

E = + 10 V +10 V E = –5 V –5 V
In Fig. 2.13 the diode of Fig. 2.10 has been reversed. Mentally replacing the diode
with a resistive element as shown in Fig. 2.14 will reveal that the resulting current di-
E 10 V E 5V
rection does not match the arrow in the diode symbol. The diode is in the “off” state,
resulting in the equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.15. Due to the open circuit, the diode cur-
rent is 0 A and the voltage across the resistor R is the following: Figure 2.18 Source notation.

VR ⫽ IRR ⫽ ID R ⫽ (0 A)R ⫽ 0 V For the series diode configuration of Fig. 2.19, determine VD, VR, and ID. EXAMPLE 2.8
The fact that VR ⫽ 0 V will establish E volts across the open circuit as defined by
Kirchhoff’s voltage law. Always keep in mind that under any circumstances—dc, ac
instantaneous values, pulses, and so on—Kirchhoff’s voltage law must be satisfied!

EXAMPLE 2.6 For the series diode configuration of Fig. 2.16, determine VD, VR, and ID.
Figure 2.19 Series diode circuit
Solution for Example 2.8.

Since the applied voltage establishes a current in the clockwise direction to match the
arrow of the symbol and the diode is in the “on” state, Solution
VD ⫽ 0.7 V Although the “pressure” establishes a current with the same direction as the arrow
symbol, the level of applied voltage is insufficient to turn the silicon diode “on.” The
VR ⫽ E ⫺ VD ⫽ 8 V ⫺ 0.7 V ⫽ 7.3 V point of operation on the characteristics is shown in Fig. 2.20, establishing the open-
VR 7.3 V circuit equivalent as the appropriate approximation. The resulting voltage and current
ID ⫽ IR ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⬵ 3.32 mA levels are therefore the following:
Figure 2.16 Circuit for Example R 2.2 k⍀
2.6. ID ⫽ 0 A
VR ⫽ IRR ⫽ ID R ⫽ (0 A)1.2 k⍀ ⫽ 0 V

EXAMPLE 2.7 Repeat Example 2.6 with the diode reversed. and VD ⫽ E ⫽ 0.5 V

ID = 0 A Solution
+ VD – IR = 0 A
Removing the diode, we find that the direction of I is opposite to the arrow in the
+ diode symbol and the diode equivalent is the open circuit no matter which model is
E 8V R 2.2 kΩ VR employed. The result is the network of Fig. 2.17, where ID ⫽ 0 A due to the open cir-
– cuit. Since VR ⫽ IRR, VR ⫽ (0)R ⫽ 0 V. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the
closed loop yields
E ⫺ VD ⫺ VR ⫽ 0 Figure 2.20 Operating point
Figure 2.17 Determining the and VD ⫽ E ⫺ VR ⫽ E ⫺ 0 ⫽ E ⫽ 8 V with E ⫽ 0.5 V.
unknown quantities for Example
2.7.

60 Chapter 2 Diode Applications 2.4 Series Diode Configurations with DC Inputs 61

 The question remains as to what to substitute for the silicon diode. For the analy-
EXAMPLE 2.9 Determine Vo and ID for the series circuit of Fig. 2.21. sis to follow in this and succeeding chapters, simply recall for the actual practical
diode that when ID ⫽ 0 A, VD ⫽ 0 V (and vice versa), as described for the no-bias
situation in Chapter 1. The conditions described by ID ⫽ 0 A and VD1 ⫽ 0 V are in-
dicated in Fig. 2.26.

Figure 2.21 Circuit for Exam-

ple 2.9.
Solution
An attack similar to that applied in Example 2.6 will reveal that the resulting current
has the same direction as the arrowheads of the symbols of both diodes, and the net- Figure 2.26 Determining the
unknown quantities for the circuit
work of Fig. 2.22 results because E ⫽ 12 V ⬎ (0.7 V ⫹ 0.3 V) ⫽ 1 V. Note the re- of Example 2.10.
drawn supply of 12 V and the polarity of Vo across the 5.6-k⍀ resistor. The resulting
voltage
Vo ⫽ IRR ⫽ IDR ⫽ (0 A)R ⫽ 0 V
Vo ⫽ E ⫺ VT ⫺ VT ⫽ 12 V ⫺ 0.7 V ⫺ 0.3 V ⫽ 11 V
1 2
and VD ⫽ Vopen circuit ⫽ E ⫽ 12 V
2

VR Vo 11 V
and ID ⫽ IR ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⬵ 1.96 mA Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in a clockwise direction gives us
R R 5.6 k⍀
E ⫺ VD ⫺ VD ⫺ Vo ⫽ 0
1 2

and VD ⫽ E ⫺ VD ⫺ Vo ⫽ 12 V ⫺ 0 ⫺ 0
2 1

⫽ 12 V
with Vo ⫽ 0 V
Figure 2.22 Determining the
unknown quantities for Example
2.9. Determine I, V1, V2, and Vo for the series dc configuration of Fig. 2.27. EXAMPLE 2.11

EXAMPLE 2.10 Determine ID, VD2, and Vo for the circuit of Fig. 2.23.

+ VD
2
–
Si Si
+12 V Vo
IR
Figure 2.27 Circuit for Exam-
ID ple 2.11.
5.6 kΩ

Figure 2.23 Circuit for Exam- Solution

Solution ple 2.10.
The sources are drawn and the current direction indicated as shown in Fig. 2.28. The
Removing the diodes and determining the direction of the resulting current I will re- diode is in the “on” state and the notation appearing in Fig. 2.29 is included to indi-
sult in the circuit of Fig. 2.24. There is a match in current direction for the silicon cate this state. Note that the “on” state is noted simply by the additional VD ⫽ 0.7 V
diode but not for the germanium diode. The combination of a short circuit in series
with an open circuit always results in an open circuit and ID ⫽ 0 A, as shown in
Fig. 2.25.

I +
E R 5.6 kΩ Vo
–

Figure 2.24 Determining the state of the Figure 2.25 Substituting the equivalent Figure 2.28 Determining the state of the Figure 2.29 Determining the unknown quantities for the net-
diodes of Figure 2.23. state for the open diode. diode for the network of Fig. 2.27. work of Fig. 2.27.

62 Chapter 2 Diode Applications 2.4 Series Diode Configurations with DC Inputs 63

 on the figure. This eliminates the need to redraw the network and avoids any confu-
sion that may result from the appearance of another source. As indicated in the in-
troduction to this section, this is probably the path and notation that one will take
when a level of confidence has been established in the analysis of diode configura-
tions. In time the entire analysis will be performed simply by referring to the origi-
nal network. Recall that a reverse-biased diode can simply be indicated by a line Figure 2.31 Determining the
through the device. unknown quantities for the net-
The resulting current through the circuit is, work of Example 2.12.

E1 ⫹ E2 ⫺ VD 10 V ⫹ 5 V ⫺ 0.7 V 14.3 V
I⫽ᎏ ᎏ ⫽ ᎏᎏᎏ ⫽ ᎏᎏ The current
R1 ⫹ R2 4.7 k⍀ ⫹ 2.2 k⍀ 6.9 k⍀
VR E ⫺ VD 10 V ⫺ 0.7 V
⬵ 2.072 mA I1 ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫽ 28.18 mA
R R 0.33 k⍀
and the voltages are
Assuming diodes of similar characteristics, we have
V1 ⫽ IR1 ⫽ (2.072 mA)(4.7 k⍀) ⫽ 9.74 V
I 28.18 mA
V2 ⫽ IR2 ⫽ (2.072 mA)(2.2 k⍀) ⫽ 4.56 V ID ⫽ ID ⫽ ᎏ1ᎏ ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫽ 14.09 mA
1 2
2 2
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the output section in the clockwise direction will Example 2.12 demonstrated one reason for placing diodes in parallel. If the cur-
result in rent rating of the diodes of Fig. 2.30 is only 20 mA, a current of 28.18 mA would
⫺E2 ⫹ V2 ⫺ Vo ⫽ 0 damage the device if it appeared alone in Fig. 2.30. By placing two in parallel, the
current is limited to a safe value of 14.09 mA with the same terminal voltage.
and Vo ⫽ V2 ⫺ E2 ⫽ 4.56 V ⫺ 5 V ⫽ ⴚ0.44 V
The minus sign indicates that Vo has a polarity opposite to that appearing in Fig. 2.27.
Determine the current I for the network of Fig. 2.32. EXAMPLE 2.13

2.5 PARALLEL AND SERIES–PARALLEL

CONFIGURATIONS
The methods applied in Section 2.4 can be extended to the analysis of parallel and Figure 2.32 Network for Exam-
series–parallel configurations. For each area of application, simply match the se- ple 2.13.
quential series of steps applied to series diode configurations.

Solution
EXAMPLE 2.12 Determine Vo, I1, ID1, and ID2 for the parallel diode configuration of Fig. 2.30.
Redrawing the network as shown in Fig. 2.33 reveals that the resulting current di-
rection is such as to turn on diode D1 and turn off diode D2. The resulting current I
is then
E1 ⫺ E2 ⫺ VD 20 V ⫺ 4 V ⫺ 0.7 V
I⫽ᎏ ᎏ ⫽ ᎏᎏᎏ ⬵ 6.95 mA
R 2.2 k⍀

Figure 2.30 Network for Exam-

ple 2.12.

Solution
For the applied voltage the “pressure” of the source is to establish a current through
each diode in the same direction as shown in Fig. 2.31. Since the resulting current di-
rection matches that of the arrow in each diode symbol and the applied voltage is Figure 2.33 Determining the
greater than 0.7 V, both diodes are in the “on” state. The voltage across parallel ele- unknown quantities for the net-
ments is always the same and work of Example 2.13.

Vo ⫽ 0.7 V

64 Chapter 2 Diode Applications 2.5 Parallel and Series–Parallel Configurations 65

 Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the indicated loop in the clockwise direc-
EXAMPLE 2.14 Determine the voltage Vo for the network of Fig. 2.34. tion yields
12 V Solution ⫺V2 ⫹ E ⫺ VT ⫺ VT ⫽ 0
1 2

Initially, it would appear that the applied voltage will turn both diodes “on.” However, and V2 ⫽ E ⫺ VT ⫺ VT ⫽ 20 V ⫺ 0.7 V ⫺ 0.7 V ⫽ 18.6 V
1 2

if both were “on,” the 0.7-V drop across the silicon diode would not match the 0.3 V V 18.6 V
across the germanium diode as required by the fact that the voltage across parallel el- with I2 ⫽ ᎏᎏ2 ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫽ 3.32 mA
R2 5.6 k⍀
Si Ge ements must be the same. The resulting action can be explained simply by realizing
that when the supply is turned on it will increase from 0 to 12 V over a period of At the bottom node (a),
time—although probably measurable in milliseconds. At the instant during the rise ID2 ⫹ I1 ⫽ I2
Vo that 0.3 V is established across the germanium diode it will turn “on” and maintain
a level of 0.3 V. The silicon diode will never have the opportunity to capture its re- and ID2 ⫽ I2 ⫺ I1 ⫽ 3.32 mA ⫺ 0.212 mA ⫽ 3.108 mA
2.2 kΩ quired 0.7 V and therefore remains in its open-circuit state as shown in Fig. 2.35. The
result:
Vo ⫽ 12 V ⫺ 0.3 V ⫽ 11.7 V
2.6 AND/OR GATES
Figure 2.34 Network for Exam-
ple 2.14. The tools of analysis are now at our disposal, and the opportunity to investigate a
computer configuration is one that will demonstrate the range of applications of this
relatively simple device. Our analysis will be limited to determining the voltage lev-
els and will not include a detailed discussion of Boolean algebra or positive and neg-
ative logic.
The network to be analyzed in Example 2.16 is an OR gate for positive logic.
That is, the 10-V level of Fig. 2.38 is assigned a “1” for Boolean algebra while the
0-V input is assigned a “0.” An OR gate is such that the output voltage level will be
a 1 if either or both inputs is a 1. The output is a 0 if both inputs are at the 0 level.
The analysis of AND/OR gates is made measurably easier by using the approxi-
Figure 2.35 Determining Vo mate equivalent for a diode rather than the ideal because we can stipulate that the
for the network of Fig. 2.34. voltage across the diode must be 0.7 V positive for the silicon diode (0.3 V for Ge) Figure 2.38 Positive logic OR
to switch to the “on” state. gate.
In general, the best approach is simply to establish a “gut” feeling for the state of
the diodes by noting the direction and the “pressure” established by the applied po-
EXAMPLE 2.15 Determine the currents I1, I2, and ID2 for the network of Fig. 2.36. tentials. The analysis will then verify or negate your initial assumptions.

