1

NUCLEAR STRUCTURE
1.1. INTRODUCTION
(n 189%. the vear that narks the birth of nuclear physics, thc French physicist Henri
Becquerel
discovered radioactivity in uranium compounds.) ollowing his discovery, scicntists did a great deal of
research in attempts to understand the nature of the radiation emittcd by radioactive substances The
nioneer work. by Ernest Rutherford showed that the emitted radiations were of three types. which he
alled alnha. beta. and ganma rays. Rutherford classified these radiations according to the nature of
the elecric charges they possessed and their abilities to penetrate matter and ionize air.
in 1897. Thomson discovered the electron and proposed the plum pudding model of
atom. This model
suggested that a positively charged matter was uniformly distributed in the atom and tiny negatively
charged electrons were spread throughout this matter such that the total negative charge due to electrons
was equal to the total positive charge thus making the atom neutral)
In 1911, Rutherford discarded Thomson's model on the basis of his
experiment on the scattering
of a-particles by thin metallic foils. He proved that a small, heavy and positively charged entity is
located at the centre of the atom, which was given the name of atomnic nucleus. From the fact of existence
of protons by Rutherford inside the nucleus it was believed that a nucleus was
composed of protons
and electrons.
In 1913, Niels Bohr laid the basis for the quantum theory of the atom, which played a major
role
in the improvement of Rutherford's idea. Bohr postulated the stability of orbits as the principle ot
quantization of the motion of electrons in the atom.
In 1932, the discovery of the neutron by Chadwick launched the modern era of nuclear physics.
Ihe hypothesis of the proton-neutron composition of the nucleus was later conpletely coairned
experimentally.
We divide this chapter into two parts :

PART A :GENERAL NUCLEAR PROPERTIES

1.2. DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON
Ihe first indicationof the existence of neutronwas given by Ruthertord in 1920. He suggested that a
Proton inside the nucleus might have an electron tied to it so closely as to torm a ueutral particte.
Kutherford suggested the name neutron for this hypothetical parieie.
(n 1930, the German physicists Walther Bothe and Herbert BeckeI observed thal when bervlliunm or
vdion was bombarded by a-particles from radioactive polouium, the larget material euited a Tadatiou
l nad much greater penetrating power than the original a-paricles. This unkuown radiation was
uought to be the samne kind as Y-rays. A (ypical reactionstudied by Bothe and Becker, using a beryllium
targe, is
1
2 NUCLEAR, PARTICLE PHYSICS AND ASTROPHYSIC

He + Be -’ "C+ n
In 1932, in France, Iren-Curie Joliot (daughter of famous Madam Curie) and her husband, Frederic
Joliot, repeated Bothe and Becker's experiment with paraffin. They again assumed the emitted radiation
to be y-rays. They found that protons with energy of about 6 MeV were ejected from the paraffin. For 6
produce
MeV protons to be produced, the y-ray energy has to be at least 6 MeV. But it is impOssible to
such a high energy y-ray from a-particle bombarding beryllium target to produce'C.
In 1932, James Chadwick, student of Rutherford repeated the experiment (Fig. 1.2.1) of the Joliot not
helium and
only with paraffin but also with helium and nitrogen. Comparing the recoils of the hydrogen,
nitrogen, he concluded that the emitted particle in the reaction 1S actually not gamma ray but a neutral
Nobei
particle with mass nearly same as of proton. He called it neutron. ln 1935, he was awarded the
Prize for his discovery.

Be Be Paraffin
(b)
(a)
with the emission of unknown neutral radiation.
Fig. 1.2.1. (a) Alpha particle hitting beryllium target ejected.
(b) When paraffin is placed behind the beryllium target, protons are
NOMENCLATURE
1.3. NUCLEAR TERMINOLOGY AND
but the nucleus of the lightest atom of
Nucleus : The nucleus is made up protons and neutrons,
no neutron is present in it. The nucleus has a
hydrogen element is made up of one proton only and
diameter of afew femtometers (1 fm = 1X10-1 m).
dimensions in an atom containing
Definition : The nucleus is an entity of rather well defined
of an atom in a very small region at is
positive charge and almost the entire mass (more than 99%)
centre.
number of protons in a nucleus.
Atomic Number (Proton Number):The atomic number Z is the
This number is also the number of orbital electrons in an atom.
number of neutrons in the nucleus.
Neutron Number: The neutron number N=A-Zis the
Nucleons : Protons and neutrons are collectively known as nucleons.
of nucleons in a nucleuS.
Nucleon Number:The nucleon number A= Z + Nis the total number
mass number because it is the nearest whoe
Mass Number : The nucleon number is also called the
(amu).
number to the mass of the nucleus measured in unified atomic mass units
Note : The mass number Aof a nucleus is an
integer while the actual mass M of that nucleus 1s tu
an integer.
an element considering their relau
Isotopic Mass : The average mass of all the isotopes of
of chlorine are present n a
abundance is called isotopic mass. For example, the two isotopes massof
one of CI. Therefore the average isotopie
approximate ratio of three atoms of RCI to
3 x35+Ix37
chlorine is 35.5 amu.
4
 NUCLEARSTRUCTURE

Notation for Labelling a Nucleus : To designate a nucleus, the chemical synbol X of the elernent
is written with aleft superscript, which indicates the mass number A, and left subscript, which indicates
the atomic number Z of the nucleus. Thus, an atomic nucleus is often
represented as X
Mass nunber ’
Atomic nunber X’symbol for element
Using this notation, we can write the three subatomic particles as follows :

e (electron), }P (proton) and on (neutron)

