Copper has resistivity of 1.

72 × 10 −8 Ω ⋅ m at 20°C
Example Longer Extension Cords
The instructions for an electric lawn mower suggest that a 20-gauge extension cord can be
used for distances up to 35 m, but a thicker 16-gauge cord should be used for longer
distances. The cross sectional area of a 20-gauge wire is 5.2x10-7m2, while that of a 16-gauge
wire is 1.3x10-6m2. Determine the resistance of (a) 35m of 20-gauge copper wire and (b) 75m
of 16-gauge copper wire.

1
Example Longer Extension Cords
The instructions for an electric lawn mower suggest that a 20-gauge extension cord can be
used for distances up to 35 m, but a thicker 16-gauge cord should be used for longer
distances. The cross sectional area of a 20-gauge wire is 5.2x10-7m2, while that of a 16-gauge
wire is 1.3x10-6m2. Determine the resistance of (a) 35m of 20-gauge copper wire and (b) 75m
of 16-gauge copper wire.
L20 (1.72 × 10 −8 Ω ⋅ m )(35 m )
(a) R20 = ρ Cu = = 1.2 Ω
A20 5.2 × 10 m
-7 2

L16 (1.72 × 10 −8 Ω ⋅ m )(75 m )

(b) R16 = ρ Cu = = 0.99 Ω 2
A16 1.3 × 10 -6 m 2
20.3 Resistance and Resistivity
Over limited temperature ranges, the fractional change in resistivity is proportional to the
temperature change. So taking reference resistivity ρ0 at reference temperature T0 :
ρ − ρo ρ = ρ o [1 + α (T − To )] → R = Ro [1 + α (T − To )]
= α (T − To )
ρo
temperature coefficient of resistivity (>0 for metals, <0 for semi-conductors
Neglecting change in dimensions of the resistor

Example: (a) A 34.5m length of copper wire at 20.0°C has a radius of 0.25 mm. If a
potential difference of 9.0V is applied across the length of the wire, determine the current
in the wire. (b) If the wire is heated to 30.0°C while the 9.0V potential difference is
maintained, what is the resulting current in the wire?
Resistivity of Cu =1.72×10−8 Ω·m @ 20°C, temperature coefficient: α =3.93 ×10−3 C°-1

3
20.3 Resistance and Resistivity
Over limited temperature ranges, the fractional change in resistivity is proportional to the
temperature change. So taking reference resistivity ρ0 at reference temperature T0 :

ρ − ρo
= α (T − To ) ρ = ρ o [1 + α (T − To )]
ρo
temperature coefficient
of resistivity (>0 for metals)
→ R = Ro [1 + α (T − To )]
Neglecting change in dimensions of the resistor

Example: (a) A 34.5m length of copper wire at 20.0°C has a radius of 0.25 mm. If a
potential difference of 9.0V is applied across the length of the wire, determine the current
in the wire. (b) If the wire is heated to 30.0°C while the 9.0V potential difference is
maintained, what is the resulting current in the wire?
Resistivity of Cu =1.72×10−8 Ω·m @ 20°C, temperature coefficient: α =3.93 ×10−3 C°-1

L L 34.5 m
(a) R0 = ρ 0 = ρ0 = (1 . 72 × 10 −8
Ω ⋅ m ) = 3.02 Ω
A π r2 (3.1416)(2.50 × 10 −4 m) 2
I 0 = V / R0 = (9.0 V ) /(3.02 Ω) = 2.98 A

(b) [
R = R0 [1 + α (T − T0 )] = (3.02 Ω) 1 + (3.93 × 10 −3 C o -1 )(30.0 o C − 20.0 o C) ]
= (3.02 Ω)(1.0393) = 3.14 Ω
I = V / R = (9.0 V ) /(3.14 Ω) = 2.87 A 4
20.4 Electric Power
Electrical Power supplied by a DC source of emf = E =V
Each parcel of charge ∆q is raised by a potential difference of V. And gains electric potential
energy ∆EPE=(∆q) V. This is the amount of work ∆W done by the power source on the
parcel ∆q.
By definition: Power = ∆W/ ∆t

∆q
+ + + +
+
+ E
− +

+ + + + + + +
Work/energy The same power generated

∆W (∆q )V ∆q
by the source must then be

P= = = V = IV
consumed (or dissipated) in

∆t ∆t ∆t
the load resistance:

power time
5
20.4 Electric Power

DC ELECTRIC POWER
The DC power generated or consumed by a two-terminal device, whether it be a DC
power source (e.g. a battery) or a resistor (e.g. a light-bulb filament) is in general given by

P = IV SI Unit of Power: watt (W=J/s)

In the common usage of this V

equation, V is the absolute value of
the potential difference across the
terminals of the device, I is the ?
current through the device, + +
And P is either the power generated I
or the power consumed depending
on the context.

For resistors: (applies to many devices)

V  V2
P = I (IR ) = I 2 R P =  V =
R R 6
Here P is the power consumed by the resistor
20.4 Electric Power

Example The Power and Energy Used in a Flashlight

In the flashlight, the current is 0.40A and the voltage of each of
two cells is 1.5 V. Find (a) the power generated by each cell, (b)
the power consumed by the bulb, and (c) the energy dissipated in
the bulb in 5.5 minutes of operation.

1.5 V
I=
0.40 A 7.5 Ω

1.5 V

7
20.4 Electric Power

Example The Power and Energy Used in a Flashlight

In the flashlight, the current is 0.40A and the voltage of
each of two cells is 1.5 V. Find (a) the power generated by
each cell, (b) the power consumed by the bulb, and (c) the
energy dissipated in the bulb in 5.5 minutes of operation.