Solution
Determine Vo for the network of Fig. 2.38. EXAMPLE 2.16
The applied voltage (pressure) is such as to turn both diodes on, as noted by the re-
sulting current directions in the network of Fig. 2.37. Note the use of the abbreviated Solution
notation for “on” diodes and that the solution is obtained through an application of
techniques applied to dc series—parallel networks. First note that there is only one applied potential; 10 V at terminal 1. Terminal 2 with
a 0-V input is essentially at ground potential, as shown in the redrawn network of Fig.
V 0.7 V 2.39. Figure 2.39 “suggests” that D1 is probably in the “on” state due to the applied
I1 ⫽ ᎏTᎏ ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫽ 0.212 mA
2

R1 3.3 k⍀ 10 V while D2 with its “positive” side at 0 V is probably “off.” Assuming these states + –
will result in the configuration of Fig. 2.40. D1
Figure 2.36 Network for Ex- The next step is simply to check that there is no contradiction to our assumptions.
ample 2.15. That is, note that the polarity across D1 is such as to turn it on and the polarity across
D2 is such as to turn it off. For D1 the “on” state establishes Vo at Vo ⫽ E ⫺ VD ⫽ E 10 V
Vo
D2
10 V ⫺ 0.7 V ⫽ 9.3 V. With 9.3 V at the cathode (⫺) side of D2 and 0 V at the an-
ode (⫹) side, D2 is definitely in the “off” state. The current direction and the result- R 1 kΩ
ing continuous path for conduction further confirm our assumption that D1 is con-
ducting. Our assumptions seem confirmed by the resulting voltages and current, and 0V
Figure 2.37 Determining the
our initial analysis can be assumed to be correct. The output voltage level is not 10
unknown quantities for Example V as defined for an input of 1, but the 9.3 V is sufficiently large to be considered a Figure 2.39 Redrawn network
2.15. 1 level. The output is therefore at a 1 level with only one input, which suggests that of Fig. 2.38.

66 Chapter 2 Diode Applications 2.6 And/Or Gates 67

 UNIT – V The state of the diodes is therefore confirmed and our earlier analysis was cor-
rect. Although not 0 V as earlier defined for the 0 level, the output voltage is suffi-
APPLICATIONS OF DIODES ciently small to be considered a 0 level. For the AND gate, therefore, a single input
will result in a 0-level output. The remaining states of the diodes for the possibilities
of two inputs and no inputs will be examined in the problems at the end of the
chapter.

Syllabus:
2.7 SINUSOIDAL INPUTS; HALF-WAVE
Qualitative analysis of: Diode as a switch, Half wave rectifier, Full wave Bridge rectifier; Filters-L, C,
LC and π filters, Zener diode as voltage regulator, Varactor diode, Tunnel diode, LED, photodiode, solar RECTIFICATION
cells. Illustrative problems. The diode analysis will now be expanded to include time-varying functions such as
the sinusoidal waveform and the square wave. There is no question that the degree of
difficulty will increase, but once a few fundamental maneuvers are understood, the
analysis will be fairly direct and follow a common thread.
The simplest of networks to examine with a time-varying signal appears in Fig.
2.43. For the moment we will use the ideal model (note the absence of the Si or Ge
label to denote ideal diode) to ensure that the approach is not clouded by additional
mathematical complexity.

vi –
+
Vm + +

vi R vo
0 T T t
2
1 cycle – –
vi = Vm sin ωt

Figure 2.43 Half-wave rectifier.

Over one full cycle, defined by the period T of Fig. 2.43, the average value (the
algebraic sum of the areas above and below the axis) is zero. The circuit of Fig. 2.43,
called a half-wave rectifier, will generate a waveform vo that will have an average
value of particular, use in the ac-to-dc conversion process. When employed in the rec-
tification process, a diode is typically referred to as a rectifier. Its power and current
ratings are typically much higher than those of diodes employed in other applications,
such as computers and communication systems.
During the interval t  0 → T/2 in Fig. 2.43 the polarity of the applied voltage vi
is such as to establish “pressure” in the direction indicated and turn on the diode with
the polarity appearing above the diode. Substituting the short-circuit equivalence for
the ideal diode will result in the equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.44, where it is fairly ob-
vious that the output signal is an exact replica of the applied signal. The two termi-
nals defining the output voltage are connected directly to the applied signal via the
short-circuit equivalence of the diode.
+ –
+ + + + vo
Vm
vi R vo vi R vo = vi

0 T t
– – – – 2

Figure 2.44 Conduction region (0 → T/2).

2.7 Sinusoidal Inputs; Half-Wave Rectification 69

 For the period T/2 → T, the polarity of the input vi is as shown in Fig. 2.45 and the resulting dc voltage level. For situations where Vm  VT, Eq. 2.8 can be applied
the resulting polarity across the ideal diode produces an “off” state with an open-cir- to determine the average value with a relatively high level of accuracy.
cuit equivalent. The result is the absence of a path for charge to flow and vo  iR 
(0)R  0 V for the period T/2 → T. The input vi and the output vo were sketched to- Vdc ⬵ 0.318(Vm  VT) (2.8)
gether in Fig. 2.46 for comparison purposes. The output signal vo now has a net pos-
In fact, if Vm is sufficiently greater than VT, Eq. 2.7 is often applied as a first ap-
itive area above the axis over a full period and an average value determined by
proximation for Vdc.
Vdc  0.318Vm (2.7)
half-wave
(a) Sketch the output vo and determine the dc level of the output for the network of EXAMPLE 2.18
Fig. 2.48.
– + (b) Repeat part (a) if the ideal diode is replaced by a silicon diode.
– + – + vo (c) Repeat parts (a) and (b) if Vm is increased to 200 V and compare solutions using
vo = 0 V
Eqs. (2.7) and (2.8).
vi R vo vi R vo = 0 V

0 T T t vi + +
+ – + – 2
20 V
vi R 2 kΩ vo
Figure 2.45 Nonconduction region (T/2 → T).

0 T T t – –
vi 2 Figure 2.48 Network for Exam-
ple 2.18.
Vm
Solution
Vdc = 0 V
0 t (a) In this situation the diode will conduct during the negative part of the input as
shown in Fig. 2.49, and vo will appear as shown in the same figure. For the full
period, the dc level is
vo Vdc  0.318Vm  0.318(20 V)  ⴚ6.36 V

Vm
The negative sign indicates that the polarity of the output is opposite to the defined
polarity of Fig. 2.48.
Vdc = 0.318Vm
0 t
Figure 2.46 Half-wave rectified vi – + vo
T
signal.
20 – +
The process of removing one-half the input signal to establish a dc level is aptly vi 2 kΩ vo
called half-wave rectification. 0 T T t 0 T T t
2 2
The effect of using a silicon diode with VT  0.7 V is demonstrated in Fig. 2.47 20 + – 20 V
for the forward-bias region. The applied signal must now be at least 0.7 V before the
diode can turn “on.” For levels of vi less than 0.7 V, the diode is still in an open-
circuit state and vo  0 V as shown in the same figure. When conducting, the differ- Figure 2.49 Resulting vo for the circuit of Example 2.18.
ence between vo and vi is a fixed level of VT  0.7 V and vo  vi  VT , as shown in
the figure. The net effect is a reduction in area above the axis, which naturally reduces (b) Using a silicon diode, the output has the appearance of Fig. 2.50 and
Vdc ⬵ 0.318(Vm  0.7 V)  0.318(19.3 V) ⬵ ⴚ6.14 V vo
+ VT –
vi vo
Vm Vm – VT The resulting drop in dc level is 0.22 V or about 3.5%.
+ 0.7 V
+ (c) Eq. (2.7): Vdc  0.318Vm  0.318(200 V)  ⴚ63.6 V
Eq. (2.8): Vdc  0.318(Vm  VT)   0.318(200 V  0.7 V) 0 T T t
VT = 0.7 V vi R vo
 (0.318)(199.3 V)  ⴚ63.38 V 2
0 T T t 0 T Tt
2 2 which is a difference that can certainly be ignored for most applications. For part c
– – 20 V – 0.7 V = 19.3 V
the offset and drop in amplitude due to VT would not be discernible on a typical os-
Offset due to VT
cilloscope if the full pattern is displayed. Figure 2.50 Effect of VT on out-
Figure 2.47 Effect of VT on half-wave rectified signal. put of Fig. 2.49.

70 Chapter 2 Diode Applications 2.7 Sinusoidal Inputs; Half-Wave Rectification 71

 PIV (PRV) For the negative region of the input the conducting diodes are D1 and D4, result-
ing in the configuration of Fig. 2.55. The important result is that the polarity across
The peak inverse voltage (PIV) [or PRV (peak reverse voltage)] rating of the diode the load resistor R is the same as in Fig. 2.53, establishing a second positive pulse,
is of primary importance in the design of rectification systems. Recall that it is the as shown in Fig. 2.55. Over one full cycle the input and output voltages will appear
voltage rating that must not be exceeded in the reverse-bias region or the diode will as shown in Fig. 2.56.
enter the Zener avalanche region. The required PIV rating for the half-wave rectifier
can be determined from Fig. 2.51, which displays the reverse-biased diode of Fig. vi vo
2.43 with maximum applied voltage. Applying Kirchhoff”s voltage law, it is fairly –
obvious that the PIV rating of the diode must equal or exceed the peak value of the Vm
applied voltage. Therefore, – vo +
vi
PIV rating Vm (2.9) 0 T T t R 0 T T t
half-wave rectifier 2 2
Vm
+
– V (PIV) +
Figure 2.55 Conduction path for the negative region of vi.
– I= 0 –
Vm R Vo = IR = (0)R = 0 V vi vo
Figure 2.51 Determining the re-
+ + quired PIV rating for the half- Vm Vm
wave rectifier. Vdc = 0.636Vm

0 T T t 0 T T t Figure 2.56 Input and output

2 2
2.8 FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION waveforms for a full-wave rectifier.

Bridge Network Since the area above the axis for one full cycle is now twice that obtained for a
half-wave system, the dc level has also been doubled and
The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using a process
called full-wave rectification. The most familiar network for performing such a func- Vdc  2(Eq. 2.7)  2(0.318Vm)
tion appears in Fig. 2.52 with its four diodes in a bridge configuration. During the
period t  0 to T/2 the polarity of the input is as shown in Fig. 2.53. The resulting or Vdc  0.636Vm full-wave (2.10)
polarities across the ideal diodes are also shown in Fig. 2.53 to reveal that D2 and D3
If silicon rather than ideal diodes are employed as shown in Fig. 2.57, an applica-
are conducting while D1 and D4 are in the “off” state. The net result is the configu-
tion of Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the conduction path would result in
ration of Fig. 2.54, with its indicated current and polarity across R. Since the diodes
are ideal the load voltage is vo  vi, as shown in the same figure. vi  VT  vo  VT  0
and vo  vi  2VT
vi
+ The peak value of the output voltage vo is therefore
D1 D2
Vm Vomax  Vm  2VT
– vo + For situations where Vm  2VT, Eq. (2.11) can be applied for the average value with
vi
0 T T t R a relatively high level of accuracy.
2
D3 D4 Figure 2.52 Full-wave Vdc ⬵ 0.636(Vm  2VT) (2.11)
–
bridge rectifier.
+ + + vo
"off " "on" + + VT = 0.7 V
– – vi vo Vm – 2VT
+ –
– vo + vo
vi Vm Vm vi – +
R R 0 T T t
R
+ + vi + 2
VT = 0.7 V Figure 2.57 Determining Vomax for
"on" "off "
0 T t – vo + 0 T t
– – – 2 2 – – silicon diodes in the bridge config-
uration.
Figure 2.53 Network of Fig. –
2.52 for the period 0 → T/2 of Then again, if Vm is sufficiently greater than 2VT, then Eq. (2.10) is often applied as
the input voltage vi. Figure 2.54 Conduction path for the positive region of vi. a first approximation for Vdc.