In the nuclear notation, the element symbol refers to the nucleus only, sO a proton is also sornetimes
represented as H.
A nucleus can alternatively be denoted as 4XN.
235
Illustration -92 Uor 235Uor 23U,
92 where U is chemical symbol of uranium, 235 is the mass
number, 92 is the atomic number and 143 is the neutron number of the uranium element.
Following are the other ways to identify a nucleus :
1. The element name is followed by the mass number, for example., Uranium-235.
2. The chemical symbol is followed by the mass number, for example, U-235.
1.4. CLASSIFICATION OF NUCLEI
The nuclei are classified on the basis of atomic number or mass number as follows :
Isotopes : The nuclei with identical Z but different values of A and N are called isotopes of each
other. All isotopes have the same chemical properties.
15 17
Examples: 0,. O, and "O, are isotopes of oxygen and H.H, and H, are isotopes of
hydrogen.
Nuclide : The word isotope is often misused to designate any particular nuclear species, such as
OO, and Co. It iscorrect to call O and '0, as isotopes of oxygen since they are nuclear
species of the same element. They are also nuclides. However, O,and Co are not isotopes since
they belong to different element species. The more general word nuclide is u_ed to designate any specific
nuclear species;
Examples : o,. 0, and %C6 are nuclides.
Definition: Aparticular type of nucleus characterized by a specitic atomic number Z and nucleon
number A is called a nuclide or any individual nuclear species is called a nuclide.
Isobars : Nuclei with identical A but different values of Z and N are called isobars. The number
of protons is different in isobars, and thus the electron number is also different. Consequently, isobars
have different chemical properties.
131
Examples : Sbg) and 'sTe9 are isobars with mass number A= 131.
Isotones : The nuclei with same N but different values of A and Z are called isotones of one another.
For isotones the value of (4 -Z) is same. Because both A and Z are different so isotones are chemically
different.
are isotones with
Examples : H,.He, and Li, are isotones with N= 2; 'C, and N,
N=7.
 4 NUCLEAR, PARTICLE PHYSICS AND ASTROPHY
Mirror Nuclei : Any pair of nuclei is called mirror muclei if the nunber of protons in one
IS cqual to the number of ncutrons in the other and vice versa. Due to this fact the fmirrot iuclei
iucleus
the same mass number A have
Examples: 0 , and Npair: oNeyp atd Mgn pair.
Isomers : Isomers are Iwo different encrgy states of the sarme nucleus. Nuclei existing in long t.,
excited energy states (lifetinme > 10" scc) having same number of protons, neutrons and rmass niurk
but ditterent nuclcar energy states are known as isomers or nuclear isomers. The superscript m t
for meta-stable state, which is a common way to represent the excited isomeric state of anucleue
Examples : 9OTe and °Te are isomers of °Tc while 137MBa and 137 Ba are isomers c 37Ba
Isodiaphers : Nuclides which have different atomic and mass numbers but the Same neutron
(N-Z) are known as isodiaphers. Examples: and ecess
gK 20 are 1sodiaphers with neutron excess
(N-Z) = 1l: and are isodiaphers with neutron excess (N-Z) = 54.
1.5. SOME IMPORTANT UNITS
Mass Units: The unit in which atomic and nuclear masses are measured iS called atomic maee
unit. Its symbol is amu (also sometimes written as u). 1atomic mass unit is the twelfth part of the
mass of carbo-12 atom.

12 g of carbon contains 6-023 × 1025 atoms of C

12
Mass of one atom of C=
6-023 x1023
By 12
definition I amu (mass)
12 x 6-023x1023
1·660 x10-24 g
= I660x10-2 kg
Energy Units: The unit in which atomic and nuclear energies are
volt (eV). measured is called the clecrUn
Definition : One electron-vol1 is detined as the energy gained by an
anotential difference of one volt. elecron when accelerated hrougn
IeV = (le) (IV) = l:602 x101 C xI Volt =
l:602 x10-"J
The eV (pronounced as electron volt) unit is olten
used wih a muliplier, e. g., keV, MeV or Ge
Energy in alomic sacle x eV; Energy in nuclear scale
MeV; Elcrgy in particle scale Ge
Length Units: The nuclear size is usually given in
femtometer is also known as "iermi", in honour of thelemometer (in = 10S m). ln nuclear physics.
Italian-US nuclear physicist Enrico Ferm.
1.6. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATOMIC MASS UNIT
Using thc Einstein relation, we obtain energy AND ENERGY
cquivalent of one atomic mass unil as
E =I anu x =l amu 1.660 x 10-27 kg
| amu |(298 x10 m/s IN
lkgm /_2
 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

IMeV
=14924 x 10-l0 J [:: J= Ikgm s
I602 x10 l3
= 931·5 MeV
|:: I MeV = I.6022 103i|
Since E = mc or m = Elc, the mass of a subatomic particle can also be
written in units of
MeV/c, The masses of the proton, neutron and electron in different units are shown in Table 1.6.1.
Table 1.6.1. Masses of proton, neutron and clectron.
Particle amu MeV/e? kg
Proton 1.007276 1.007276 x 931.5 = 938.278 1·673 x 10-27
Neutron 1·008665 1.008665 X 931.5 = 939.571 1·675 x 10-27
Electron 0-000549 0.000549 x 931.5 = 0.511 9-109 X 10-31

1.7. INTRINSIC PROPERTIESOF NUCLEI

Intrinsicproperties of nuclei are the specific properties possessed by them internally. These are :
1.7.1. NUCLEARRADIUS /SIZE
A nucleus is considered to be spherical in shape and assigned a radius. Electron scattering expefiments
allow determination of the nuclear radius. Consider a head on collision between an alpha particie and
a heavy nucleus. Initially, the alpha particle has only kinetic energy as it is far away from the nucleus.
As alphaparticle approaches the nucleus, the Coulomb repulsive force between the alpha particle and
nucleus grows SO strong that the a-particle stops at a point of closest distance to nucleus and turns
around (Fig.1.7. 1). At this point, all the kinetic energy E, of the alpha particle is converted into its
electrostatic potential energy Ep, i.e.
E7 = Ep
(2e) (Ze)
4TE0d
22e
41E0d
..(1.7.)
d=
2ne0E7
where [p is the permittivity of free space AIpha particle at a Distance botween
Alphaparticle starts with
distance ol'closest (M0Centers
initial kinetic energy k
approach d: K.l: 0

