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CHAPTER 6 Laplace Transforms

In the ninth edition, this chapter underwent major changes, which have been retained and
further extended. This concerns a more natural order of the material and changing emphasis
placed on the various topics. This has made the chapter more teachable and simpler, a
goal reached by placing Dirac’s delta function in a separate section, discussing partial
fractions earlier, and in terms of practical problems rather than in terms of impractical
and lengthy general formulas.
Also, to have a better flow of ideas, convolution and nonhomogeneous linear ODEs
now appear earlier, whereas differentiation and integration of transforms (not of functions!)
are now presented near the end of the chapter and with less emphasis.

SECTION 6.1. Laplace Transform. Linearity. First Shifting Theorem

(s-Shifting), page 204
Purpose. To explain the basic concepts, to present a short list of basic transforms, and
to show how these are derived from the definition.
Main Content, Important Concepts
Transform, inverse transform, linearity
First shifting theorem
Table 6.1
Existence and its practical significance
Comment on Table 6.1
After working for a while in this chapter, the student should be able to memorize these
transforms. Further transforms in Sec. 6.9 are derived as we go along, many of them from
Table 6.1.
Problem Set 6.1
The problem set addresses the two main tasks in connection with Laplace transform,
namely, to find transforms of given functions (Probs. 1–16 and 33–36), and to find
functions for given transforms (that is, to find inverse transforms, Probs. 25–32 and 37–45).
This includes the task of finding formulas for graphically given functions, and, as
techniques, integration, reduction by partial fractions, the use of Table 6.1, and s-shifting
(in Probs. 33–45).
Problems 17–24 include a modest amount of theory compatible with the level of this
book.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEM SET 6.1, page 210

1. 2>s 2 ⫹ 8>s
2. a 2>s ⫺ 2ab>s 2 ⫹ 2b 2>s 3
3. s>(s 2 ⫹ 4p2)

4. l(cos2 vt) ⫽ l a ⫹ cos 2vtb ⫽

1 1 1 1 s
⫹ # 2
2 2 2s 2 s ⫹ 4v2

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1
5. (s ⫺ 4)(s ⫺ 2)

(e ⫺ eⴚ5t); transform a b⫽
1 3t 1 1 1 4
6. eⴚt sinh 4t ⫽ ⫺
2 2 s⫺3 s⫹5 (s ⫹ 1)2 ⫺ 16
This can be checked by the first shifting theorem.
⫺ sin(u)v
7. cos(u)s
s 2 ⫹ v2
8. 1.5 sin (3t ⫺ p>2) ⫽ 1.5 (sin 3t cos p>2 ⫺ cos 3t sin p>2) ⫽ ⫺1.5 cos 3t; transform
⫺1.5s>(s 2 ⫹ 9)
1)e ⴚs
9. 1 ⫺ (s s⫹2

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 15
t
Problem 9

k
10. s (1 ⫺ eⴚcs)
1 ⫺ eⴚs 1
12. 2
⫺ 2s
s se
b

14. k 冮e a
ⴚst k
dt ⫽ s (eⴚas ⫺ eⴚbs)

1 2

16. 冮e0
ⴚst
t dt ⫹ 冮e
1
ⴚst
(2 ⫺ t) dt. Integration by parts gives

eⴚstt 1
1
eⴚst(2 ⫺ t) 2 2

⫺ s ` ⫹ s
0
1
冮e 0
ⴚst
dt ⫺ s ` ⫺ s
1
1
冮e
1
ⴚst
dt

eⴚs 1 eⴚs 1
⫽⫺ ⫺ 2 (eⴚs ⫺ 1) ⫹ ⫹ 2 (eⴚ2s ⫺ eⴚs)
s s s s

1 (1 ⫺ eⴚs)2
⫽ 2
(⫺eⴚs ⫹ 1 ⫹ eⴚ2s ⫺ eⴚs) ⫽ .
s s2
18. Use Prob. 10 with k ⫽ 1 and c ⫽ 2 to obtain
1 1 eⴚ2s
l( f1) ⫽ l(1) ⫺ l( f ) ⫽ s ⫺ s (1 ⫺ eⴚ2s) ⫽ s .
2
20. No matter how large we choose M and k, we have et ⬎ Mekt for all t greater than
some t 0 because t 2 ⬎ ln M ⫹ kt for all sufficiently large t (and fixed positive M
and k).
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22. Let st ⫽ t, t ⫽ t>s, dt ⫽ dt>s. Then

⬁

l(1> 1t) ⫽ 冮e
0
ⴚst ⴚ1>2
t dt

⬁ ⴚ1>2

冮e asb
ⴚt t 1
⫽ s dt
0
⬁

⫽ s ⴚ1>2 冮e
0
ⴚt ⴚ1>2
t dt

⫽ s ⴚ1>2⌫(12) ⫽ 1p>s.