72 Chapter 2 Diode Applications 2.8 Full-Wave Rectification 73

 PIV age across the load resistor R. The net effect is the same output as that appearing in
The required PIV of each diode (ideal) can be determined from Fig. 2.58 obtained Fig. 2.56 with the same dc levels.
at the peak of the positive region of the input signal. For the indicated loop the max-
PIV
imum voltage across R is Vm and the PIV rating is defined by
The network of Fig. 2.62 will help us determine the net PIV for each diode for
PIV Vm full-wave bridge rectifier (2.12) this full-wave rectifier. Inserting the maximum voltage for the secondary voltage and
Vm as established by the adjoining loop will result in
Center-Tapped Transformer PIV  Vsecondary  VR
Figure 2.58 Determining the re-
quired PIV for the bridge configu- A second popular full-wave rectifier appears in Fig. 2.59 with only two diodes but  Vm  Vm Figure 2.62 Determining the
ration. requiring a center-tapped (CT) transformer to establish the input signal across each PIV level for the diodes of the CT
section of the secondary of the transformer. During the positive portion of vi applied and PIV 2Vm CT transformer, full-wave rectifier (2.13) transformer full-wave rectifier.
to the primary of the transformer, the network will appear as shown in Fig. 2.60. D1
assumes the short-circuit equivalent and D2 the open-circuit equivalent, as determined
by the secondary voltages and the resulting current directions. The output voltage ap- Determine the output waveform for the network of Fig. 2.63 and calculate the output EXAMPLE 2.19
pears as shown in Fig. 2.60. dc level and the required PIV of each diode.

D1 vi
1:2 +
vi + 10 V

vi 2 kΩ
Vm vi
+ R 0 T T t – vo +
vi – 2
0 t CT – vo + 2 kΩ 2 kΩ
– + – Figure 2.63 Bridge network for
vi Example 2.19.

– Figure 2.59 Center-tapped Solution

D2 transformer full-wave rectifier.
The network will appear as shown in Fig. 2.64 for the positive region of the input
voltage. Redrawing the network will result in the configuration of Fig. 2.65, where
1:2
vi + vo vo  12 vi or Vomax  12 Vi max  12 (10 V)  5 V, as shown in Fig. 2.65. For the negative
Vm part of the input the roles of the diodes will be interchanged and vo will appear as
Vm Vm shown in Fig. 2.66.
+ – vo +
vi –
0 T t CT 0 T t +
2 – + Vm R
2 vi
+ vo
+ +
2 kΩ vo
5V
– – + 10 V –
2 kΩ vi – 2 kΩ
vi
Figure 2.60 Network conditions for the positive region of vi. – vo + 0 T t
0 T t 2 kΩ
2 2
2 kΩ 2 kΩ
During the negative portion of the input the network appears as shown in Fig. – –
2.61, reversing the roles of the diodes but maintaining the same polarity for the volt-
Figure 2.64 Network of Fig. 2.63 for the positive Figure 2.65 Redrawn network of Fig. 2.64.
region of vi.
vi – vo
– +
Vm The effect of removing two diodes from the bridge configuration was therefore to vo
– Vm R reduce the available dc level to the following:
vi + 5V
0 T T t CT – vo + 0 T T t Vdc  0.636(5 V)  3.18 V
2 + – 2
Vm or that available from a half-wave rectifier with the same input. However, the PIV as 0 T T t
+ Vm determined from Fig. 2.58 is equal to the maximum voltage across R, which is 5 V 2
or half of that required for a half-wave rectifier with the same input. Figure 2.66 Resulting output
Figure 2.61 Network conditions for the negative region of vi. for Example 2.19.

74 Chapter 2 Diode Applications 2.8 Full-Wave Rectification 75

 vo (V) 2. Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit and solve for the desired un-
vi knowns.
+30
20 V + + For the network of Fig. 2.106, the “on” state will result in the equivalent network
C of Fig. 2.108. Since voltages across parallel elements must be the same, we find that
vi – R vo
0 t 0 t VL  VZ (2.17)
10 V
–10 V
–20 V – + – The Zener diode current must be determined by an application of Kirchhoff’s current
law. That is,
Figure 2.108 Substituting the
Figure 2.104 Clamping network with a sinusoidal input. Zener equivalent for the “on” situ- IR  IZ  IL
ation.
and IZ  IR  IL (2.18)

2.11 ZENER DIODES where

VL VR Vi  VL
The analysis of networks employing Zener diodes is quite similar to that applied to IL  
RL
and IR    
R

R
the analysis of semiconductor diodes in previous sections. First the state of the diode
must be determined followed by a substitution of the appropriate model and a deter- The power dissipated by the Zener diode is determined by
mination of the other unknown quantities of the network. Unless otherwise specified,
the Zener model to be employed for the “on” state will be as shown in Fig. 2.105a. PZ  VZ IZ (2.19)
For the “off” state as defined by a voltage less than VZ but greater than 0 V with the which must be less than the PZM specified for the device.
polarity indicated in Fig. 2.105b, the Zener equivalent is the open circuit that appears Before continuing, it is particularly important to realize that the first step was em-
in the same figure. ployed only to determine the state of the Zener diode. If the Zener diode is in the
“on” state, the voltage across the diode is not V volts. When the system is turned on,
the Zener diode will turn “on” as soon as the voltage across the Zener diode is VZ
volts. It will then “lock in” at this level and never reach the higher level of V volts.
Zener diodes are most frequently used in regulator networks or as a reference
voltage. Figure 2.106 is a simple regulator designed to maintain a fixed voltage across
the load RL. For values of applied voltage greater than required to turn the Zener diode
“on,” the voltage across the load will be maintained at VZ volts. If the Zener diode is
employed as a reference voltage, it will provide a level for comparison against other
Figure 2.105 Zener diode
voltages.
equivalents for the (a) “on” and
(b) “off” states.
EXAMPLE 2.26 (a) For the Zener diode network of Fig. 2.109, determine VL, VR, IZ, and PZ.
(b) Repeat part (a) with RL = 3 k.
V i and R
The simplest of Zener diode networks appears in Fig. 2.106. The applied dc voltage Figure 2.106 Basic Zener regu-
is fixed, as is the load resistor. The analysis can fundamentally be broken down into lator.
two steps.
1. Determine the state of the Zener diode by removing it from the network
and calculating the voltage across the resulting open circuit.
Figure 2.109 Zener diode
Applying step 1 to the network of Fig. 2.106 will result in the network of Fig.
regulator for Example 2.26.
2.107, where an application of the voltage divider rule will result in

R Vi Solution
V  VL  L (2.16)
R  RL
(a) Following the suggested procedure the network is redrawn as shown in Fig.
2.110. Applying Eq. (2.16) gives
If V  VZ, the Zener diode is “on” and the equivalent model of Fig. 2.105a can be
substituted. If V VZ, the diode is “off” and the open-circuit equivalence of Fig. Figure 2.107 Determining the R Vi 1.2 k(16 V)
V  L    8.73 V
2.105b is substituted. state of the Zener diode. R  RL 1 k  1.2 k

2.11 Zener Diodes 87 88 Chapter 2 Diode Applications

 Fixed Vi, Variable RL
Due to the offset voltage VZ, there is a specific range of resistor values (and therefore
load current) which will ensure that the Zener is in the “on” state. Too small a load
resistance RL will result in a voltage VL across the load resistor less than VZ , and the
Zener device will be in the “off” state.
To determine the minimum load resistance of Fig. 2.106 that will turn the Zener
Figure 2.110 Determining V for diode on, simply calculate the value of RL that will result in a load voltage VL  VZ.
the regulator of Fig. 2.109. That is,

Since V  8.73 V is less than VZ  10 V, the diode is in the “off” state as shown R Vi
VL  VZ  L
on the characteristics of Fig. 2.111. Substituting the open-circuit equivalent will re- RL  R
sult in the same network as in Fig. 2.110, where we find that
Solving for RL, we have
VL  V  8.73 V
VR  Vi  VL  16 V  8.73 V  7.27 V RLmin  
RVZ
(2.20)
Vi  VZ
IZ  0 A
and PZ  VZIZ  VZ (0 A)  0 W Figure 2.111 Resulting operat-
ing point for the network of Fig. Any load resistance value greater than the RL obtained from Eq. (2.20) will ensure
(b) Applying Eq. (2.16) will now result in 2.109. that the Zener diode is in the “on” state and the diode can be replaced by its VZ source
equivalent.
R Vi 3 k(16 V) The condition defined by Eq. (2.20) establishes the minimum RL but in turn spec-
V  L    12 V
R  RL 1 k  3 k ifies the maximum IL as
Since V  12 V is greater than VZ  10 V, the diode is in the “on” state and the net-
work of Fig. 2.112 will result. Applying Eq. (2.17) yields VL VZ
ILmax     (2.21)
RL RLmin
VL  VZ  10 V
and VR  Vi  VL  16 V  10 V  6 V Once the diode is in the “on” state, the voltage across R remains fixed at
VL 10 V
with IL      3.33 mA VR  Vi  VZ (2.22)
RL 3 k
VR 6V and IR remains fixed at
and IR      6 mA
R 1 k
so that IZ  IR  IL [Eq. (2.18)] VR
IR   (2.23)
R
 6 mA  3.33 mA
 2.67 mA The Zener current
The power dissipated,
IZ  IR  IL (2.24)
PZ  VZIZ  (10 V)(2.67 mA)  26.7 mW
which is less than the specified PZM  30 mW. resulting in a minimum IZ when IL is a maximum and a maximum IZ when IL is a
minimum value since IR is constant.
Since IZ is limited to IZM as provided on the data sheet, it does affect the range
of RL and therefore IL. Substituting IZM for IZ establishes the minimum IL as

ILmin  IR  IZM (2.25)

and the maximum load resistance as

Figure 2.112 Network of Fig. VZ

2.109 in the “on” state. RLmax   (2.26)
ILmin

2.11 Zener Diodes 89 90 Chapter 2 Diode Applications

 Fixed RL, Variable Vi
(a) For the network of Fig. 2.113, determine the range of RL and IL that will result EXAMPLE 2.27
in VRL being maintained at 10 V. For fixed values of RL in Fig. 2.106, the voltage Vi must be sufficiently large to turn
(b) Determine the maximum wattage rating of the diode. the Zener diode on. The minimum turn-on voltage Vi  Vimin is determined by
R Vi
VL  VZ  L
RL  R
(RL  R)VZ
and Vimin    (2.27)
RL

The maximum value of Vi is limited by the maximum Zener current IZM. Since
IZM  IR  IL,
Figure 2.113 Voltage regulator
for Example 2.27. IRmax  IZM  IL (2.28)

Since IL is fixed at VZ /RL and IZM is the maximum value of IZ, the maximum Vi
is defined by
Solution
Vimax  VRmax  VZ
(a) To determine the value of RL that will turn the Zener diode on, apply Eq. (2.20):
RVZ (1 k)(10 V) 10 k Vimax  IRmaxR  VZ (2.29)
RLmin        250 ⍀
Vi  VZ 50 V  10 V 40
The voltage across the resistor R is then determined by Eq. (2.22):
VR  Vi  VZ  50 V  10 V  40 V
EXAMPLE 2.28 Determine the range of values of Vi that will maintain the Zener diode of Fig. 2.115
and Eq. (2.23) provides the magnitude of IR: in the “on” state.
VR 40 V
IR       40 mA
R 1 k
The minimum level of IL is then determined by Eq. (2.25):
ILmin  IR  IZM  40 mA  32 mA  8 mA
with Eq. (2.26) determining the maximum value of RL:
VZ 10 V Figure 2.115 Regulator for Ex-
RLmax      1.25 k⍀ ample 2.28.
ILmin 8 mA
A plot of VL versus RL appears in Fig. 2.114a and for VL versus IL in Fig. 2.114b. Solution
(b) Pmax  VZ IZM (RL  R)VZ (1200   220 )(20 V)
 (10 V)(32 mA)  320 mW Eq. (2.27): Vimin       23.67 V
RL 1200 
VL VZ 20 V
IL        16.67 mA
RL RL 1.2 k
Eq. (2.28): IRmax  IZM  IL  60 mA  16.67 mA
 76.67 mA
Eq. (2.29): Vimax  IRmaxR  VZ
 (76.67 mA)(0.22 k)  20 V
 16.87 V  20 V
 36.87 V
Figure 2.114 VL versus RL and IL for the regulator of Fig. 2.113.
Figure 2.116 VL versus Vi for A plot of VL versus Vi is provided in Fig. 2.116.
the regulator of Fig. 2.115.