2e
2e
Nucleus
Alpha partlicle Alpha particle
Coulonnb repulsion
head-on collision with a nucleus of charge Ze. Because of the
Fig. 1.7.1. An alpha particle on a the nucleus,
particle will stop at a distance d fronm
between like charges, the alpha
called the distance of colsest approach.
 NUCLEAR, PARTICLE PHYSICS AND
close to nucleus that it
For a particular value of E, the alpha particle approaches soreflected ASTROPHYSICA
is
by the nucleus due to the strong nuclear forces rather than back due to the
Coulomhattracted
This distance is then roughly cqual to the radius Rof the nucleus. From experiments on different forccieie.
it is found that the nuclear radius is varying with the mass number as :
R= Ro Al73
vhere R is the radius of the nucleus and Ro = 1:2 X 10-1 m = 12 fm is a
cOnstant. (172,'is
This
the general relation for the radius of the nucleus in terms of its mass number AJ Radius of ut4
is in the range of 1.2 fm for hydrogen to about 7.4 fm for a heavy nucleus such as uranium s
experiments show that the nucleus has a size of the order of 10l4 m.
The radius R of the nucleus is much smaller than that of the atom, which is of the nrde
10-10 m. Thus, the nucleus occupies an extremely small volume inside the atom.

1.7.2. NUCLEAR VOLUME

The volume of a spherical nucleus of radius R is given by
4
V.=

4
3
= bA [where Vo =
..(1.7.3)
Evidently, the volume of a nucleus assumed to be spherical in shape is directly proportional to the
number of constituent nucleons or mass number A.

1.7.3. NUCLEAR DENSITY

To give arough estimate of the nuclear density, we assume that
the binding energy is negligible.
2 proton and neutron have the same mass, m, = m,
3. the nuclear radius Ís R= Ro 4 ,with Ro =1.2 fm.
Under these assumptions for a spherical nucleus, nuclear density p is given by
Mass of the nucleus
Volume of thenucleus
Mass number x Mass of one nucleon

Ax lamu
4

AxIamu
4

AXI amu
4
3
 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

L.660 x10
1.333 x 3.142 x (1.2 x 10 cm)'
= 2X 10 g/em
= 2x 10'"kg/m
Nuclear
density
(p)
Nuclear density for all nucei is same and is of the order
of 2 x 1o" kg/m', this value is 2 x 104 times the density
of water (maximum density of water at 4°C is taken as 1000
kg/m'). The variation of nuclear density with distance from
the centre of the nucleus is shown in the Fig. 1.7.2.
(The density of nuclear matter is independent of the size
of the nucleus. The mass density of the atom does not follow
this rule)
1.7.4. NUCLEARCHARGE
>Radial distance r
The total charge of the nucleus is numerically equal to
number of protons times the elementary charge. If Z is the Fig. 1.7.2. Nuclear density as a function of
radial distance. R is the radius at which the
atomic number of nucleus and e 1S the elementary Charg°, density olr) falls to half its maximum value p(0)
then the magnitude of the charge on the nucleus is Ze.

1.7.5. NUCLEAR MASS

the mass of
As we mentioned earlier, the nucleus consists of Zprotons and N= A-Z neutrons. Thus
mass
the nucleus ordinarily should be the sum of the masses of the constituent nucleons. However, the
- Z) and protons Z. The
of any nucleus M{A, Z) is always less than the sum of masses of neutrons (A
mass difference or mass defect is given by:
Am = Zm, + (4-Z) m,- M(A, Z)
where m, is mass of proton and m, is the mass of neutron.
Hence, the mass of anucleus is given by:
..(1.7,4)
M(A, Z) = Zm, + (A-Z) m,-Am

1.8. NUCLEAR ANGULAR MOMENTUM

as its spin. The total angular momentum of
The angular momnentum of nucleus is often referred to
momentum and spin angular momentum of all the
nucleus is the vector addition of orbital angular
nucleons.
NUCLEON
1.8.1. ANGULAR MOMENTUM OFA
described as:
Angular momentum of a nucleon can be
Nucleon
1. Orbital Angular Momentum of a Single
gives rise to an orbital angular mnomentum
The orbital motion of each nucleon inside the nucleus are
quantized because only certain values of orbital radii
denoted by and is measured in unit of h. It is
given by
possible. The magnitude of orbital angular momentum is
...(1.8.1)
|!| = JII+1)) h
 NUCLEAR, PARICLE F'HYSIC AND

where 0, 1, 2, ..... is the orbital angular momentun quantum nunher. ASTROP

n quantum mechanics one cannot simultanevusly specify rnore thaI Oorne corriponent of
\ we cam do is to specily the magnitude and one component ,. The permitted vales of the

of along a magnetic ficld parallel to ¿-axis are

1,= mh
where the orbital magnetic quantum number m, can take (21+ 1) possible values in the
+ 7differing by unity, i.e. range
mË = 0, tl, +2,... tl ...(1.8.2) 2h
The five different allowed directions for /= 2 are represented in
Fig. 1.8. 1.
The component , can never be quite as large as / (unless both are
zero). For example, when =2, the largest possible value of mË is also
2. The eqns. (1.8.1) and (1.8.2) give respectively,
|!| = /2(2+ 1) h = /6h = 2:45 h
and I. = 2h -2h

Thus l, is always less than |! |as

| required by the uncertainty
’ Fig. 1.8.1. Quantization
principle. This limitation on the direction of 1 is often called space angular momentum directoe
quantization. for ! = 2.

2. Spin Angular Momentum of a Single Nucleon

The protons and neutrons inside the nucleus spin about their own
axes (Fig. 1.8.2). The inrS
spin angular momentum S of nucleons is measured in
units of h. The magnitude of the spin ngu
momentum s is given by
|' = s(s +1) A

where s= is called the spin angular momentum quantum umber.