24. Let f ⫽ lⴚ1(F ), g ⫽ lⴚ1(G). Since the transform is linear, we obtain

aF ⫹ bG ⫽ al( f ) ⫹ bl(g) ⫽ l(af ⫹ bg).
ⴚ1
Now apply l on both sides to get the desired result,
ⴚ1
l (aF ⫹ bG) ⫽ lⴚ1l(af ⫹ bg) ⫽ af ⫹ bg ⫽ alⴚ1(F ) ⫹ blⴚ1(G).
Note that we have proved much more than just the claim, namely, the following.
Theorem. If a linear transformation has an inverse, the inverse is linear.
25. 0.2 cos (1.4t) ⫹ sin (1.4t)
26. The inverse transform is
ⴚ5t
5 cosh 5t ⫹ 15 sinh 5t ⫽ 13
5 e
5t
⫹ 12
5 e .

cos(12 pLt)
27.
L2
28. In terms of partial fractions, the given function is

a b.
1 1 1
⫺
13 ⫹ 12 s ⫺ 13 s ⫹ 12
Hence the inverse transform is
1
(et13 ⫺ eⴚt12).
13 ⫹ 12
29. ⫺1>15t 3(⫺5 ⫹ 6t 2)
30. The inverse transform is
4 cosh 4t ⫹ 8 sinh 4t ⫽ 6e4t ⫺ 2eⴚ4t.
31. 2e 3t ⫺ 3e ⴚt
1
32. If a ⫽ b, then (eⴚat ⫺ eⴚbt). If a ⫽ b, then teⴚbt by the shifting theorem (or
b⫺a
from the first result by l’Hôpital’s rule, taking derivatives with respect to a).
6
33. (s ⫹ 2)4

k(s ⫹ a)
34.
(s ⫹ a)2 ⫹ v2
35. 32(2s ⫹ 1)p2 ⫹ 64p2
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s⫺1 s⫹1
36. l a (et ⫺ eⴚt) cos tb ⫽ a b
1 1
⫺
2 2 (s ⫺ 1)2 ⫹ 1 (s ⫹ 1)2 ⫹ 1

1 2s 2 ⫺ 4
⫽ a b
2 s4 ⫹ 4

s2 ⫺ 2
⫽
s4 ⫹ 4
2 ⴚpt
37. pt e
38. 3t 2eⴚt
39. 43t5eⴚ23t
40. 2et sinh 2t ⫽ e3t ⫺ eⴚt
41. e ⴚ2ptsinh (pt)
42. (a0 ⫹ a1t ⫹ 12 a2t 2) eⴚt
43. 14e ⴚt(12 cos (2t) ⫹ sin (2t))
44. eⴚkt(a cos pt ⫹ b sin pt)
45. k 0 ⫹ k 1 te at

SECTION 6.2. Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals. ODEs, page 211

Purpose. To get a first impression of how the Laplace transform solves ODEs and initial
value problems, the task for which it is designed.
Main Content, Important Concepts
(1) l( f r ) ⫽ sl( f ) ⫺ f (0)
Extension of (1) to higher derivatives [(2), (3)]
Solution of an ODE, subsidiary equation
Transform of the integral of a function (Theorem 3)
Transfer function (6)
Shifted data problems (Example 6)
Comment on ODEs
The last of the three steps of solution is the hardest, but we shall derive many general
properties of the Laplace transform (collected in Sec. 6.8) that will help, along with
formulas in Table 6.1 and those in Sec. 6.9, so that we can proceed to ODEs for which
the present method is superior to the classical one.
Problem Set 6.2
Problems 1–15 concern IVPs, including those with shifted data (12–15).
Problems 16–22 show how to obtain new transforms from known ones by
differentiation, the basic formulas being (1) and (2).
Conversely, Probs. 23–29 show how to obtain new inverse transforms by integration
(Theorem 3).
Project 30 extends Theorem 1 to the case when a discontinuity (finite jump) occurs.
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SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEM SET 6.2, page 216

ⴚ2>3x
1. y ⫽ ⫺18
5 sin(x) cos (x) ⫹ 3>5 ⫺ 6>5 (cos (x)) ⫹ 3>5e
2

2. The subsidiary equation is sY ⫺ 1.5 ⫹ 2Y ⫽ 0. Hence

(s ⫹ 2)Y ⫽ 1.5, Y ⫽ 1.5>(s ⫹ 2), y ⫽ 1.5eⴚ2t.