2.11 Zener Diodes 91 92 Chapter 2 Diode Applications

 The results of Example 2.28 reveal that for the network of Fig. 2.115 with a fixed region of conduction with a resistance level sufficiently small compared to the series
RL, the output voltage will remain fixed at 20 V for a range of input voltage that ex- 5-k resistor to be considered a short circuit. The resulting output for the full range
tends from 23.67 to 36.87 V. of vi is provided in Fig. 2.119(a). Note that the waveform is not purely sinusoidal, but
In fact, the input could appear as shown in Fig. 2.117 and the output would re- its rms value is lower than that associated with a full 22-V peak signal. The network
main constant at 20 V, as shown in Fig. 2.116. The waveform appearing in Fig. 2.117 is effectively limiting the rms value of the available voltage. The network of Fig.
is obtained by filtering a half-wave- or full-wave-rectified output—a process described 2.119a can be extended to that of a simple square-wave generator (due to the clip-
in detail in a later chapter. The net effect, however, is to establish a steady dc voltage ping action) if the signal vi is increased to perhaps a 50-V peak with 10-V Zeners as
(for a defined range of Vi) such as that shown in Fig. 2.116 from a sinusoidal source shown in Fig. 2.120 with the resulting output waveform.
with 0 average value.
vi

vo
50 V
+ 5 kΩ + +
Z1
vi 10-V
– vo 10 V
0 π 2π ω t Zeners + –10 V
Z2
– – –

Figure 2.117 Waveform gener-

ated by a filtered rectified signal. Figure 2.120 Simple square-wave generator.

Two or more reference levels can be established by placing Zener diodes in series
as shown in Fig. 2.118. As long as Vi is greater than the sum of VZ1 and VZ2, both
diodes will be in the “on” state and the three reference voltages will be available. 2.12 VOLTAGE-MULTIPLIER CIRCUITS
Two back-to-back Zeners can also be used as an ac regulator as shown in Fig.
2.119a. For the sinusoidal signal vi the circuit will appear as shown in Fig. 2.119b at Voltage-multiplier circuits are employed to maintain a relatively low transformer peak
the instant vi  10 V. The region of operation for each diode is indicated in the ad- voltage while stepping up the peak output voltage to two, three, four, or more times
joining figure. Note that Z1 is in a low-impedance region, while the impedance of Z2 the peak rectified voltage.
is quite large, corresponding with the open-circuit representation. The result is that
vo  vi when vi  10 V. The input and output will continue to duplicate each other Figure 2.118 Establishing three
Voltage Doubler
until vi reaches 20 V. Z2 will then “turn on” (as a Zener diode), while Z1 will be in a reference voltage levels. The network of Figure 2.121 is a half-wave voltage doubler. During the positive volt-
age half-cycle across the transformer, secondary diode D1 conducts (and diode D2 is
vi vo cut off), charging capacitor C1 up to the peak rectified voltage (Vm). Diode D1 is ide-
+ 5 kΩ +
22 V Z1
ally a short during this half-cycle, and the input voltage charges capacitor C1 to Vm
with the polarity shown in Fig. 2.122a. During the negative half-cycle of the sec-
vi 20-V vo 20 V
Zeners
ondary voltage, diode D1 is cut off and diode D2 conducts charging capacitor C2.
0 ωt 0 20 V ωt
Z2 Since diode D2 acts as a short during the negative half-cycle (and diode D1 is open),
–22 V – – we can sum the voltages around the outside loop (see Fig. 2.122b):

(a)
Vm  VC1  VC2  0
Vm  Vm  VC2  0
I from which
5 kΩ +
Z1 VC 2  2Vm
– 20 V
vi = 10 V
+ 0 V
Z2
–

(b)

Figure 2.119 Sinusoidal ac regulation: (a) 40-V peak-to-peak sinusoidal ac reg- Figure 2.121 Half-wave voltage
ulator; (b) circuit operation at vi  10 V. doubler.

2.11 Zener Diodes 93 94 Chapter 2 Diode Applications

 p n p n

Substitution values from Table 1.4 yield the networks in the next few chapters, it will be introduced in this chapter. The LCD
display is described in Chapter 20.
(0.072)(10 V)
VZ   (100°C  25°C) As the name implies, the light-emitting diode (LED) is a diode that will give off
100 visible light when it is energized. In any forward-biased p-n junction there is, within
 (0.0072)(75) the structure and primarily close to the junction, a recombination of holes and elec-
trons. This recombination requires that the energy possessed by the unbound free elec-
 0.54 V tron be transferred to another state. In all semiconductor p-n junctions some of this
and because of the positive temperature coefficient, the new Zener potential, defined energy will be given off as heat and some in the form of photons. In silicon and ger-
by VZ, is manium the greater percentage is given up in the form of heat and the emitted light
is insignificant. In other materials, such as gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) or
VZ  VZ 0.54 V gallium phosphide (GaP), the number of photons of light energy emitted is sufficient
ⴝ 10.54 V to create a very visible light source.
The process of giving off light by applying an electrical source of energy is
called electroluminescence.
The variation in dynamic impedance (fundamentally, its series resistance) with
current appears in Fig. 1.51b. Again, the 10-V Zener appears between the 6.8-V and As shown in Fig. 1.54 with its graphic symbol, the conducting surface connected
24-V Zeners. Note that the heavier the current (or the farther up the vertical rise you to the p-material is much smaller, to permit the emergence of the maximum number
are in Fig. 1.47), the less the resistance value. Also note that as you drop below the of photons of light energy. Note in the figure that the recombination of the injected
knee of the curve, the resistance increases to significant levels. carriers due to the forward-biased junction results in emitted light at the site of re-
The terminal identification and the casing for a variety of Zener diodes appear in combination. There may, of course, be some absorption of the packages of photon en-
Fig. 1.52. Figure 1.53 is an actual photograph of a variety of Zener devices. Note that ergy in the structure itself, but a very large percentage are able to leave, as shown in
their appearance is very similar to the semiconductor diode. A few areas of applica- the figure.
tion for the Zener diode will be examined in Chapter 2.

Figure 1.52 Zener terminal

identification and symbols.

Figure 1.54 (a) Process of

electroluminescence in the LED;
(b) graphic symbol.
The appearance and characteristics of a subminiature high-efficiency solid-state
lamp manufactured by Hewlett-Packard appears in Fig. 1.55. Note in Fig. 1.55b that
the peak forward current is 60 mA, with 20 mA the typical average forward current.
The test conditions listed in Fig. 1.55c, however, are for a forward current of 10 mA.
The level of VD under forward-bias conditions is listed as VF and extends from 2.2
Figure 1.53 Zener diodes.
(Courtesy Siemens Corporation.)
to 3 V. In other words, one can expect a typical operating current of about 10 mA at
2.5 V for good light emission.
Two quantities yet undefined appear under the heading Electrical/Optical Char-
acteristics at TA  25°C. They are the axial luminous intensity (IV) and the luminous
1.15 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES efficacy ( v). Light intensity is measured in candela. One candela emits a light flux
of 4 lumens and establishes an illumination of 1 footcandle on a 1-ft2 area 1 ft from
The increasing use of digital displays in calculators, watches, and all forms of in- the light source. Even though this description may not provide a clear understanding
strumentation has contributed to the current extensive interest in structures that will of the candela as a unit of measure, its level can certainly be compared between sim-
emit light when properly biased. The two types in common use today to perform this ilar devices. The term efficacy is, by definition, a measure of the ability of a device
function are the light-emitting diode (LED) and the liquid-crystal display (LCD). Since to produce a desired effect. For the LED this is the ratio of the number of lumens
the LED falls within the family of p-n junction devices and will appear in some of generated per applied watt of electrical energy. The relative efficiency is defined by

38 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes 1.15 Light-Emitting Diodes 39

 p n p n

the luminous intensity per unit current, as shown in Fig. 1.55g. The relative intensity 1.0
T
TA = 25˚C
of each color versus wavelength appears in Fig. 1.55d. Green Yellow
GaAsP Red
Since the LED is a p-n junction device, it will have a forward-biased characteristic

Relative intensity
High efficiency
(Fig. 1.55e) similar to the diode response curves. Note the almost linear increase in rel- Red
ative luminous intensity with forward current (Fig. 1.55f). Figure 1.55h reveals that the 0.5
longer the pulse duration at a particular frequency, the lower the permitted peak current
(after you pass the break value of tp). Figure 1.55i simply reveals that the intensity is
greater at 0° (or head on) and the least at 90° (when you view the device from the side).
0
500 550 600 650 700 750
Wavelength–nm

(d)

20 1.6
3.0 T
TA = 25˚C 1.5
T
TA = 25˚C

(normalized at 10 mA dc)
IIF – Forward current – mA
1.4

Relative luminous intensity

Relative efficiency
15

(normalized at 10 mA)
1.3
2.0 1.2
10 1.1
1.0
1.0 0.9
5 0.8
0.7
0 0 0.6
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0 5 10 15 20 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

V
VF – Forward voltage – V IIF – Forward current – mA Ipeak – Peak current – mA

(e) (f) (g)

Ratio of maximum tolerable

to maximum tolerable
5

peak current
4 tp

dc current
10˚ 0˚
20˚
3 30˚
40˚ 0.8
50˚
T 0.6
2
60˚

100 k

30 kH

10 kH

300
100
3 kH

1 kH
0.4
70˚

H
–

Hz
Hz
z

z
z

z
z
0.2

IIpeak max
80˚

IIdc max
1 90˚
Figure 1.55 Hewlett-Packard subminiature high-efficiency red solid-state lamp: (a) appearance; 1.0 10 100 1000 10,000 20˚ 40˚ 60˚ 80˚ 100˚
(b) absolute maximum ratings; (c) electrical/optical characteristics; (d) relative intensity versus wave- ttp – Pulse duration – µs
length; (e) forward current versus forward voltage; (f) relative luminous intensity versus forward cur-
rent; (g) relative efficiency versus peak current; (h) maximum peak current versus pulse duration; (h) (i)
(i) relative luminous intensity versus angular displacement. (Courtesy Hewlett-Packard Corporation.)
Figure 1.55 Continued.

40 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes 1.15 Light-Emitting Diodes 41

 p n

V.R.
LED displays are available today in many different sizes and shapes. The light-
emitting region is available in lengths from 0.1 to 1 in. Numbers can be created by
segments such as shown in Fig. 1.56. By applying a forward bias to the proper p-type
material segment, any number from 0 to 9 can be displayed.
CHAPTER

Power Supplies
(Voltage Regulators) 19
Figure 1.56 Litronix segment display.
19.1 INTRODUCTION
The present chapter introduces the operation of power supply circuits built using fil-
There are also two-lead LED lamps that contain two LEDs, so that a reversal in ters, rectifiers, and then voltage regulators. (Refer to Chapter 2 for the initial de-
biasing will change the color from green to red, or vice versa. LEDs are presently scription of diode rectifier circuits.) Starting with an ac voltage, a steady dc voltage
available in red, green, yellow, orange, and white, and white with blue soon to be is obtained by rectifying the ac voltage, then filtering to a dc level and, finally, regu-
commercially available. In general, LEDs operate at voltage levels from 1.7 to 3.3 V, lating to obtain a desired fixed dc voltage. The regulation is usually obtained from an
which makes them completely compatible with solid-state circuits. They have a fast IC voltage regulator unit, which takes a dc voltage and provides a somewhat lower
response time (nanoseconds) and offer good contrast ratios for visibility. The power dc voltage, which remains the same even if the input dc voltage varies or the output
requirement is typically from 10 to 150 mW with a lifetime of 100,000 hours. Their load connected to the dc voltage changes.
semiconductor construction adds a significant ruggedness factor. A block diagram containing the parts of a typical power supply and the voltage
at various points in the unit is shown in Fig. 19.1. The ac voltage, typically 120 V
rms, is connected to a transformer, which steps that ac voltage down to the level for
the desired dc output. A diode rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage that
1.16 DIODE ARRAYS—INTEGRATED is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage. This resulting
dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation. A regulator circuit can use
CIRCUITS this dc input to provide a dc voltage that not only has much less ripple voltage but
also remains the same dc value even if the input dc voltage varies somewhat or the
The unique characteristics of integrated circuits will be introduced in Chapter 12. load connected to the output dc voltage changes. This voltage regulation is usually
However, we have reached a plateau in our introduction to electronic circuits that per- obtained using one of a number of popular voltage regulator IC units.
mits at least a surface examination of diode arrays in the integrated-circuit package.
You will find that the integrated circuit is not a unique device with characteristics to-
tally different from those we examine in these introductory chapters. It is simply a
packaging technique that permits a significant reduction in the size of electronic sys-
tems. In other words, internal to the integrated circuit are systems and discrete de-
vices that were available long before the integrated circuit as we know it today be-
came a reality.
One possible array appears in Fig. 1.57. Note that eight diodes are internal to the
diode array. That is, in the container shown in Fig. 1.58 there are diodes set in a sin-
gle silicon wafer that have all the anodes connected to pin 1 and the cathodes of each
to pins 2 through 9. Note in the same figure that pin 1 can be determined as being to Figure 19.1 Block diagram showing parts of a power supply.
the left of the small projection in the case if we look from the bottom toward the case.
The other numbers then follow in sequence. If only one diode is to be used, then only
pins 1 and 2 (or any number from 3 to 9) would be used. The remaining diodes would 19.2 GENERAL FILTER CONSIDERATIONS
be left hanging and not affect the network to which pins 1 and 2 are connected.
Another diode array appears in Fig. 1.59 (see page 44). In this case the package A rectifier circuit is necessary to convert a signal having zero average value into one
is different but the numbering sequence appears in the outline. Pin 1 is the pin di- that has a nonzero average. The output resulting from a rectifier is a pulsating dc volt-
rectly above the small indentation as you look down on the device. age and not yet suitable as a battery replacement. Such a voltage could be used in,