Magetic
field

Fig. 1.8.2, Clockwise and anticlockwise spins of nuçleons about their own axis
produce opposite Magnetie ficlds.
 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

The spin angular omentum s of a nucleon is also quantized.

The permitted values of the component of spin angular nomentum
s (Fig. 1.8.3)along a magnetic ficld parallel to z-axis are
.L8.4)
where the magnetie spin quatntunnumber m, takes two values, cither -/2
Or + 1/2.

1.8.2. TOTAL ANGULARMOMENTUM OF ASINGLE NUCLEON

The total angular momentum / of a single nuclcon measured in units of
Fig. 1.8.3. Ouantization of
his the vector addition of its orbital and spin angular momenta. It is given spin angular mormentum

= |t S ..L8.5)
The magnitude of the total angular momentum j of a single nucleon is given by
...L36)
where j is the total angular momentum quantum number.
The vector coupling of l and s gives two possible values forj: 1+ 2 and
The permitted values of total angular momentumj along a magnetic field parallel to z-axis are
J =m;h ...18.7)
where the total magnetic quantum number m, can take values j, -j+1, . -1.j
From eqns. (1.8.2), (1.8.4) and (1.8.7), we have
m; = m| + m, ... (1.8.3)
Since m, is always integer and m, is always half-integer, m; must be half-integer

1.8.3. TOTAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM (SPIN) OF A NUCLEUS

The total angular momentum (spin) of the nucleus measured in units h is the vector addition ot
orbital angular momentum and intrinsic spin angular momentum of all nucleons present in the nucleus.
I is denoted by / and is given as :
...(1.8,9)
where L is the total orbital angular momentum and S is the total spin angular nonentum of all the
nucleons. Since both L and S are quantized, Imust also be quantized.
According to wave mechanics, the magnitude of total angular momentun1 is given by
|7|= /I(U +I)# ..(l8. 10)
where / is the total nuclear quantum number. Like other angular monenta, the permitted values of spin 7.
when placed in an external magnetic field, can take (2/ |)diterent rieutations
Note : To avoid confusion, we will always use l to denote the nuclear spin; we will uSe to represent
the total angular momentum of a single nucleon. It will otten be the case that a single valence nucleon
determines all of the nuclear properties; in that case, /- ).
10 NUCIEAR, PAF TICLLE PHYSICS AN)

The pernmitted valhes of the component of / along a magnetic field parallel ASTPOPes
where m, is calledthe toal angular magnetic quantum number. It can take 1. -1, 1-2, ...-.
Conditions for Nuclear Spin
For nuclei in their ground states, we can use the information we just obtained to
enerali7ations :
1. A nucleus with even mass number A has zero or integer spin. i.e 0. I., 2. 3.
2. Anuclcus with odd mass number Ahas a half-integer spin, i.e. 1/2. 3/2. 5/2.
3. A nucleus with both even Zand even N has zerospin.

1.9. NUCLEAR MOMENTS

1.9.1. MAGNETIC MOMENT
A charged particle moving in a loop possesses a magnetiC moment, which can be
a magnetic dipole located at the centre of the loop and is therefore called assumed he
A magnetic dipole moment produced in this way is given by the product of magnetic dipoie mem
I.e.
current and area of

...
where i is the current caused by the motion of a charged
particle in the loop of area A. If the partee
has charge q, velocity v, mass m and is moving in a circle of radius r, then,

i= Charge and A= Ir
Time 2Tr/v 2Tr Tune

Therefore, magnetic dipole moment =

2r
qvr qmvr
2in

2m
where L = mvr is the orbital angular
momentum.
In quantum mechanics, I. = + 1)h, theretore the above egn. (1.9.3)
becones
2m
where I is the orbital angular
nomentum quantunm number. The quantity is called a nagnet
For eleciron motion, m=M, and 2m
q=e (nvagnitude only).
Therefore, eh

eh 2m
The quantily is called the Bohr magueton, and is
2me denoted by lg
 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 11

eh
Bohr magneton Ug = = 9.274 X 10-24 J/T = 5.7890 X 10- eV/T ...(1.9.5)
2m.
For proton motion m = m, and g = e
eh
Therefore,
2m
e
The quantity is called the nuclear magneton, and is denoted by uN
2m,
en
1 Nuclear magneton = =5.0440x 10-7 J/T = 3.1486 x10-8 eV/T ..(1.9.6)
2m
It is seen that HN<<Hg because of the difference in the masses of proton and electron.
1.9.2. ELECTRIC QUADRUPOLE MOMENT
Definition : The electric quadrupole moment of the nucleus is a measure of its departure from
spherical symmetry.
For a nucleus containing Z protons, the quadrupole moment can be evaluatedas :
(Ze(b? -a') ...(1.9.7)
where b and a are semi axes parallel and *axis (rotation axis) -axis (rotation axis) z-axis (rotation axis)
perpendicular to z-axis. respectively
(Fig. 1.9. 1).
For b > a, Q is positive and nucleus
will be of prolate shape.
a

For b < a, Q is negative and nucleus

will be of oblate shape.
Q>0. prolate shape Q<0. oblate shape Q=0. spherical shape
For b = a, Q = 0 and nucleus has Fig. 1.9.1. Electric quadrupole moments
spherical shape. for different charge distributions.