3. s 2Y ⫹ (Y ⫺ 1)s ⫺ 6Y ⫺ 2 ⫽ 0, Y ⫽ s2 s⫹⫹s 2⫺ 6, y ⫽ 4>5 e 2t ⫹ 1>5 e ⴚ3t.

4. We obtain
10
(s 2 ⫹ 9)Y ⫽ .
s⫹1

The solution of this subsidiary equation is

10 1 s⫺1
Y⫽ ⫽ ⫺ 2 .
(s ⫹ 1)(s ⫹ 9)
2
s⫹1 s ⫹9

This gives the solution y ⫽ eⴚt ⫺ cos 3t ⫹ 13 sin 3t.

6. The subsidiary equation is
(s 2 ⫺ 6s ⫹ 5)Y ⫽ 3.2s ⫹ 6.2 ⫺ 6 # 3.2 ⫹ 29s>(s 2 ⫹ 4).
The solution Y is
(3.2s ⫺ 13)(s 2 ⫹ 4) ⫹ 29s
Y⫽ .
(s ⫺ 1)(s ⫺ 5)(s 2 ⫹ 4)
In terms of partial fractions, this becomes
1 2 0.2s ⫺ 2.4 # 2
Y⫽ ⫹ ⫹ .
s⫺1 s⫺5 s2 ⫹ 4

The inverse transform of this gives the solution

y ⫽ et ⫹ 2e5t ⫹ 0.2 cos 2t ⫺ 2.4 sin 2t.
8. The subsidiary equation is
(s ⫺ 2)2Y ⫽ 8.1s ⫹ 3.9 ⫺ 4 # 8.1.
Its solution is
8.1s ⫺ 28.5 8.1(s ⫺ 2) ⫹ 8.1 # 2 ⫺ 28.5
Y⫽ ⫽ .
(s ⫺ 2)2 (s ⫺ 2)2
This can be written
8.1 12.3
Y⫽ ⫺ .
s⫺2 (s ⫺ 2)2

The inverse transform (the solution of the IVP) is

y ⫽ 8.1e2t ⫺ 12.3te2t.
It has the form expected in the case of a double root of the characteristic equation.
9. y ⫽ 2e2t ⫹ et ⫺ 1 ⫹ 2t
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10. (s 2 ⫹ 0.04)Y ⫽ ⫺25s ⫹ 0.04>s 3. The solution is

25 1
Y⫽⫺ ⫹ 3.
s s

The inverse transform of Y (the solution of the IVP) is

y ⫽ ⫺25 ⫹ 0.5t 2.
Note that the initial values are such that the general solution of the homogeneous
ODE yh ⫽ c1 cos 0.2t ⫹ c2 sin 0.2t does not contribute to the solution of the IVP.
12. t ⫽ ~t ⫹ 2, so that the “shifted problem” is
~y s ⫹ 2y~ r ⫺ 3y~ ⫽ 0, ~y (0) ⫽ ⫺3, ~y r (0) ⫽ ⫺5

The subsidiary equation is

~
(s 2 ⫹ 2s ⫺ 3) Y ⫹ 11 ⫹ 3s ⫽ 0
Its solution is
~
Y ⫽ s2⫺11 ⫹ 3s 1 7
⫹ 2s ⫺ 3 ⫽ 2(s ⫹ 3) ⫺ 2(s ⫺ 1)

Inversion gives,
~y ⫽ ⫺7>2e ~t ⫹ 1>2e ⴚ3t~

Hence the solution to the given problem is

y ⫽ ⫺7>2e (tⴚ2) ⫹ 1>2e ⴚ3(tⴚ2)
14. t ⫽ ~
t ⫹ 2, so that the “shifted equation” is
~y s ⫹ 2y~ r ⫹ 5y~ ⫽ 50t~ .