42 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes 783

 V.R. V.R.

say, a battery charger, where the average dc voltage is large enough to provide a charg- between the no-load and load conditions is described by a factor called voltage reg-
ing current for the battery. For dc supply voltages, as those used in a radio, stereo ulation.
system, computer, and so on, the pulsating dc voltage from a rectifier is not good Definition: Voltage regulation
enough. A filter circuit is necessary to provide a steadier dc voltage. no-load voltage ⫺ full-load voltage
Voltage regulation ⫽ ᎏᎏᎏᎏ
Filter Voltage Regulation and Ripple Voltage full-load voltage

Before going into the details of a filter circuit, it would be appropriate to consider the VNL ⫺ VFL
%V.R. ⫽ ᎏ ᎏ ⫻ 100% (19.2)
usual methods of rating filter circuits so that we can compare a circuit’s effectiveness VFL
as a filter. Figure 19.2 shows a typical filter output voltage, which will be used to de-
fine some of the signal factors. The filtered output of Fig. 19.2 has a dc value and
some ac variation (ripple). Although a battery has essentially a constant or dc output A dc voltage supply provides 60 V when the output is unloaded. When connected to EXAMPLE 19.2
voltage, the dc voltage derived from an ac source signal by rectifying and filtering a load, the output drops to 56 V. Calculate the value of voltage regulation.
will have some ac variation (ripple). The smaller the ac variation with respect to the
dc level, the better the filter circuit’s operation. Solution
VNL ⫺ VFL 60 V ⫺ 56 V
Eq. (19.2): %V.R. ⫽ ᎏ ᎏ ⫻ 100% ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫻ 100% ⫽ 7.1%
VFL 56 V

If the value of full-load voltage is the same as the no-load voltage, the voltage
regulation calculated is 0%, which is the best expected. This means that the supply
is a perfect voltage source for which the output voltage is independent of the current
drawn from the supply. The smaller the voltage regulation, the better the operation of
the voltage supply circuit.
Figure 19.2 Filter voltage
waveform showing dc and ripple RIPPLE FACTOR OF RECTIFIED SIGNAL
voltages. Although the rectified voltage is not a filtered voltage, it nevertheless contains a
dc component and a ripple component. We will see that the full-wave rectified signal
has a larger dc component and less ripple than the half-wave rectified voltage.
Consider measuring the output voltage of a filter circuit using a dc voltmeter and For a half-wave rectified signal, the output dc voltage is
an ac (rms) voltmeter. The dc voltmeter will read only the average or dc level of the
output voltage. The ac (rms) meter will read only the rms value of the ac component Vdc ⫽ 0.318Vm (19.3)
of the output voltage (assuming the ac signal is coupled through a capacitor to block The rms value of the ac component of the output signal can be calculated (see Ap-
out the dc level). pendix B) to be
Definition: Ripple
Vr(rms) ⫽ 0.385Vm (19.4)
ripple voltage (rms) Vr(rms)
r ⫽ ᎏᎏᎏ ⫽ ᎏ ᎏ ⫻ 100% (19.1) The percent ripple of a half-wave rectified signal can then be calculated as
dc voltage Vdc
Vr(rms) 0.385Vm
r⫽ᎏ ᎏ ⫻ 100% ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫻ 100% ⫽ 121% (19.5)
Vdc 0.318Vm
EXAMPLE 19.1 Using a dc and ac voltmeter to measure the output signal from a filter circuit, we ob-
tain readings of 25 V dc and 1.5 V rms. Calculate the ripple of the filter output voltage. For a full-wave rectified voltage the dc value is
Vdc ⫽ 0.636Vm (19.6)
Solution
The rms value of the ac component of the output signal can be calculated (see Ap-
Vr(rms) 1.5 V pendix B) to be
r⫽ᎏ ᎏ ⫻ 100% ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫻ 100% ⫽ 6%
Vdc 25 V
Vr(rms) ⫽ 0.308Vm (19.7)
The percent ripple of a full-wave rectified signal can then be calculated as
VOLTAGE REGULATION
Vr(rms) 0.308Vm
Another factor of importance in a power supply is the amount the dc output volt- r⫽ᎏ ᎏ ⫻ 100% ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫻ 100% ⫽ 48% (19.8)
age changes over a range of circuit operation. The voltage provided at the output un- Vdc 0.636Vm
der no-load condition (no current drawn from the supply) is reduced when load cur- In summary, a full-wave rectified signal has less ripple than a half-wave recti-
rent is drawn from the supply (under load). The amount the dc voltage changes fied signal and is thus better to apply to a filter.

784 Chapter 19 Power Supplies (Voltage Regulators) 19.2 General Filter Considerations 785
 V.R. V.R.

19.3 CAPACITOR FILTER dc voltage is to provide this voltage for use by various electronic circuits, which then
constitute a load on the voltage supply. Since there will always be a load on the fil-
A very popular filter circuit is the capacitor-filter circuit shown in Fig. 19.3. A ca- ter output, we must consider this practical case in our discussion.
pacitor is connected at the rectifier output, and a dc voltage is obtained across the ca-
pacitor. Figure 19.4a shows the output voltage of a full-wave rectifier before the sig- Output Waveform Times
nal is filtered, while Fig. 19.4b shows the resulting waveform after the filter capacitor Figure 19.5b shows the waveform across a capacitor filter. Time T1 is the time dur-
is connected at the rectifier output. Notice that the filtered waveform is essentially a ing which diodes of the full-wave rectifier conduct, charging the capacitor up to the
dc voltage with some ripple (or ac variation). peak rectifier voltage, Vm. Time T2 is the time interval during which the rectifier volt-
age drops below the peak voltage, and the capacitor discharges through the load. Since
the charge–discharge cycle occurs for each half-cycle for a full-wave rectifier, the pe-
riod of the rectified waveform is T/2, one-half the input signal frequency. The filtered
voltage, as shown in Fig. 19.6, shows the output waveform to have a dc level Vdc and
a ripple voltage Vr (rms) as the capacitor charges and discharges. Some details of
these waveforms and the circuit elements are considered next.
Figure 19.3 Simple capacitor
filter.

Figure 19.6 Approximate

output voltage of capacitor filter
circuit.

RIPPLE VOLTAGE, Vr (RMS)

Figure 19.4 Capacitor filter operation: (a) full-wave rectifier voltage; (b) filtered Appendix B provides the details for determining the value of the ripple voltage
output voltage. in terms of the other circuit parameters. The ripple voltage can be calculated from
Ic 2.4 Idc 2.4Vdc
Figure 19.5a shows a full-wave bridge rectifier and the output waveform obtained Vr (rms) ⫽ ᎏdᎏ ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫽ ᎏᎏ (19.9)
from the circuit when connected to a load (RL). If no load were connected across the 4兹3苶 fC C RLC
capacitor, the output waveform would ideally be a constant dc level equal in value to where Idc is in milliamperes, C is in microfarads, and RL is in kilohms.
the peak voltage (Vm) from the rectifier circuit. However, the purpose of obtaining a

Calculate the ripple voltage of a full-wave rectifier with a 100-␮F filter capacitor con- EXAMPLE 19.3
nected to a load drawing 50 mA.

Solution
2.4(50)
Eq. (19.9): Vr(rms) ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫽ 1.2 V
100

DC VOLTAGE, Vdc
Figure 19.5 Capacitor filter:
(a) capacitor filter circuit; (b) output From Appendix B, we can express the dc value of the waveform across the filter
voltage waveform. capacitor as

786 Chapter 19 Power Supplies (Voltage Regulators) 19.3 Capacitor Filter 787
 V.R. V.R.

Ic 4.17Idc
Vdc ⫽ Vm ⫺ ᎏdᎏ ⫽ Vm ⫺ ᎏ ᎏ (19.10)
4fC C

where Vm is the peak rectifier voltage, Idc is the load current in milliamperes, and C
is the filter capacitor in microfarads.

EXAMPLE 19.4 If the peak rectified voltage for the filter circuit of Example 19.3 is 30 V, calculate
the filter dc voltage.

Solution
4.17Idc 4.17(50)
Eq. (19.10): Vdc ⫽ Vm ⫺ ᎏᎏ ⫽ 30 ⫺ ᎏᎏ ⫽ 27.9 V
C 100

Filter Capacitor Ripple

Using the definition of ripple [Eq. (19.1)], Eq. (19.9), and Eq. (19.10), with Vdc ⬇ Figure 19.7 Output voltage
Vm, we can obtain the expression for the output waveform ripple of a full-wave rec- and diode current waveforms:
(a) small C; (b) large C.
tifier and filter-capacitor circuit.
Vr(rms) 2.4 Idc 2.4 ation for full-wave). Notice that for smaller values of capacitor, with T1 larger, the
r⫽ᎏ ᎏ ⫻ 100% ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫻ 100% ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫻ 100% (19.11) peak diode current is less than for larger values of filter capacitor.
Vdc CVdc RLC
Since the average current drawn from the supply must equal the average diode
where Idc is in milliamperes, C is in microfarads, Vdc is in volts, and RL is in kil- current during the charging period, the following relation can be used (assuming con-
ohms. stant diode current during charge time):
T1
Idc ⫽ ᎏᎏ Ipeak
T
EXAMPLE 19.5 Calculate the ripple of a capacitor filter for a peak rectified voltage of 30 V, capaci-
tor C ⫽ 50 ␮F, and a load current of 50 mA. from which we obtain

Solution T
Ipeak ⫽ ᎏᎏ Idc (19.12)
T1
2.4 Idc 2.4(50)
Eq. (19.11): r ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫻ 100% ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫻ 100% ⫽ 4.3%
CVdc 100(27.9) where T1 ⫽ diode conduction time
We could also calculate the ripple using the basic definition T ⫽ 1/f ( f ⫽ 2 ⫻ 60 for full-wave)
Idc ⫽ average current drawn from filter
Vr (rms) 1.2 V Ipeak ⫽ peak current through conducting diodes
r⫽ᎏ ᎏ ⫻ 100% ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫻ 100% ⫽ 4.3%
Vdc 27.9 V

19.4 RC FILTER
Diode Conduction Period and Peak Diode Current
It is possible to further reduce the amount of ripple across a filter capacitor by using
From the previous discussion, it should be clear that larger values of capacitance pro- an additional RC filter section as shown in Fig. 19.8. The purpose of the added RC
vide less ripple and higher average voltage, thereby providing better filter action. From section is to pass most of the dc component while attenuating (reducing) as much of
this one might conclude that to improve the performance of a capacitor filter it is only
necessary to increase the size of the filter capacitor. The capacitor, however, also af-
fects the peak current drawn through the rectifying diodes, and as will be shown next, R
the larger the value of the capacitor, the larger the peak current drawn through the
rectifying diodes. Rectifier
C1 C2 RL
output
Recall that the diodes conduct during period T1 (see Fig. 19.5), during which time
the diode must provide the necessary average current to charge the capacitor. The
shorter this time interval, the larger the amount of the charging current. Figure 19.7
shows this relation for a half-wave rectified signal (it would be the same basic oper- Capacitor Additional RC Load
filter filter Figure 19.8 RC filter stage.