1.10. WAVE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

1.10.1. STATISTICS
1. Fermi-Dirac Statistics: If the wave function representing a nucleus changes sign with the
interchange of space and spin coordinates, then the wave function is called antisymmetric and statistics
is called Fermi-Dirac statistics. Particles having half integral spin obey Fermi-Dirac statistics and are
called fermions. Fermions obey Pauli exclusion principle. Examples are protons, neutrons, electrons,
positrons, neutrinos etc.
2. Bose-Einstein Statistics :If the wave function representing a nucleus does not change sign with
the interchange of space and spin coordinates, then the wave function is caled symmetrie and statistics
is called Bose-Einstein statistics. Particles having integral spin obey Bose-Einstein statistics and are
called bosons. Bosons do not obey Pauli's exclusion principle. Examples are photons, alpha particles,
Plons, gluons etc.
 NUCLEAR, PARTICLE
12
PHYSICS AND
1.10.2. PARITY
Parity is an operato which wlen applicd on wave function results in the inversion of
ASTROPH
of the wave function such that (1, y, ¿) change to (-K, -y. -Z). ^ particle moving
can be assOciated quantun1 mechanically with a wave. The wave motion can he with alaTge
function (. , ), which depends on the space co-ordinates (x. y, 2).
The parity is not related to any plhysical quantity. It is related to the
described
wave function. It is denoted by symbol and is associated with quantum number t symmetry property ot
as either odd or even (-1 or +I), according to whether or not the wave function for ard is
sign when the signs of all the space coordinates are changed. In other words, the degRÍ
systerm ch
to the evenness or oddness of the wave function describing the system (Pig. 1.10.J)
the quantity parity

1-axis
-I-axis

Even parity wave function Odd parity wave function

Fig. 1.10.1. Illustration of even and odd parity wave
functions along x-axis.
In mathematical terms,
If y (x, , z) = y (-x, -y, -), then parity is even (+1)
If y (x, y, z) = -y (-x, -y, -z), then parity is odd
(-1)
The parity of a nucleus in a given state is
follow
related to orbital angular momentum quantum numbe:
Parity of a nuclear state for a single particle = (- 1).
The orbitals s, p, d, f,... correspond tol=0, 1, 2,
3, ...
Parity is even for even Iand odd for odd l.
The wave function of the nucleus is the
product of the wave functions of its constituentS.
nuclear constituents have angular momentum quantum
of the nucleus is the product numbers ,, b, h, ... respectively, het us
over all nucleons as given below :
T = N X 2 X T3 X ....

= (-Iy (-1y2 (-1)9,..

=(-I)2,
If }I, even then I = +I and if , =0dd then n = -|
Conditions for Parity
The parity of a nucleus
combine the two properties (spindepends on the parity of the last
I and parity n) of the unpaired proton and neutron.
All even-even nuclei in nucleus:
ground states have /" = 0*.
2 For odd -A nuclei, the ground
state
For odd-odd nuclei, the ground stateparity
3.
is is determined
parity deternined both the nucleon,
by theby unpaired unpaired nucleons.
 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 13

For a nucleus in any state, its parity is usually denoted as a superscript, either + (even) or - (odd).
on the value of nuclear spin as shown below :
7" = SpinParity
Illustration : The statc 2* indicates that the particular nuclear state has spin /-2 with even parity.
Note : Parity P is conserved during nuclear decay and nuclcar rcactions.

Importance of Spins and Parities

Spins and parities are important in the determination of rates of beta decays and garnma decays
because of selection rules that favour certain angular momentum and parity changes.

1.11, NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY

For a stable nucleus, each nucleon is bound; that is, each nucleon does not have enough energy to
escape from the nucleus. Nuclei that have greater binding energy per nucleon are more stable: it takes
more energyper nucleon to break them apart.
Binding Energy of a Nucleon : The amount of energy that must be supplied to the nucleon so that it
can escape from the nucleus is called the binding energy for that nucleon.
Binding Energy of the Nucleus : The binding energy of the nucleus may be expressed in two
equivalent ways :
1. The binding energy of a nucleus is equal to the mass transformed intoenergy when the Z protons
and N = A-Z neutrons combine together to form the nucleus. An amount of energy equal to the
binding energy is released when the nucleus is formed.
2. The binding energy is equal to the energy necessary to break the nucleus into Z free protons and V
free neutrons.
When a nucleus is formed from individual protons and neutrons, there occurs a loss of mass (mass
defect),. According to Einstein's theory, the mass defect is converted into binding energy.
Binding energy B = Amc'
...(1.1.)
B= |(Zm, + Nm,)- M(A,Z)) 2
[(mass of unbound protons and neutrons) - (mass of nueleus))
where Am = mass defect of the nucleus in kg

m, = mass of a free proton = 1·673 X 102 kg

m, = mass of a free neutron = l675 x 10-27 kg

MA,Z) =mass of the assembled nucleus in kg

Z = number of protons in the nucleus
N =number of' neutrons in the nucleus
c2 = (3 x 10 m/s) 2 = 9 x 106 (m/s) 2
The binding energy B can also be caleulated by using the eqn. (1.11.2).
B= An x 931.5 MeV ..(1.11.2)
14
NUCLEAR, PARTICLE
1.12. AVERAGE BINDING ENERGY PHYSICS AND
Definition: The ratio of total binding energy of nucleus to the
nucleus Is called the average binding energy or binding energy per nucleon total number
Or
ASTR .
Average binding energy =
Total binding energy
Mass number binding iracun
B
A
As the number of
nucleons in a nucleus
increase, however, is not uniform. This increases,
of the total
ack of uniformity binding
results energy
in a also
variationincreases
binding energy associated with each nucleon within the
a graph of average bìnding nucleus. To in .
per nucleon, rather than justenergy
vs. mass number (Fig. 1.12.I). The understand
this
binding energy, is to compare light and reason for
heavy variata
nucleiplot ing bindg
56Fe
(Me)
120Sn
This nucleus has 8-8 MeV
and is most tightly bound average binding energy
nuclcon6
Be nuelcus. 209B
per
cncrg)

Binding

50
100
130 200
Fig. 1.12.1. The Mass number 4
Main Features of binding
energy per nucleon
versus mass number A.
The average Average Binding Energy Curve
binding
(surface tension effect). energy of light nuclei is very
2
The curve rises small due to high surtace/vous
MeV for Fe. sharply with
3 increase in mass number A reaches a maximum vae
4
Nuclei on the left of Fe
peak
and
Nuclei On the right of Fe can
The average peak canrelease
release
energy by nuclear tusion
8 MeV. energy curve has aenergy
Corresponds to binding by nuclear procesS.
6.
The average tission
broad maximum in the procesS A = 30
binding
are saturated forces. energy of
heavy nuclei rang® 4
nuclear
increases roughly as Aindicating that
 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 15

7. The average binding energy deereases appreciably above A = 100. In a heavy nucleus, the
number of protons is more so they experience more Coulomb repulsion and hence the nucleus
has less binding energy.
1.13. NUCLEAR COMPOSITION THEORY
Rutherford's nuclear theory based on the scattering of a-particles suggested the nucleus to be of
compact structure. Natural radioactivity suggested that though the nucleus is compact, it is capable of
emitting several particles, e.g. a. B-particles and y-rays. Artificial transmutation of elernents suggested
that a-particle, p, n, e and e* should be present in the nucleus. Cosmic rays studies predicted another
particle, called meson, inside the nucleus. From these studies, several theories of nuclear composition
were put forward.