The corresponding subsidiary equation is

3(s ⫹ 1)2 ⫹ 44Y ⫽ ⫺4s ⫹ 14 ⫺ 2 # 4 ⫹ 50>s 2.
~

Its solution is
~ 10 4 4
Y⫽ 2 ⫺ ⫹ .
s s (s ⫹ 1)2 ⫹ 4

The inverse transform is

~y ⫽ 10t~ ⫺ 4 ⫹ 2eⴚt~ sin 2t~.

Hence the given problem has the solution

y ⫽ 10(t ⫺ 2) ⫺ 4 ⫹ 2eⴚ(tⴚ2) sin 2(t ⫺ 2).
16. f ⫽ t cos 4t, f r ⫽ cos 4t ⫺ 4t sin 4t, f s ⫽ ⫺8 sin 4t ⫺ 16t cos 4t. Hence
⫺32
l( f s ) ⫽ ⫺ 16l( f ) ⫽ s 2l( f ) ⫺ s # 0 ⫺ 1
s ⫹ 16
2

and thus
⫺32 s 2 ⫺ 16
(s 2 ⫹ 16)l( f ) ⫽ ⫹1⫽ .
s 2 ⫹ 16 s 2 ⫹ 16
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Hence the answer is

s 2 ⫺ 16
l( f ) ⫽ .
(s 2 ⫹ 16) 2
17. (s ⫺1 a)2
18. f ⫽ cos2 2t, f r ⫽ ⫺4 cos 2t sin 2t ⫽ ⫺2 sin 4t. Hence
⫺8
l( f r ) ⫽ ⫽ sl( f ) ⫺ 1.
s ⫹ 16
2

Solving for sl( f ) gives

s2 ⫹ 8
sl( f ) ⫽ .
s 2 ⫹ 16
Division by s gives the answer
s2 ⫹ 8
l( f ) ⫽ .
s(s 2 ⫹ 16)
19. s(s2v2 ⫹⫹4vs 2)
2 2

20. f ⫽ sin4 t, f r ⫽ 4 sin3 t cos t, f s ⫽ 12 sin2 t cos2 t ⫺ 4 sin4 t. From this and (2), it
follows that
l( f s ) ⫽ 12l(sin2 t cos2 t) ⫺ 4l( f ) ⫽ s 2l( f ).
Collecting terms and using Prob. 19 with v ⫽ 2 and sin 2a ⫽ 2 sin a cos a, we obtain
3 #8
(s 2 ⫹ 4)l( f ) ⫽ 3l(sin2 2t) ⫽ .
s(s ⫹ 16)
2

Answer
24
l( f ) ⫽ .
s(s ⫹ 4)(s 2 ⫹ 16)
2

21. l( f r) ⫽ l(sinh 2t) ⫽ sl(f ) ⫺ 0. Hence, lf ⫽ s(s2 2⫺ 4).

22. Project. We derive (a). We have f (0) ⫽ 0 and
f r (t) ⫽ cos vt ⫺ vt sin vt, f r (0) ⫽ 1
f s(t) ⫽ ⫺2v sin vt ⫺ v2f (t).
By (2),
v
l( f s ) ⫽ ⫺2v ⫺ v2l( f ) ⫽ s 2l( f ) ⫺ 1.
s ⫹ v2
2

Collecting l( f )-terms, we obtain

⫺2v2 s 2 ⫺ v2
l( f )(s 2 ⫹ v2) ⫽ ⫹1⫽ .
s 2 ⫹ v2 s 2 ⫹ v2
Division by s 2 ⫹ v2 on both sides gives (a).
In (b) on the right we get from (a)
v s 2 ⫺ v2
l(sin vt ⫺ vt cos vt) ⫽ ⫺v .
s 2 ⫹ v2 (s 2 ⫹ v2)2
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Taking the common denominator and simplifying the numerator,

v(s 2 ⫹ v2) ⫺ v(s 2 ⫺ v2) ⫽ 2v3
we get (b).
(c) is shown in Example 1.
(d) is derived the same way as (b), with ⫹ instead of ⫺, so that the numerator is
v(s 2 ⫹ v2) ⫹ v(s 2 ⫺ v2) ⫽ 2vs 2,
which gives (d).
(e) is similar to (a). We have f (0) ⫽ 0 and obtain
f r(t) ⫽ cosh at ⫹ at sinh at, f r(0) ⫽ 1
f s(t) ⫽ 2a sinh at ⫹ a 2f (t).
By (2) we obtain
2a 2
l( f s ) ⫽ ⫹ a 2l( f ) ⫽ s 2l( f ) ⫺ 1.
s ⫺a
2 2