788 Chapter 19 Power Supplies (Voltage Regulators) 19.4 RC Filter 789

 V.R. V.R.

the ac component as possible. Figure 19.9 shows a full-wave rectifier with capacitor AC Operation of RC Filter Section
filter followed by an RC filter section. The operation of the filter circuit can be ana-
lyzed using superposition for the dc and ac components of signal. Figure 19.10b shows the ac equivalent circuit of the RC filter section. Due to the volt-
age-divider action of the capacitor ac impedance and the load resistor, the ac com-
ponent of voltage resulting across the load is
XC
V⬘r(rms) ⬇ ᎏᎏ Vr (rms) (19.14)
R

For a full-wave rectifier with ac ripple at 120 Hz, the impedance of a capacitor can
be calculated using
1.3
X C ⫽ ᎏᎏ (19.15)
C

where C is in microfarads and XC is in kilohms.

Calculate the dc and ac components of the output signal across load RL in the circuit EXAMPLE 19.7
of Fig. 19.11. Calculate the ripple of the output waveform.

Figure 19.9 Full-wave rectifier and RC filter circuit.

DC Operation of RC Filter Section

Figure 19.10a shows the dc equivalent circuit to use in analyzing the RC filter circuit
of Fig. 19.9. Since both capacitors are open-circuit for dc operation, the resulting out-
put dc voltage is
RL
V⬘dc ⫽ ᎏᎏV dc (19.13)
R ⫹ RL Figure 19.11 RC filter circuit for Example 19.7.

Solution
DC Calculation:

RL 5 k⍀
Eq. (19.13): V⬘dc ⫽ ᎏᎏ Vdc ⫽ ᎏᎏ (150 V) ⫽ 136.4 V
R ⫹ RL 500 ⫹ 5 k⍀
AC Calculation:
The RC section capacitive impedance is
Figure 19.10 (a) Dc and (b) ac 1.3 1.3
equivalent circuits of RC filter. Eq. (19.15): XC ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫽ 0.13 k⍀ ⫽ 130 ⍀
C 10
The ac component of the output voltage, calculated using Eq. (19.14), is
EXAMPLE 19.6 Calculate the dc voltage across a 1-k⍀ load for an RC filter section (R ⫽ 120 ⍀, XC 130
C ⫽ 10 ␮F). The dc voltage across the initial filter capacitor is Vdc ⫽ 60 V. V⬘r(rms) ⫽ ᎏᎏ Vr (rms) ⫽ ᎏᎏ (15 V) ⫽ 3.9 V
R 500
Solution The ripple of the output waveform is then
RL 1000 V⬘r(rms) 3. 9 V
Eq. (19.13): V⬘dc ⫽ ᎏᎏ Vdc ⫽ ᎏᎏ (60 V) ⫽ 53.6 V r⫽ᎏ ᎏ ⫻ 100% ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫻ 100% ⫽ 2.86%
R ⫹ RL 120 ⫹ 1000 Vd⬘c 136.4 V

790 Chapter 19 Power Supplies (Voltage Regulators) 19.4 RC Filter 791

 Temperature where ⑀ is the permittivity of the semiconductor materials, A the p-n junction area,
IF coefficient
and Wd the depletion width.
10 µA −2.3 mV/°C
100 µA −1.8 mV/°C As the reverse-bias potential increases, the width of the depletion region increases,
100 1.0 mA −1.3 mV/°C 1000 which in turn reduces the transition capacitance. The characteristics of a typical com-
10 mA −0.7 mV/°C mercially available varicap diode appear in Fig. 20.7. Note the initial sharp decline
100 mA −0.2 mV/°C 500
in CT with increase in reverse bias. The normal range of VR for VVC diodes is lim-

Forward current (mA)

10 ited to about 20 V. In terms of the applied reverse bias, the transition capacitance is

Reverse current (nA)

2900 given approximately by
2303
1 100
K
50 CT ⫽ ᎏᎏn (20.2)
T = 100°C
(VT ⫹ VR)
.1 T = 25°C 2301
T = −50°C 2302 where K ⫽ constant determined by the semiconductor material and construction
2305 technique
0.1 10 VT ⫽ knee potential as defined in Section 1.6
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0 5 10 15
Forward voltage (mV) Reverse voltage (V) VR ⫽ magnitude of the applied reverse-bias potential
n ⫽ ᎏ12ᎏ for alloy junctions and ᎏ13ᎏ for diffused junctions
I-V Curve Showing Typical Temp- 5082-2300 Series Typical
erature Variation for 5082-2300 Reverse Current vs. Reverse
Series Schottky Diodes. Voltage at TA = 25°C.

(a) (b)

1.2

1.0
Capacitance (pF)

0.8

0.6
2900
2303
0.4

2301
0.2
2302 Figure 20.7 Varicap characteristics:
2305 C (pF) versus VR.
0
0 4 8 12 16 20
VR −Reverse voltage (V)
In terms of the capacitance at the zero-bias condition C(0), the capacitance as a
5082-2300 Series Typical
Capacitance vs. Reverse Figure 20.6 Characteristic curves for Hewlett- function of VR is given by
Voltage at TA = 25°C. Packard 5082-2300 series of general-purpose
Schottky barrier diodes. (Courtesy Hewlett-Packard C(0)
(c) Corporation.) CT (VR) ⫽ ᎏᎏn (20.3)
(1 ⫹ 冨VR/VT冨)
The symbols most commonly used for the varicap diode and a first approxima-
tion for its equivalent circuit in the reverse-bias region are shown in Fig. 20.8. Since
20.3 VARACTOR (VARICAP) DIODES
Varactor [also called varicap, VVC (voltage-variable capacitance), or tuning] diodes
are semiconductor, voltage-dependent, variable capacitors. Their mode of operation
depends on the capacitance that exists at the p-n junction when the element is reverse-
biased. Under reverse-bias conditions, it was established that there is a region of un-
covered charge on either side of the junction that together the regions make up the
depletion region and define the depletion width Wd. The transition capacitance (CT)
established by the isolated uncovered charges is determined by

A
CT ⫽ ⑀ᎏᎏ (20.1) Figure 20.8 Varicap diode: (a) equivalent circuit in the reverse-bias region;
Wd
(b) symbols.

814 Chapter 20 Other Two-Terminal Devices 20.3 Varactor (Varicap) Diodes 815
 we are in the reverse-bias region, the resistance in the equivalent circuit is very large
in magnitude—typically 1 M⍀ or larger—while RS, the geometric resistance of the
diode, is, as indicated in Fig. 20.8, very small. The magnitude of CT will vary from
about 2 to 100 pF depending on the varicap considered. To ensure that RR is as large
(for minimum leakage current) as possible, silicon is normally used in varicap diodes.
The fact that the device will be employed at very high frequencies requires that we
include the inductance LS even though it is measured in nanohenries. Recall that
XL ⫽ 2␲fL and a frequency of 10 GHz with LS ⫽ 1 nH will result in an XLS ⫽
2␲fL ⫽ (6.28)(1010 Hz)(10⫺9 F) ⫽ 62.8 ⍀. There is obviously, therefore, a frequency
limit associated with the use of each varicap diode.
Assuming the proper frequency range and a low value of RS and XLS compared to
the other series elements, then the equivalent circuit for the varicap of Fig. 20.8a can
be replaced by the variable capacitor alone. The complete data sheet and its character-
istic curves appear in Figs. 20.9 and 20.10, respectively. The C3/C25 ratio in Fig. 20.9

BB 139
VHF/FM VARACTOR DIODE
DIFFUSED SILICON PLANAR

• C3/C25 . . . 5.0-6.5
• MATCHED SETS (Note 2) DC-35 OUTLINE

ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS (Note 1)

1.0
(25.40) MIN
Temperatures
Storage Temperature Range −55°C to +150°C
Maximum Junction Operating Temperature +150°C
Lead Temperature +260°C 0.180 (4.57)
0.140 (3.56)
Maximum Voltage
WIV Working Inverse Voltage 30 V

Figure 20.10 Characteristic curves for a VHF/FM Fairchild varactor diode.

(Courtesy Fairchild Camera and Instrument Corporation.)
0.021 (0.533)
0.019 (0.483) DIA
0.075 (1.91)
0.060 (1.52) DIA

NOTES:
Copper clad steel leads, tin plated
Gold plated leads available
is the ratio of capacitance levels at reverse-bias potentials of 3 and 25 V. It provides a
Hermetically sealed glass package quick estimate of how much the capacitance will change with reverse-bias potential.
Package weight is 0.14 gram
The figure of merit is a quantity of consideration in the application of the device and is
a measure of the ratio of energy stored by the capacitive device per cycle to the energy
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS (25°C Ambient Temperature unless otherwise noted)
dissipated (or lost) per cycle. Since energy loss is seldom considered a positive attribute,
SYMBOL CHARACTERISTIC MIN TYP MAX UNITS TEST CONDITIONS
the higher its relative value the better. The resonant frequency of the device is deter-
BV Breakdown Voltage 30 V IR = 100 µA
10 50 nA VR = 28 V
mined by fo ⫽ 1/2␲兹苶 L苶
C and affects the range of application of the device.
IR Reverse Current
0.1 0.5 µA VR = 28 V, TA = 60°C In Fig. 20.10, most quantities are self-explanatory. However, the capacitance tem-
C Capacitance 29 pF VR = 3.0 V, f = 1 MHz perature coefficient is defined by
4.3 5.1 6.0 pF VR = 25 V, f = 1 MHz
C3/C25 Capacitance Ratio 5.0 5.7 6.5 VR = 3 V/25 V, f = 1 MHz ⌬C
Q Figure of Merit 150 VR = 3.0 V, f = 100 MHz TCC ⫽ ᎏᎏ ⫻ 100% %/°C (20.4)
C0(T1 ⫺ T0)
RS Series Resistance 0.35 Ω C = 10 pF, f = 600 MHz
LS Series Inductance 2.5 nH 1.5 mm from case where ⌬C is the change in capacitance due to the temperature change T1 ⫺ T0 and
fo Series Resonant Frequency 1.4 GHz VR = 25 V C0 is the capacitance at T0 for a particular reverse-bias potential. For example, Fig.
NOTES; 20.9 indicates that C0 ⫽ 29 pF with VR ⫽ 3 V and T0 ⫽ 25°C. A change in capaci-
1. These ratings are limiting values above which the serviceability of the diodes may be impaired.
2. The capacitance diffrence between any two diodes in one set is less than 3% over the reverse voltage range of 0.5 V to 28 V tance ⌬C could then be determined using Eq. (20.4) simply by substituting the new
temperature T1 and the TCC as determined from the graph (⫽ 0.013). At a new VR,
Figure 20.9 Electrical characteristics for a VHF/FM Fairchild varactor diode. the value of TCC would change accordingly. Returning to Fig. 20.9, note that the max-
(Courtesy Fairchild Camera and Instrument Corporation.) imum frequency appearing is 600 MHz. At this frequency,

816 Chapter 20 Other Two-Terminal Devices 20.3 Varactor (Varicap) Diodes 817
 XL ⫽ 2␲fL ⫽ (6.28)(600 ⫻ 106 Hz)(2.5 ⫻ 10⫺9 F) ⫽ 9.42 ⍀
normally a quantity of sufficiently small magnitude to be ignored.
Some of the high-frequency (as defined by the small capacitance levels) areas of
application include FM modulators, automatic-frequency-control devices, adjustable
bandpass filters, and parametric amplifiers.
In Fig. 20.11, the varactor diode is employed in a tuning network. That is, the res-
onant frequency of the parallel L-C combination is determined by fp ⫽ 1/2␲兹苶 L苶2C苶T⬘
(high-Q system) with the level of C⬘T ⫽ CT ⫹ CC determined by the applied reverse-
bias potential VDD. The coupling capacitor CC is present to provide isolation between
the shorting effect of L2 and the applied bias. The selected frequencies of the tuned
network are then passed on to the high input amplifier for further amplification.