1.13.1. PROTON-ELECTRON MODEL

The fact that certain radioactive elenments emit alpha and beta particles led to the idea that atoms
are made up of sOme elementary constituents. As electrons were known to be emitted from nuclei so
it was believed that electrons were constituents of the nucleus and the beta particle emission confirms
the existence of electrons inside the nucleus. Until the discovery of neutron, proton-electron hypothesis
was proposed. According to proton-electron hypothesis, the nucleus of mass number A and atomic number
Z is made up of A protons and (4-Z) electrons. As every atom is electrically neutral, it must contain
Zmore electrons, which revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits. The main experimental facts
that led to this hypothesis are :
1. Mass : The masses of all nuclei (in atomic mass units) are almost whole numbers. Because the
hydrogen nucleus has the mass 1 amu, it was assumed that all heavier nuclei were composed of
multiples of the hydrogen nucleus, namely protons. Thus, for a nucleus containing Aprotons, the
mass will be Am, as the electrons adda negligible amount to the mass of the nucleus.
2. Charge : To give the correct nuclear charge, it was assumed that some electrons were also
present in the nucleus. To account for the charge with Aprotons, the charge on the ucleus would
be +Ae, however the true charge on the nucleus is +Ze. To remove this difficulty, it was
assumed that an atom with atomic mass A and atomic number Z would have a nucleus containing 4
protons and (4 -Z) electrons with Z orbital electrons surrounding the nucleus.
For example, sodium has an atomicmass number of 23 and an atomic charge of 11. Thus the nucleus
of a sodium atom must contain 23 protons to give it the correct mass and 12 electrons to give it the
correct charge. In addition, there are 11 electrons surrounding the nucleus to produce a neutral sodium
atom.

1.13.2.SUCCESS OF PROTON-ELECTRON MODEL

1 Since nuclei emit electronsin beta decay, so electrons must exist inside the nucleus. Thus,
explanation of beta decay is no problem.
2 The presence of electrons in the nucleus indicates that under the appropriate conditions one
of them might be ejected to cause B-particle emission and two electrons can combine with four
protons to form an a-particle before emiting. This a-particle may exist as such or may be
formed at the time of emission.

1.13.3. FAILURE OF PROTON-ELECTRON MODEL

The proton-electron model led to a number of contradictions with experiments. Few of them are
16 NUCLEAR, PARTICLE PHYSICS AND ASTROPHYSICS

given below:
1. Finite Size : For aheavy nucleus i is impossible lo have several electrons in addition to protons
in a very small nuclear volume (of the order of 10-45 m),.

2. Spin : The resultant spin of Anucleons is an integral or half integral multiple of h depending
and 7 electrons
on whether A is even or odd. According to the proton-electron theory, there are l4 protons
particles.
inside the Nnucleus. Thus, the nitrogen nucleus contains 21 particles. i.e. odd number of
sho0w that it carries integral
Hence such a nucleus has half integral spin. But the experimental results
spin.
particles, so the spin
3. Statistics : Since the Nnucleus contains 21 particles, i.e. odd number of that Nucleus
statistics. The experimental results show
will be half-integer. It will obey Fermi Dirac Similar arguments hold for other
obeys Bose-Einstein statistics.
has integral spin and is a boson. It
nuclei.
Bohr magneton.
Magnetic Moments : Magnetic moment of an electron is of the order of nuclear
4.
one nuclear magneton. The value of Bohr magneton is 1836 times that of
while that of aproton is electrons, the net nuclear magnetic moment
should
magneton. If the nucleus consists of protons and
while experimentally nuclear magnetic
moment is found to be
be of the order of the Bohr magneton nucleus.
the nuclear magneton. This shows that electron is not the constituent of the
of the order of
created
electrons do not exist inside the nucleus but they are
5. Beta Decay : The beta indicates that
at the tÉme of emission.
nucleus then its de Broglie wavelength must be
6. Wave Mechanics : If electron exists inside the
10fm). Thus, its momentum is
less than or equal to the diameter of the nucleus (
h hc 1240 fm MeV =124 Mev
p 10 fm c C

pc = 124 MeV
below :
Using the relativistic equation, we can calculate the energy of the electron as
...(1.13.1)
E' = (pc)² + (m,c²)2
Since pc = 124 MeV > > m,c'= 0.511 MeV, therefore E pc = 124 MeV
where mgc is the rest mass energy of the electron.
E, = E - mc? = 124- 0.511 = 123.49 MeV = 124 MeV
There is no experimental evidence that an electron inside the nucleus can have such a high energy. Tns
discrepancy shows that nuclei do not contain electrons.
7. Compton Wavelength : The Compton wavelength of an electron is given by the following relation :
h 6.626 x 10-34
m
9.109 x 10 x3x 1o
=0.2425 x 10-!! m
he= 2425 fm
This value of çisvery large as compared to nuclear diameter. Hence, electron cannot exist inside u
nucleus.
 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.13.4. PROTON-NEUTRON MODEL

The experimentaldiscovery of the neutron led Heisenberg in 1932 to suggest that the nscleiright he
composed of Z protons and (4 - Z) neutrons, Thus, the nucleus consisting of Z protons and (A - Z)
neutrons is surrounded by Z clectrons to make the atom electrically neutral. Foilowing facts support the
proton-neutron model :
I. Finite Size : Since neutrons have nearly the same mass as that of protorIS and total numher of
nucleons are same as that of mass number. Hence itis not difficult for the nucleus to have neutrons
in it.