Hence
2a 2 s2 ⫹ a2
l( f )(s 2 ⫺ a 2) ⫽ ⫹1⫽ .
s2 ⫺ a2 s2 ⫺ a2
Division by s 2 ⫺ a 2 gives (e).
(f) follows similarly. We have f (0) ⫽ 0 and, furthermore,
f r(t) ⫽ sinh at ⫹ at cosh at, f r(0) ⫽ 0
f s(t) ⫽ 2a cosh at ⫹ a 2f (t)
s
l( f s(t)) ⫽ 2a 2 ⫹ a 2l( f ) ⫽ s 2l( f )
s ⫺a 2

2as
l( f )(s 2 ⫺ a 2) ⫽ 2 .
s ⫺ a2
Division by s 2 ⫺ a 2 gives formula (f).
23. 6 ⫺ 6e ⴚ1>3t.
24. We start from

lⴚ1 a b ⫽ e2pt
1
s ⫺ 2p
and integrate twice. The first integration gives
1 2pt
(e ⫺ 1).
2p
Multiplication by 20 and another integration from 0 to t gives the answer
20 2pt 20t 1 10t
(e ⫺ 1) ⫺ ⫽ (e2pt ⫺ 1) ⫺ .
4p2 2p 5p2 p
25. 41 ⫺ cos(1>2vt)
v2 .
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26. The inverse of 1>(s 2 ⫺ 1) is sinh t. A first integration from 0 to t gives cosh t ⫺ 1.
Another integration from 0 to t yields sinh t ⫺ t. This can be confirmed as follows.

la b⫽la b ⫽ sinh t ⫺ t.
1 1 1
⫺
s ⫺s
4 2
s ⫺1
2
s2
27. ⫺14 cos 2t ⫺ sin 2t ⫹ 14 ⫹ 2t.
28. The transform of
3s ⫹ 4
s2 ⫹ k 2
4
is 3 cos kt ⫹ sin kt. A first integration from 0 to t gives
k
3 4
sin kt ⫺ 2 (cos kt ⫺ 1).
k k

Another integration from 0 to t gives the answer

2 (cos kt ⫺ 1) ⫺ 2 a sin kt ⫺ tb .
3 4 1
⫺
k k k

30. Project. (a) Theorems 1 and 2 are crucial in solving ODEs, whereas Theorem 3 serves
as a tool for obtaining new transforms, that is, as one of various tools for this purpose.
(b) In the integration by parts shown in the proof of Theorem 1 we now have to
integrate from 0 to a and then from a to ⬁ , thus obtaining f (a ⫺ 0)eⴚas from the
upper limit of integration of the first integral and ⫺f (a ⫹ 0)eⴚas from the lower limit
of integration of the second integral.
(c) Direct integration of the defining integral formulas gives
l( f ) ⫽ (1 ⫺ eⴚ(s⫹1))>(s ⫹ 1)
and
l( f r ) ⫽ (eⴚ(s⫹1) ⫺ 1)>(s ⫹ 1).
Formula (1*) confirms this by straightforward calculation and simplification since
f (0) ⫽ 1, a ⫽ 1, and
f (a ⫹ 0) ⫺ f (a ⫺ 0) ⫽ 0 ⫺ eⴚ1.

SECTION 6.3. Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function). Second Shifting

Theorem (t-Shifting), page 217
Purpose
1. To introduce the unit step function u(t ⫺ a), which, together with Dirac’s delta
(Sec. 6.4), greatly increases the usefulness of the Laplace transform.
2. To find the transform of
~ ~
f (t) ⫽ 0 if f ⬍ a and f (t) ⫽ f (t ⫺ a) if t ⬎ a
where the transform of f (t) (0 ⬍ t ⬍ ⬁) is known (Theorem 1, called Second Shifting
Theorem).
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Main Content, Important Concepts

Unit step function (1), its transform (2)
Second shifting theorem (Theorem 1)
Comment on the Unit Step Function
Problem Set 6.3 shows that u(t ⫺ a) is the basic function for representing discontinuous
functions.
Problem Set 6.3
Problems 2–11 concern the role of the unit step function in t-shifting in the second
shifting theorem.
Problems 12–17 show the application of that theorem in finding inverse transforms.
IVPs, some with discontinuous inputs (right sides of the ODEs) are solved in Probs.
18–27; this is a typical task using the Laplace transform.
Models of electric circuits follow in Probs. 28–40; these have a discontinuous EMF
(electromotive force); the most general of these circuits are RLC-circuits (Probs. 38–40).