Transformer
To high-input
impedance amplifier
CC
Figure 20.12 Power diodes and heat sinks. (Courtesy International Rectifier
−VDD Corporation.)
L1 L2

CT
20.5 TUNNEL DIODES
Tank The tunnel diode was first introduced by Leo Esaki in 1958. Its characteristics, shown
circuit
in Fig. 20.13, are different from any diode discussed thus far in that it has a negative-
resistance region. In this region, an increase in terminal voltage results in a reduction
in diode current.
The tunnel diode is fabricated by doping the semiconductor materials that will
form the p-n junction at a level one hundred to several thousand times that of a typ-
ical semiconductor diode. This will result in a greatly reduced depletion region, of
Figure 20.11 Tuning network employing a varactor diode. the order of magnitude of 10⫺6 cm, or typically about ᎏ1100ᎏ the width of this region for
a typical semiconductor diode. It is this thin depletion region that many carriers can
“tunnel” through, rather than attempt to surmount, at low forward-bias potentials that
accounts for the peak in the curve of Fig. 20.13. For comparison purposes, a typical
20.4 POWER DIODES
There are a number of diodes designed specifically to handle the high-power and high-
temperature demands of some applications. The most frequent use of power diodes
occurs in the rectification process, in which ac signals (having zero average value)
are converted to ones having an average or dc level. As noted in Chapter 2, when used
in this capacity, diodes are normally referred to as rectifiers.
The majority of the power diodes are constructed using silicon because of its
higher current, temperature, and PIV ratings. The higher current demands require that
the junction area be larger, to ensure that there is a low forward diode resistance. If
the forward resistance were too large, the I2R losses would be excessive. The current
capability of power diodes can be increased by placing two or more in parallel, and
the PIV rating can be increased by stacking the diodes in series.
Various types of power diodes and their current rating have been provided in Fig.
20.12a. The high temperatures resulting from the heavy current require, in many cases,
that heat sinks be used to draw the heat away from the element. A few of the various
types of heat sinks available are shown in Fig. 20.12b. If heat sinks are not employed,
stud diodes are designed to be attached directly to the chassis, which in turn will act Figure 20.13 Tunnel diode
as the heat sink. characteristics.

818 Chapter 20 Other Two-Terminal Devices 20.5 Tunnel Diodes 819

 semiconductor diode characteristic has been superimposed on the tunnel-diode char- Note the lead length of ᎏ18ᎏ in. included in the specifications. An increase in this
acteristic of Fig. 20.13. length will cause LS to increase. In fact, it was given for this device that LS will vary
This reduced depletion region results in carriers “punching through” at velocities 1 to 12 nH, depending on lead length. At high frequencies (XLS ⫽ 2␲fLS), this factor
that far exceed those available with conventional diodes. The tunnel diode can there- can take its toll.
fore be used in high-speed applications such as in computers, where switching times The fact that Vfp ⫽ 500 mV (typ.) and Iforward (max.) ⫽ 5 mA indicates that tun-
in the order of nanoseconds or picoseconds are desirable. nel diodes are low-power devices [PD ⫽ (0.5 V)(5 mA) ⫽ 2.5 mW], which is also ex- Figure 20.15 A Ge IN2939
You will recall from Section 1.14 that an increase in the doping level will drop cellent for computer applications. A rendering of the device appears in Fig. 20.15. tunnel diode. (Courtesy Powerex,
the Zener potential. Note the effect of a very high doping level on this region in Fig. Although the use of tunnel diodes in present-day high-frequency systems has been Inc.)
20.13. The semiconductor materials most frequently used in the manufacture of tun- dramatically stalled by manufacturing techniques that suggest alternatives to the tun-
nel diodes are germanium and gallium arsenide. The ratio IP/IV is very important for nel diode, its simplicity, linearity, low power drain, and reliability ensure its contin-
computer applications. For germanium, it is typically 10⬊1, while for gallium arsenide, ued life and application. The basic construction of an advance design tunnel diode
it is closer to 20⬊1. appears in Fig. 20.16 with a photograph of the actual junction.
The peak current, IP, of a tunnel diode can vary from a few microamperes to sev-
eral hundred amperes. The peak voltage, however, is limited to about 600 mV. For
this reason, a simple VOM with an internal dc battery potential of 1.5 V can severely
damage a tunnel diode if applied improperly.
The tunnel diode equivalent circuit in the negative-resistance region is provided
in Fig. 20.14, with the symbols most frequently employed for tunnel diodes. The val-
ues for each parameter are for the 1N2939 tunnel diode whose specifications appear
in Table 20.1. The inductor LS is due mainly to the terminal leads. The resistor RS is
due to the leads, ohmic contact at the lead–semiconductor junction, and the semi-
conductor materials themselves. The capacitance C is the junction diffusion capaci-
tance, and the R is the negative resistance of the region. The negative resistance finds
application in oscillators to be described later.
(b)

Figure 20.16 Tunnel diode: (a) construction; (b) photograph. (Courtesy COM
SAT Technical Review, P. F. Varadi and T. D. Kirkendall.)

In Fig. 20.17, the chosen supply voltage and load resistance have defined a load
line that intersects the tunnel diode characteristics at three points. Keep in mind that
the load line is determined solely by the network and the characteristics by the de-
vice. The intersections at a and b are referred to as stable operating points, due to the
positive resistance characteristic. That is, at either of these operating points, a slight
disturbance in the network will not set the network into oscillations or result in a sig-
Figure 20.14 Tunnel diode: (a) equivalent circuit; (b) symbols.
nificant change in the location of the Q-point. For instance, if the defined operating
point is at b, a slight increase in supply voltage E will move the operating point up
TABLE 20.1 Specifications: Ge 1N2939 the curve since the voltage across the diode will increase. Once the disturbance has
Minimum Typical Maximum

Absolute maximum ratings (25°C)

Forward current (⫺55 to ⫹100°C) 5 mA
Reverse current (⫺55 to ⫹100°C) 10 mA
Electrical characteristics (25°C)(ᎏ18ᎏ-in. leads)
IP 0.9 1.0 1.1 mA
IV 0.1 0.14 mA
VP 50 60 65 mV
VV 350 mV
Reverse voltage (IR ⫽ 1.0 mA) 30 mV
Forward peak point current voltage, Vfp 450 500 600 mV
IP/IV 10
⫺R ⫺152 ⍀
C 5 15 pF
LS 6 nH
RS 1.5 4.0 ⍀
Figure 20.17 Tunnel diode and resulting load line.

820 Chapter 20 Other Two-Terminal Devices 20.5 Tunnel Diodes 821

 passed, the voltage across the diode and the associated diode current will return to E ⫽ ITR ⫹ IT (⫺RT)
the levels defined by the Q-point at b. The operating point defined by c is an unsta- and E ⫽ IT (R ⫺ RT)
ble one because a slight change in the voltage across or current through the diode will

冦
result in the Q-point moving to either a or b. For instance, the slightest increase in E less less
will cause the voltage across the tunnel diode to increase above its level at c. In this If both elements of the equation above were to decrease, it would be impossible for
region, however, an increase in VT will cause a decrease in IT and a further increase the supply voltage to reach its set value. Therefore, for the current IT to continue rising,
in VT. This increased level in VT will result in a continuing decrease in IT, and so on. the point of operation must shift from point 1 to point 2. However, at point 2, the volt-
The result is an increase in VT and a change in IT until the stable operating point at age VT has jumped to a value greater than the applied voltage (point 2 is to the right of
b is established. A slight drop in supply voltage would result in a transition to sta- any point on the network load line). To satisfy Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the polarity of
bility at point a. In other words, point c can be defined as the operating point using the transient voltage across the coil must reverse and the current begin to decrease as
the load-line technique, but once the system is energized, it will eventually stabilize shown from 2 to 3 on the characteristics. When VT drops to VV, the characteristics sug-
at location a or b. gest that the current IT will begin to increase again. This is unacceptable since VT is still
The availability of a negative resistance region can be put to good use in the de- more than the applied voltage and the coil is discharging through the series circuit. The
sign of oscillators, switching networks, pulse generators, and amplifiers. point of operation must shift to point 4 to permit a continuation of the decrease in IT.
In Fig. 20.18a, a negative-resistance oscillator was constructed using a tunnel However, once at point 4, the potential levels are such that the tunnel current can again
diode. The choice of network elements is designed to establish a load line such as increase from 0 mA to IP as shown on the characteristics. The process will repeat itself
shown in Fig. 20.18b. Note that the only intersection with the characteristics is in the again and again, never settling in on the operating point defined for the unstable region.
unstable negative-resistance region—a stable operating point is not defined. When the The resulting voltage across the tunnel diode appears in Fig. 20.18c and will continue
power is turned on, the terminal voltage of the supply will build up from 0 V to a fi- as long as the dc supply is energized. The result is an oscillatory output established by
nal value of E volts. Initially, the current IT will increase from 0 mA to IP, resulting a fixed supply and a device with a negative-resistance characteristic. The waveform of
in a storage of energy in the inductor in the form of a magnetic field. However, once Fig. 20.18c has extensive application in timing and computer logic circuitry.
IP is reached, the diode characteristics suggest that the current IT must now decrease A tunnel diode can also be used to generate a sinusoidal voltage using simply a
with increase in voltage across the diode. This is a contradiction to the fact that dc supply and a few passive elements. In Fig. 20.19a, the closing of the switch will
result in a sinusoidal voltage that will decrease in amplitude with time. Depending on
the elements employed, the time period can be from one almost instantaneous to one
measurable in minutes using typical parameter values. This damping of the oscilla-
IT
tory output with time is due to the dissipative characteristics of the resistive elements.
By placing a tunnel diode in series with the tank circuit as shown in Fig. 20.19c, the
negative resistance of the tunnel diode will offset the resistive characteristics of the
1
2 tank circuit, resulting in the undamped response appearing in the same figure. The
E
R L iT + Q-point E

E vT

4 υC υC
– 3
0 E vT
Rl Rl
(a) (b)
C C
t t
L L

υT
2 2

(b) (c)
3 3

1 4 1 4 1
t "Tank"
circuit

(c) (a)

Figure 20.18 Negative-resistance oscillator. Figure 20.19 Sinusoidal oscillator.

822 Chapter 20 Other Two-Terminal Devices 20.5 Tunnel Diodes 823

 design must continue to result in a load line that will intersect the characteristics only
in the negative-resistance region. In another light, the sinusoidal generator of Fig.
20.19 is simply an extension of the pulse oscillator of Fig. 20.18, with the addition
of the capacitor to permit an exchange of energy between the inductor and the ca-
pacitor during the various phases of the cycle depicted in Fig. 20.18b.

20.6 PHOTODIODES
The interest in light-sensitive devices has been increasing at an almost exponential
rate in recent years. The resulting field of optoelectronics will be receiving a great
deal of research interest as efforts are made to improve efficiency levels. Through the
advertising media, the layperson has become quite aware that light sources offer a
unique source of energy. This energy, transmitted as discrete packages called photons,
has a level directly related to the frequency of the traveling light wave as determined
by the following equation:

W ⫽ hf joules (20.5)

where 冫h is called Planck’s constant and is equal to 6.624 ⫻ 10⫺34 joule-second. It

clearly states that since 冫
h is a constant, the energy associated with incident light
waves is directly related to the frequency of the traveling wave.
The frequency is, in turn, directly related to the wavelength (distance between suc-
cessive peaks) of the traveling wave by the following equation:

v Figure 20.20 Relative spectral response for Si, Ge, and selenium as compared to
␭ ⫽ ᎏᎏ (20.6) the human eye.
f
n- and p-type materials. The application of light to the junction will result in a trans-
where ␭ ⫽ wavelength, meters
fer of energy from the incident traveling light waves (in the form of photons) to the
v ⫽ velocity of light, 3 ⫻ 108 m/s
atomic structure, resulting in an increased number of minority carriers and an in-
f ⫽ frequency of the traveling wave, hertz
creased level of reverse current. This is clearly shown in Fig. 20.22 for different in-
The wavelength is usually measured in angstrom units (Å) or micrometers (␮m),
tensity levels. The dark current is that current that will exist with no applied illumi-
where
nation. Note that the current will only return to zero with a positive applied bias equal
1 Å ⫽ 10⫺10 m and 1 ␮m ⫽ 10⫺6 m to VT. In addition, Fig. 20.21 demonstrates the use of a lens to concentrate the light
on the junction region. Commercially available photodiodes appear in Fig. 20.23.
The wavelength is important because it will determine the material to be used in
the optoelectronic device. The relative spectral response for Ge, Si, and selenium is
provided in Fig. 20.20. The visible-light spectrum has also been included with an in-
dication of the wavelength associated with the various colors.
The number of free electrons generated in each material is proportional to the in-
tensity of the incident light. Light intensity is a measure of the amount of luminous
flux falling in a particular surface area. Luminous flux is normally measured in lu-
mens (lm) or watts. The two units are related by
1 lm ⫽ 1.496 ⫻ 10⫺10 W
The light intensity is normally measured in lm/ft2, footcandles (fc), or W/m2, where
1 lm/ft2 ⫽ 1 fc ⫽ 1.609 ⫻ 10⫺9 W/m2
Figure 20.21 Photodiode: (a)
The photodiode is a semiconductor p-n junction device whose region of opera- basic biasing arrangement and
construction; (b) symbol.
tion is limited to the reverse-bias region. The basic biasing arrangement, construction,
and symbol for the device appear in Fig. 20.21.
Recall from Chapter 1 that the reverse saturation current is normally limited to a Figure 20.22 Photodiode
few microamperes. It is due solely to the thermally generated minority carriers in the characteristics.