2. Spin : Since both proton and neutron have same spin hh, the resultant spin of A nucleons will
be an integral or half integral multiple of h depending on whether A is even or odd. This is in agreement
with all the experimental observations.
3. Statistics : Since the Nnucleus contains 14 nucleons, i.e. even number of nucleons, so tie
spin of the nucleus will be an integer. It obeys Bose-Einstein statistics.
4. Magnetic Moments : Since the nucleus contains protons and neutrons and mass of the protOn
is the same as that of neutron, so the magnetic moment of the nucleus will be of the order oe nuclear
magneton. This again is in agreement with the experimental values.
5. Beta Decay : The B-particle emission from various nuclei suggests that the electron does not
pre-exist in the nucleus but is created at the time of emission.
6. Wave Mechanics : As in the case of the electron, the momentum of neutron is of the order of
124 MeV/c.
The total energy of the neutron is given by
E = ((pc)? + (mocB)2j1/2 = [(124)? + (939.573)21'2
= 947.720 MeV
MeV.
where mÍ c is the rest mass energy of the neutron. It is of the order of 939.573
MeV
Kinetic energy of neutron E, = E - moc' = 947.720 - 939.573 = 8.147
As kinetic energy of neutron is 8.147 MeV, therfore it should be possible for the free neutron to
exist inside the nucleus.
the tollowing
7. Compton Wavelength : The Comnpton wavelength of the neutron is given by
relation:

6-626 x 10-34
= |:32 x I0-15 ..(1.13.2)
I-675 x10 x3x10
d = 132 fm
neutrons can be accomnodated
This value of Ar is smaller than the nuclear diameter. Thus, protons and
in the nuclear volume.

1.14. NUCLEAR STABILITY

few such factors are discussed below
The stability of anucleus is determined by many factors. A
 NUCLEAR, PARTICLE PHYSICS AND
ASTROPHrSCA
18

1.14.1. NEUTRON-PROTON RATIO (STABILITY CURVE)

A useful method of correlating data about the nuclides is
to plot a nuclide chart of nunber of neutrons N and the number W Line of
of protons Z in the nucleus, for each of the known nuclides stable nuclei
(Fig. 1.14.1). The stable nuclei lie on a curve that deviates
0rom N= 2line as Z increases because of the Coulomb
repulsion between protons. The shaded portion represents the
belt of stability. A nucleus whose NIZ ratio lies above or N-Z
below the stability belt is radioactive on account of unfavorable
NIZ ratio. The ratio N/Z for all existing nuclei lies within the
shaded portion. The solid line within the shaded portion
represents the stable nuclides. The nuclides existing between 20 40 60 80
the upper dotted line and solid line are unstable due to extra Fig. 1.14.1.
neutrons and therefore they undergo B- emission to gain Neutron-proton ratios of
stable nuclei.
stability. Similarly, nuclides between the lower dotted line and
solid line are unstable due to extra protons and undergo B*- emission to become stable.
Some important observations made from the stability curve are as follows :
1. The ratio NIZ <|for very few stable nuclides; the only two are H
and He.
2. The ratio NIZ | in case of light stable nuclei of mass numbers between A = I
to 40.
Example :'%C, is light stable nucleus and contains N=2.
3. The ratio NIZ = L.25 approximately for intermediate nuclides of
mass numbers A =40to 120.
4. The ratio NIZ = |.5 for heavier nuclides of mass
numbers A> 120. The heavier nuclides have mt
neutrons than protons. The addition of extra neutrons is
necessary to reduce the Coulomb repusK
force according to the inverse-square law.
5. The NIZ ratio decreases for
B-emission while it increases for B-emission.
6. All nuclides with Z> 83 are
unstable. Example : Bi is the heaviest stable nuclide.
1.14.2. PAIRING EFFECT
Ii is found that an even-even
nucleus (even Z and even N) is more stable. An
Z and odd N) or odd-even
nucleus (odd Z and even ) is found to be less even-odd mucieus ia
odd nuclei are found to be stable while he mst ot
least stable. Only 7 stable odd-odd
1.14.3. AVERAGE BINDING ENERGY nuclides are known.
In general higher the value of
binding energy per nucleon, more stable is the
nucleus.
1.15. NUCLEAR FORCES
Definition : The forces which hold the
are called nuclear forces. nucleons.together in the nucleus
1.15.1. NUCLEAR FORCES ARE
Evidenee: SHORT RANGE FORCES
Nuclear
nature of the Binding Energy : The
nuclear force comes important
nucleon is a constant from the fact evidence
that the
for the
short-range
 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 19

Thus, a given nucleon can interact only with a few neighbeouring nucleons very close to it, but not
with all nucleons (Fig. 1.15.1).
1.15.2. NUCLEAR FORCES ARE SATURATED FORCES
Evidence:
Nuclear Binding Energy : The nuclear binding energy is proportional to mass nurnber A. This
property indicates that a nucleon attracts only its immediate neighbours Neutrons cxperience oniy the
and not all other nucleons present in the nucleus. This limited number of strongattractive nuclear force
interactions is called saturation. If each nucleon interacts with all nucleons
in a nucleus then the binding energy of the nucleus would be given as