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEM SET 6.3, page 223

2. t(1 ⫺ u(t ⫺ 2)) ⫽ t ⫺ 3(t ⫺ 2) ⫹ 24u(t ⫺ 2). Hence the transform is

1 eⴚ2s 2eⴚ2s
⫺ ⫺ .
s2 s2 s
eⴚ3s
3. s2
ⴚsp
4. cos 2t(1 ⫺ u(t ⫺ p)) ⫽ s(1s 2⫺⫹e 4 )

5. eⴚt(1 ⫺ u(p>2)) ⫽ (1 ⫺ eⴚ2p(1⫹s))>(1 ⫹ s)

1

6. sin (t ⫺ 2)p ⫽ sin (t ⫺ 4)p ⫽ sin pt because of periodicity. The representation in

terms of unit step functions is
(sin pt)(u(t ⫺ 2) ⫺ u(t ⫺ 4))
and thus gives the transform
p
(eⴚ2s ⫺ eⴚ4s).
s ⫹ p2
2
ⴚsⴚ1>2p ⴚ3>2pⴚ3s
⫺ e
7. 2e 2s ⫹ p
8. The given function is represented by
t 2(u(t ⫺ 1) ⫺ u(t ⫺ 2)) ⫽ 3(t ⫺ 1)2 ⫹ 2(t ⫺ 1) ⫹ 14u(t ⫺ 1)
⫺ 3(t ⫺ 2)2 ⫹ 4(t ⫺ 2) ⫹ 44u(t ⫺ 2)
and thus has the transform

a 3 ⫹ 2 ⫹ be ⫺ a 3 ⫹ 2 ⫹ b eⴚ2s
2 2 1 ⴚs 2 4 4
s s s s s s
ⴚ5>2s
(25s 2 ⫹ 20s ⫹ 8)
9. 1>2e s3

10. 1 t
2 (e⫺ eⴚt)(1 ⫺ u(t ⫺ 2)) ⫽ 12 (et ⫺ eⴚt) ⫺ 12 (e(tⴚ2)⫹2 ⫺ e(ⴚt⫹2)ⴚ2)u(t ⫺ 2).
Hence the transform is
e2 eⴚ2
⫺ a b eⴚ2s.
1 # 1 1 1 1
⫺ # ⫺
2 s⫺1 2 s⫹1 2 s⫺1 s⫹1
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Alternatively, by using the addition formula (22) in App. 3.1 we obtain the transform
in the form

⫺a b eⴚ2s.
1 cosh 2 s sinh 2
⫹
s ⫺1
2
s ⫺1
2
s ⫺1
2

12. s ⴚ3 has the inverse t 2>2, hence (s ⫺ 1)ⴚ3 has the inverse ett 2>2 (first shifting), and
eⴚ2s>(s ⫺ 1)3 has the inverse 12u(t ⫺ 2)(t ⫺ 2)2etⴚ2 (second shifting).
13. sin 2tu(p ⫺ t) sin 2t
14. 4u(t ⫺ 2) ⫺ 8u(t ⫺ 5)
1
15. 120 (t ⫺ 2)5u(t ⫺ 2)
16. (sinh (2t ⫺ 2))u(t ⫺ 1) ⫺ (sinh (2t ⫺ 6))u(t ⫺ 3)
18. (4s 2 ⫺ 12s ⫹ 9) Y ⫽ 83s ⫺ 4, Y ⫽ 3(⫺3 4⫹ 2s). After applying the inverse Laplace
transform, we get 32e3t2.
19. 1>15e ⴚx ⫹ 83
80 e
4x
⫺ 1>48e ⴚ4x ⫺ 1>12e 2x
288 19 190
20. (s 2 ⫹ 10s ⫹ 24)Y ⫽ (s ⫹ 4)(s ⫹ 6)Y ⫽ 3 ⫹ s⫺5⫹ . Division by
s 12 12
s 2 ⫹10s ⫹ 24 and expansion in terms of partial fractions gives
19
12 5 12
Y⫽ 3 ⫺ 2 ⫹ .
s s s