(a) This is a single-loop circuit with no branch points.

The 0.40A current flows through the entire circuit, while
the potential difference across EACH cell is 1.5 V

Pcell = I ( ∆V ) cell = (0.40 A )(1.5 V ) = 0.60 W

(b) Going from point A to B along the left half, the potential
increases by ∆V=VB−VA = 2×1.5V = 3.0V through the two cells. B
Going from B to A along the right half, the potential drops
through the single 7.5W resistor by the same 3.0V
1.5 V
Pbulb = I ( ∆V ) bulb = (0.40 A )(3.0 V ) = 1.20 W I=
7.5 Ω
0.40 A
(c) Energy consumed = power consumed × time duration 1.5 V

Ebulb = Pbulb ∆t = (1.2 W )(330 s ) = 4.0 × 10 2 J

A
8
20.5 Alternating Current

AC power
source

An AC power source (e..g wall socket) provides a voltage (potential difference

between the two terminals) that reverses direction periodically. The resulting
current in the circuit also alternates direction with the same frequency.

Most common AC power sources

provide a voltage that is a
sinusoidal function of time:

V (t ) = Vo sin (2π ft )
peak voltage NOT a wave!
U.S. Standard wall socket:
V0 = 170 V, and f = 60.0 Hz
(120V rms)
Europe
V0 = 311 V, and f = 50.0 Hz 9
(220V rms)
20.5 Alternating Current

In circuits that contain only resistance, the current reverses direction each time
the polarity of the generator reverses.

V (t ) = Vo sin (2π ft )
I

I I AC power
source
I

Ohm’s Law still applies (instantaneously)

= sin (2π ft ) = I o sin (2π ft )

V (t ) Vo
I (t ) = The sine function can give
R R both a positive or a negative
value, depending on the
argument
peak current

In these circuits, we label the current with a presumed direction (arbitrary

choice) . The value of the current I is positive when the current actually flows
in the indicated direction, and negative if it flows in the reverse direction. 10
20.5 Alternating Current

The instantaneous power generated by the AC power source is

calculated in the usual way: P = I·V , evaluated instantaneously

V (t ) = Vo sin (2π ft )
I (t ) = I o sin (2π ft ) sin2 function always
gives a positive value
regardless of argument

P(t ) = I (t )V (t ) = I oVo sin 2 (2π ft )

Trigonometric Identity
P(t) sin 2 θ = 1
2 (1 − cos 2θ )
The area between the P-axis
and the P(t) curve is equal to
the area between the P(t)
curve and the dashed gray
line at the level of P0=I0V0

The bar/overline
means time-average

 The time-averaged I oVo  I o  Vo 

power is ½ the peak P= =   = I rmsVrms
value of P0=I0V0 2  2  2  rms ?
11
20.5 Alternating Current

“rms” stands for “root-mean-squared”

which means: the square-root of the (time) average of the square (of some function of time)

For example, to find Vrms, the rms voltage, we plot the square of the voltage function

V (t ) = Vo sin(2π ft ) → V 2 (t ) = (Vo ) sin 2 (2π ft )

2 Trigonometric Identity
sin 2 θ = 1
2 (1 − cos 2θ )
The area between the V 2-axis V 2(t)
and the V 2(t) curve is equal to
the area between the V 2(t) (V0)2
curve and the dashed gray line
at the level of (V0)2 Average
½(V0)2 V2
 The time-averaged V 2 value
is ½ the peak value of (V0)2

→V 2 = 1 V 2

→ Vrms = ( V )
2 0
1/ 2
2
= 1
2 V02
V0
⇒ Vrms =
2
12
20.5 Alternating Current

A similar argument gives the rms current

To find Irms, the rms current, we plot the square of the current function

I (t ) = I o sin(2π ft ) → I 2 (t ) = (I o ) sin 2 (2π ft )

2 Trigonometric Identity
sin 2 θ = 1
2 (1 − cos 2θ )
The area between the I 2-axis I2(t)
and the I 2(t) curve is equal to
the area between the I 2(t) curve (I0)2
and the dashed gray line at the
level of (I0)2 Average
½(I0)2 I2
 The time-averaged I 2 value
is ½ the peak value of (I0)2

→ I2 = 1 I 2

→ I rms = ( I )
2 0
1/ 2
2
= 1
2 I 02
I0
⇒ I rms =
2
13
20.5 Alternating Current
For the resistor:
Vrms = I rms R P = Vrms I rms I
2
Vrms
P = I rms
2
R P= AC power
R I I source
These equations are identical to the DC case,
except that we are using rms values for V and I,
the average value for power. The resistance R is I
the same in both DC and AC cases.

Because they allow us to use the same equations as DC, we use rms values for
voltage and current when specifying AC circuits. Also: the rms values for voltage
and current are the DC values that would deliver the same power

Example: An incandescent light bulb Vrms = 120 V (U.S. standard)

is designed to operate directly out of the
P = I rmsVrms =
(Vrms )
2

wall socket in the U.S. When it is

warmed up, the filament consume an R
average of 60 W.
→R=
(Vrms )
2
=
(120 J/C) 2
= 240 Ω
(a) What is the resistance of the P 60 J/s
filament at operating temperature? V 2 (120 V)
(b) What is the peak current drawn? I 0 = 2 I rms = 2 rms = = 0.707 A
R 240 Ω
14