Bc A(A-1) ...(1.15.2)
2

If 4 >> 1, then B« A2, but experimentally it is found that

B«A. Therefore, nuclear forces are saturated with B * A.
1.15.3. NUCLEAR FORCES ARE CHARGE INDEPENDENT Proton pair experiences both
attractive and repulsive forces
Evidence:
Nucleon-Nucleon Scattering : Experiments on nucleon-nucleon scattering Fig. 1.15.2. The strong torce
is the same between any (wo
show that the nuclear forces between protons-protons, protons-neutrons, and nucleons.
neutrons-neutrons are the same, i.e. Fon=Fpn=Fn, despite the fact that the
Fig. 1.15.2.
neutron is neutral and the proton is a charged particle. This is illustrated in
1.15.4. NUCLEAR FORCES ARE SPIN DEPENDENT
Evidences:
: The scattering cross-section trom
Low Energy Neutron Scattering From Ortho And Para Hydrogen cross-seetion
the scattefing
ortho-hydrogen molecule (protons with parallel spins), Oorthos is 30 times than
Opara- Accordingly, nuclear fores are spin
from para-hydrogen molecule (protons with anti-parallel spins), the separation distance but also upon
dependent forces i. e. the uclear forces not only depend upon
whether thenucleon spins are parallel or anti parallel.
with parallel spins of neutron and proton
Deuteron Study : The deuteron ( H) nucleus is formed only
but not with their antiparallel spins.
FORCES
1.15.5. NUCLEAR FORCES ARE EXCHANGE
Evidence: Nuclkons
Nucleons
to
Exchange of Mesons : Nuclear forces are thought Meson
particles called
operate through the virtual exchange of carriers. Fig. 1.15.3. Illustration of exchange forces.
T-mesons (Fig. I.15.3) that act as force
NUCLEAR FORCES ARE NON-CENTRAL ORTENSOR FORCES
1.15.6. between the force two nucleons
The nuclear forces are
non-central forces or tensor forces means
but depends the spin orientation
on of the nucleons,
their centers
does not act along the line joining Tensor force depends on the angle between the relative distance
which may be parallel or anti parallel.
20 NUCLEAR, PARTICLE PHYSICS
AND
vector and the spins of the nucleons, in analogy to
the force between twOMagnetic dipoles (Fig, I.15,4.).
Evidence: Analogy
ASTRO PHISA
Study of Deuteron : The _tudy of quadrupole P
moment of deuteron (0.00286 barns) tells us that Repulsive
the deuteron is not perfectly spherical and that the Repulsive
force between twO nucleons is not spherically Attractive
Fig. 1.15.4. Illustration of tensor force.
symmetric. provide a classical Atracse
Two bar Tmage
example of a tensor
1.15.7. NUCLEAR FORCES ARE STRONG FORCES force.
Nuclear forces are very strong forces as they are 100 times stronger than
1.15.8. INVERSE SQUARE LAW electromagnetic
forc:
Nuclear forces do not obey inverse square law, i.e. they are
of the distance between the nucleons. not inversely proportional to the si

1.16. MESONTHEORY OF NUCLEAR FORCES

Yukawa proposed that (YUKAWATHEORY)
nuclear forces arise due to the exchange of
pl-mesons appear in three forms t , I and T. p0-mesons between nucleons. The
The meson theory proposed by Yukawa
features the following key elements :
1. The virtual meson clouds
surrounding the nucleons are continuously created and
2. The nucleons are close
enough so that their virtual meson clouds annihilated.
3. The exchange of a meson from overlap.
one nucleon to another is
4. Yukawa applied the responsible for the nuclear interaction
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle to find the mass of pi-meson as :
If m, is the mass of .(Ll6.!
pi-meson, then minimum amount of energy
exchanging a pi-meson is thus, transferred between nucleons wuit
AE =nm ,c
where, c is thevelocity of light in vacuum. If b is the range of
of pi-meson is c, the time taken nuclear force and maximum vet
bypi-meson to complete the exchange is then,
b
..(.16.)
Therefore,

hc
m,c' =
For range of nuclear force
b= 2m and hc = 197
MeV fm, we get
m,c2 197 MeV fm
= 100 MeV
2 fm
m = l00 MeV/2 ..(l.16.3
This is how Yukawa the
 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE . 21

EXCHANGE OF MESONS
According to Yukavwa, every nucleon continuously emits and reabsorbs pions.
n-p Force : Exchange of n - meson between neutron and proton :
n ’p t n then

Aneutron emits anegatively charged n- meson intoits field, becoming a proton. Then the - meson
joins the field of another proton and is absorbed by that proton, which thus becomes a neutron.
p-n Force: Exchange of n* -mneson between.proton and neutron :
then It + n ’ p
A proton emits a positively charged n* - meson into its field, becoming a neutron. Then the
I*- meson joins the field of another neutron and is absorbed by that neutron, which thus becomes
a proton.
The meson transfers charge as well as momentum between the two nucleons in the above two
interactions.
n-n Force : Exchange of ' - meson between neutron and neutron:
In’ n + 7 then

p-p Force: Exchange of T'- meson between proton and proton :

then T+ n ’n
- meson transters momentum but no charge between the two
interacting nucleons.
The neutral
neutrons remains the same in a nucleus.
Note : It should be remembered that number of protons and

1.16.1. DISCOVERY OF PION

exchange of pi-mesons between nucleons.
Yukawa proposed that nuclear forces arise due to the
pions, was first obtained in 1947 as a
Experimental evidence for these particles, now referred to as
studying particle tracks in photographic emulsions exposed tocosmic radiation at high altiudes.
resultof
and °.
These pions appear in three forms ", T
1.16.2. VIRTUAL PHOTONS
exchange
exchange particles. The virtual photon is an
All the basic interactions are mediated by photons exist for a limited period
charged particles. Virtual
particle for electromagnetic force between two particle is absorbed by another charged particle.
photon emitted by one charged
of time. The virtual virtual photon.
and is thus called a
The exchanged photon is never visible
PART B: NUCLEAR MODELS
describe the nuclear structure, physicists have proposed several models. Each
and
To understand
partially of the nuclear experimental results but tails in other. The
nodel succeeds only in explaining explaining
the success of another and therefore they collectively are capable of
ailure of one model is
measured and calculated data is often necessary in order to
of
1early allthe results. A comparison
model. Thus,
est the suitability of the
1 The model should
explain experimental results.
experiments.
The model should predict additional properties to be verified by new
2.