Hence the answer is y ⫽ 6t 2 ⫺ 5t ⫹ 19

12 . Note that it does not contain a contribution
from the general solution of the homogeneous ODE.
1
21. 2 sin 2t ⫹ 43 cos t ⫹ 43 cos 2t, (0 ⬍ t ⬍ p); 12 sin 2t, (t ⬎ p).
22. In terms of unit step functions, the function on the right is
r(t) ⫽ 4t31 ⫺ u(t ⫺ 1)4 ⫹ 8u(t ⫺ 1) ⫽ 4t ⫺ 34(t ⫺ 1) ⫺ 44u(t ⫺ 1).
Answer:

4eⴚt ⫺ eⴚ2t ⫹ 2t ⫺ 3 if 0 ⬍ t ⬍ 1
y⫽ •
(4 ⫺ 8e)eⴚt ⫹ (3e2 ⫺ 1)eⴚ2t ⫹ 4 if t ⬎ 1.

23. ⫺sin t, (0 ⬍ t ⬍ 2p), ⫺12 sin 2t, (t ⬎ 2p).

24. The subsidiary equation is
1 eⴚs
(s 2 ⫹ 3s ⫹ 2)Y ⫽ s ⫺ s .

It has the solution

1 ⫺ eⴚs
⫽a ⫹ b (1 ⫺ eⴚs).
1 1 1
Y⫽ ⫺
s(s ⫹ 3s ⫹ 2)
2
2s 2(s ⫹ 2) s⫹1

This gives the answer

y ⫽ 12 ⫹ 12 eⴚ2t ⫺ eⴚt ⫺ (12 ⫹ 12 eⴚ2(tⴚ1) ⫺ eⴚ(tⴚ1))u(t ⫺ 1);
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110 Instructor’s Manual

that is,
1
⫹ 12 eⴚ2t ⫺ eⴚt if 0 ⬍ t ⬍ 1
y⫽ •
2

1 ⴚ2t
2e (1 ⫺ e2) ⫺ eⴚt(1 ⫺ e) if t ⬎ 1.
25. 2t ⫺ 4 sin t, (t ⬎ 1); 2 ⫺ 4 sin t ⫹ 2 sin (t ⫺ 1), (t ⬎ ⫽ 1).
26. t ⫽ p ⫹ ~ t , ~y s ⫹ 2y~ r ⫹ 5y~ ⫽ r~, r~ ⫽ 103⫺1 ⫹ u(t~ ⫺ p)4 sin ~
t , ~y (0) ⫽ 1, ~y r (0) ⫽
ⴚp
⫺2 ⫹ 2e . The solution in terms of t is ~

~y (t~) ⫽ eⴚtⴚp sin 2t~ ⫹ cos ~

t ⫺ 2 sin ~
t
t 4.
~
~
⫹ u(t ⫺ p)3e ⴚt ⫹p
(⫺cos 2t ⫹ 12 sin 2t~) ⫺ cos ~
~ t ⫹ 2 sin ~

In terms of t,

y(t) ⫽ eⴚt sin 2t ⫺ cos t ⫹ 2 sin t

⫹ u(t ⫺ 2p)3eⴚt⫹2p(⫺cos 2t ⫹ 12 sin 2t) ⫹ cos t ⫺ 2 sin t4.

28. i r ⫹ 1000i ⫽ 40 sin tu(t ⫺ p). The subsidiary equation is

eⴚps
sI ⫹ 1000I ⫽ ⫺40 .
s2 ⫹ 1
Its solution is

⫺40eⴚps ⫺40eⴚps s ⫺ 1000

a b.
1
I⫽ ⫽ ⫺
(s ⫹ 1)(s ⫹ 1000)
2
1,000,001 s ⫹ 1000 s⫹1

The inverse transform is

i ⫽ u(t ⫺ p) c ⫺ sin t d ;
40 40,000
(cos t ⫹ e ⴚ1000(tⴚp)) ⫹
1,000,001 1,000,001

hence i ⫽ 0 if t ⬍ p, and i ⬇ 0.04 sin t if t ⬎ p.

30. (0.5i r ⫹ 10i ⫽ 200t(1 ⫺ u(t ⫺ 2)). The subsidiary equation is

(0.5s ⫹ 10)I(s) ⫽ 200(1 ⫺ eⴚ2s(1 ⫹ 2s))>s 2.

Its solution is

I ⫽ 400(⫺1 ⫹ eⴚ2s ⫹ 2seⴚ2s)>(s 2(s ⫹ 20)).