824 Chapter 20 Other Two-Terminal Devices 20.6 Photodiodes 825

 In Fig. 20.25, the photodiode is employed in an alarm system. The reverse cur-
rent I␭ will continue to flow as long as the light beam is not broken. If interrupted,
I␭ drops to the dark current level and sounds the alarm. In Fig. 20.26, a photodiode
is used to count items on a conveyor belt. As each item passes the light beam is bro-
ken, I␭ drops to the dark current level and the counter is increased by one.

Figure 20.25 Using a photodiode in an alarm Figure 20.26 Using a photodiode in a counter
system. operation.
Figure 20.23 Photodiodes (Courtesy EG&G VACTEC, Inc.)
The almost equal spacing between the curves for the same increment in luminous 20.7 PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELLS
flux reveals that the reverse current and luminous flux are almost linearly related. In
other words, an increase in light intensity will result in a similar increase in reverse The photoconductive cell is a two-terminal semiconductor device whose terminal re-
current. A plot of the two to show this linear relationship appears in Fig. 20.24 for a sistance will vary (linearly) with the intensity of the incident light. For obvious rea-
fixed voltage V␭ of 20 V. On the relative basis, we can assume that the reverse cur- sons, it is frequently called a photoresistive device. A typical photoconductive cell and
rent is essentially zero in the absence of incident light. Since the rise and fall times the most widely used graphical symbol for the device appear in Fig. 20.27.
(change-of-state parameters) are very small for this device (in the nanosecond range),
the device can be used for high-speed counting or switching applications. Returning
to Fig. 20.20, we note that Ge encompasses a wider spectrum of wavelengths than Si.
This would make it suitable for incident light in the infrared region as provided by
lasers and IR (infrared) light sources, to be described shortly. Of course, Ge has a
higher dark current than silicon, but it also has a higher level of reverse current. The
level of current generated by the incident light on a photodiode is not such that it
could be used as a direct control, but it can be amplified for this purpose.

(a)

Figure 20.27 Photoconductive

cell: (a) appearance; (b) symbol.
[(a) Courtesy International
(b) Rectifier Corporation.]

The photoconductive materials most frequently used include cadmium sulfide

(CdS) and cadmium selenide (CdSe). The peak spectral response of CdS occurs at
approximately 5100 Å and for CdSe at 6150 Å (note Fig. 20.20). The response time
Figure 20.24 I␭(␮A) versus fc of CdS units is about 100 ms, and 10 ms for CdSe cells. The photoconductive cell
(at V␭ ⫽ 20 V) for the photodiode does not have a junction like the photodiode. A thin layer of the material connected
of Fig. 20.22. between terminals is simply exposed to the incident light energy.

826 Chapter 20 Other Two-Terminal Devices 20.7 Photoconductive Cells 827

 As the illumination on the device increases in intensity, the energy state of a larger tion of the segments of each digit, the pattern will appear as shown in Fig. 20.39. The
number of electrons in the structure will also increase because of the increased avail- reflective-type field-effect LCD is shown in Fig. 20.40. In this case, the horizontally
ability of the photon packages of energy. The result is an increasing number of rela- polarized light at the far left encounters a horizontally polarized filter and passes
Figure 20.39 Reflective-type
tively “free” electrons in the structure and a decrease in the terminal resistance. The through to the reflector, where it is reflected back into the liquid crystal, bent back LCD. (Courtesy RCA Solid State
sensitivity curve for a typical photoconductive device appears in Fig. 20.28. Note the to the other vertical polarization, and returned to the observer. If there is no applied Division.)
linearity (when plotted using a log-log scale) of the resulting curve and the large voltage, there is a uniformly lit display. The application of a voltage results in a ver-
change in resistance (100 k⍀ → 100 ⍀) for the indicated change in illumination. tically incident light encountering a horizontally polarized filter at the left, which it
will not be able to pass through and will be reflected. A dark area results on the crys-
tal, and the pattern as shown in Fig. 20.41 appears.

Figure 20.41 Transmissive-type

LCD. (Courtesy RCA Solid State
Figure 20.40 Reflective field-effect Division.)
LCD with no applied bias.

Field-effect LCDs are normally used when a source of energy is a prime factor
Figure 20.28 Photoconductive cell-terminal characteristics (GE type B425). (e.g., in watches, portable instrumentation, etc.) since they absorb considerably less
power than the light-scattering types—the microwatt range compared to the low-
milliwatt range. The cost is typically higher for field-effect units, and their height is
limited to about 2 in. while light-scattering units are available up to 8 in. in height.
One rather simple, but interesting, application of the device appears in Fig. 20.29. A further consideration in displays is turn-on and turn-off time. LCDs are char-
The purpose of the system is to maintain Vo at a fixed level even though Vi may fluc- acteristically much slower then LEDs. LCDs typically have response times in the
tuate from its rated value. As indicated in the figure, the photoconductive cell, bulb, range 100 to 300 ms, while LEDs are available with response times below 100 ns.
and resistor all form part of this voltage-regulator system. If Vi should drop in mag- However, there are numerous applications, such as in a watch, where the difference
nitude for any number of reasons, the brightness of the bulb would also decrease. The between 100 ns and 100 ms (ᎏ110ᎏ of a second) is of little consequence. For such appli-
decrease in illumination would result in an increase in the resistance (R␭) of the pho- cations, the lower power demand of LCDs is a very attractive characteristic. The life-
toconductive cell to maintain Vo at its rate level as determined by the voltage-divider time of LCD units is steadily increasing beyond the 10,000⫹ hours limit. Since the
rule, that is, color generated by LCD units is dependent on the source of illumination, there is a
R Vi greater range of color choice.
Vo ⫽ ᎏ␭ᎏ (20.7)
R␭ ⫹ R1
20.10 SOLAR CELLS
In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the solar cell as an alternative
source of energy. When we consider that the power density received from the sun at
sea level is about 100 mW/cm2 (1 kW/m2), it is certainly an energy source that re-
quires further research and development to maximize the conversion efficiency from
solar to electrical energy.
The basic construction of a silicon p-n junction solar cell appears in Fig. 20.42.
Figure 20.29 Voltage regulator
As shown in the top view, every effort is made to ensure that the surface area per-
employing a photoconductive cell.
pendicular to the sun is a maximum. Also, note that the metallic conductor connected
to the p-type material and the thickness of the p-type material are such that they en-
sure that a maximum number of photons of light energy will reach the junction. A
In an effort to demonstrate the wealth of material available on each device from photon of light energy in this region may collide with a valence electron and impart
manufacturers, consider the CdS (cadmium sulfide) photoconductive cell described to it sufficient energy to leave the parent atom. The result is a generation of free elec-
in Fig. 20.30. Note again the concern with temperature and response time. trons and holes. This phenomenon will occur on each side of the junction. In the

828 Chapter 20 Other Two-Terminal Devices 20.10 Solar Cells 833

 The wavelength of the incident light will affect the response of the p-n junction to
the incident photons. Note in Fig. 20.45 how closely the selenium cell response curve
matches that of the eye. This fact has widespread application in photographic equip-
ment such as exposure meters and automatic exposure diaphragms. Silicon also over-
laps the visible spectrum but has its peak at the 0.8 ␮m (8000 Å) wavelength, which
is in the infrared region. In general, silicon has a higher conversion efficiency, greater
stability, and is less subject to fatigue. Both materials have excellent temperature char-
acteristics. That is, they can withstand extreme high or low temperatures without a
significant drop-off in efficiency. Typical solar cells, with their electrical characteris-
Figure 20.42 Solar cell: (a) tics, appear in Fig. 20.46.
cross section; (b) top view.
% Response

p-type material, the newly generated electrons are minority carriers and will move
100
rather freely across the junction as explained for the basic p-n junction with no ap-
plied bias. A similar discussion is true for the holes generated in the n-type material.
The result is an increase in the minority-carrier flow, which is opposite in direction 75
to the conventional forward current of a p-n junction. This increase in reverse current Selenium Silicon
is shown in Fig. 20.43. Since V ⫽ 0 anywhere on the vertical axis and represents a 50
short-circuit condition, the current at this intersection is called the short-circuit cur- Visible
spectrum
rent and is represented by the notation ISC. Under open-circuit conditions (id ⫽ 0), 25
the photovoltaic voltage VOC will result. This is a logarithmic function of the illumi-
nation, as shown in Fig. 20.44. VOC is the terminal voltage of a battery under no-load
0 Figure 20.45 Spectral response
(open-circuit) conditions. Note, however, in the same figure that the short-circuit cur- 2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000 12,000 λ (Å) of Se, Si, and the naked eye.
rent is a linear function of the illumination. That is, it will double for the same in-
crease in illumination ( fC1 and 2fC1 in Fig. 20.44) while the change in VOC is less for Figure 20.46 Typical solar cells
this region. The major increase in VOC occurs for lower-level increases in illumina- and their electrical characteristics.
(Courtesy EG&G VACTEC, Inc.)
tion. Eventually, a further increase in illumination will have very little effect on VOC,
although ISC will increase, causing the power capabilities to increase.
Selenium and silicon are the most widely used materials for solar cells, although
gallium arsenide, indium arsenide, and cadmium sulfide, among others, are also used.

Figure 20.43 Short-circuit current and open-circuit voltage ver- Figure 20.44 VOC and ISC versus illumination for a solar
sus light intensity for a solar cell. cell.

834 Chapter 20 Other Two-Terminal Devices 20.10 Solar Cells 835

 A very recent innovation in the use of solar cells appears in Fig. 20.47. The se-
ries arrangement of solar cells permits a voltage beyond that of a single element. The
performance of a typical four-cell array appears in the same figure. At a current of
approximately 2.6 mA, the output voltage is about 1.6 V, resulting in an output power
of 4.16 mW. The Schottky barrier diode is included to prevent battery current drain
through the power converter. That is, the resistance of the Schottky diode is so high
to charge flowing down through (⫹ to ⫺) the power converter that it will appear as
an open circuit to the rechargeable battery and not draw current from it.

Figure 20.48 Typical output

characteristics for silicon solar cells
of 10% efficiency having an active
area of 1 cm2. Cell temperature
is 30°C.

20.11 THERMISTORS
The thermistor is, as the name implies, a temperature-sensitive resistor; that is, its ter-
minal resistance is related to its body temperature. It is not a junction device and is
constructed of Ge, Si, or a mixture of oxides of cobalt, nickel, strontium, or man-
ganese. The compound employed will determine whether the device has a positive or
negative temperature coefficient.
The characteristics of a representative thermistor with a negative temperature
coefficient are provided in Fig. 20.49, with the commonly used symbol for the de-
vice. Note in particular that at room temperature (20°C) the resistance of the therm-
istor is approximately 5000 ⍀, while at 100°C (212°F) the resistance has decreased to
Figure 20.47 International Rectifier four-cell array: (a) appearance; (b) charac-
100 ⍀. A temperature span of 80°C has therefore resulted in a 50⬊1 change in resis-
teristics. (Courtesy International Rectifier Corporation.)

It might be of interest to note that the Lockheed Missiles and Space Company
is working on a grant from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration to
develop a massive solar-array wing for the space shuttle. The wing will measure
13.5 ft by 105 ft when extended and will contain 41 panels, each carrying 3060 sili-
con solar cells. The wing can generate a total of 12.5 kW of electrical power.
The efficiency of operation of a solar cell is determined by the electrical power
output divided by the power provided by the light source. That is,

Po(electrical) Pmax(device)
␩⫽ᎏ ᎏ ⫻ 100% ⫽ ᎏᎏᎏ ⫻ 100% (20.8)
Pi(light energy) (area in cm2)(100 mW/cm2)
Typical levels of efficiency range from 10% to 40%—a level that should improve
measurably if the present interest continues. A typical set of output characteristics for
silicon solar cells of 10% efficiency with an active area of 1 cm2 appears in Fig. 20.48. Figure 20.49 Thermistor:
Note the optimum power locus and the almost linear increase in output current with (a) typical set of characteristics;
luminous flux for a fixed voltage. (b) symbol.

836 Chapter 20 Other Two-Terminal Devices 20.11 Thermistors 837