The solution of the problem (the current in the circuit) is

i ⫽ eⴚ20t ⫹ 20t ⫺ 1 ⫹ u(t ⫺ 2)3⫺20t ⫹ 1 ⫹ 39eⴚ20(tⴚ2)4.

32. We obtain

seⴚ4sⴚ12 2 # 106 6 # 105 ⴚ4sⴚ12

I ⫽ 14 # 105 ⫽a ⫺ be
(s ⫹ 10)(s ⫹ 3) s ⫹ 10 s⫹3

hence

i ⫽ u(t ⫺ 4) 32 # 106eⴚ10(tⴚ4)ⴚ12 ⫺ 6 # 105eⴚ3(tⴚ4)ⴚ124.

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34. 10i ⫹ 100 冮 i(t) dt ⫽ 100(u(t ⫺ 0.5) ⫺ u(t ⫺ 0.6)).

0
Divide by 10 and take the

transform, using Theorem 3 in Sec. 6.2,

10 10
I ⫹ s I ⫽ s (eⴚ0.5s ⫺ eⴚ0.6s).

Solving for I ⫽ l(i) gives

10
I⫽ (eⴚ0.5s ⫺ eⴚ0.6s).
s ⫹ 10

The inverse transform is

i(t) ⫽ 10(e ⴚ10(tⴚ0.5) u(t ⫺ 0.5) ⫺ e ⴚ10(tⴚ0.6) u(t ⫺ 0.6)).

Hence

i(t) ⫽ 0 if t ⬍ 0.5
ⴚ10(tⴚ0.5)
i(t) ⫽ 10e if 0.5 ⬍ t ⬍ 0.6
ⴚ10(tⴚ0.5) ⴚ10(tⴚ0.6)
i(t) ⫽ 10(e ⫺e )
ⴚ10t
⫽ 10e (e ⫺ e )
5 6

⫽ ⫺2550eⴚ10t if t ⬎ 0.6.

Jumps occur at t ⫽ 0.5 (upward) and at t ⫽ 0.6 (downward) because the right side
has those jumps and the term involving the integral (representing the charge on the
capacitor) cannot change abruptly; hence the first term, Ri(t), must jump by the
amounts of the jumps on the right, which have size 100, and since R ⫽ 10, the current
has jumps of size 10.
36. i s ⫹ 4i ⫽ 200(1 ⫺ t 2)(1 ⫺ u(t ⫺ 1)). Observing that

t 2 ⫽ (t ⫺ 1)2 ⫹ 2(t ⫺ 1) ⫹ 1,

we obtain the subsidiary equation

(s 2 ⫹ 4)I ⫽ 200 a ⫺ 3 b ⫹ 200eⴚs a 2 ⫹ 3 b .

1 2 2 2
s s s s

Its solution is

s 2 ⫺ 2 ⫹ eⴚs(2s ⫹ 2)
⫽ 25 a ⫺ 3 ⫺ 2 b
3 4 3s
I ⫽ 200
s (s ⫹ 4)
3 2
s s s ⫹4
s⫺4
⫹ 25eⴚs a⫺ b.
1 4 4
⫹ 2⫹ 3⫹ 2
s s s s ⫹4

Its inverse transform is

i ⫽ 75 ⫺ 50t 2 ⫺ 75 cos 2t
⫹ u(t ⫺ 1)3⫺75 ⫹ 50t 2 ⫹ 25 cos (2t ⫺ 2) ⫺ 50 sin (2t ⫺ 2)4.
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38. i r ⫹ 4i ⫹ 20 冮 i(t) dt ⫽ 34e

0
ⴚt
(1 ⫺ u(t ⫺ 4)). The subsidiary equation is

as ⫹ 4 ⫹ s b I ⫽ s ⫹ 1 (1 ⫺ eⴚ4sⴚ4).
20 34

Its solution is
34s
I⫽ (1 ⫺ eⴚ4sⴚ4).
(s ⫹ 1)(s ⫹ 4s ⫹ 20)
2

The inverse transform is

i ⫽ ⫺2eⴚt ⫹ eⴚ2t(2 cos 4t ⫹ 9 sin 4t)
⫹ u(t ⫺ 4)32eⴚt ⫺ e2(2ⴚt)(9 sin 4(t ⫺ 4) ⫹ 2 cos 4(t ⫺ 4))4.
40. The model
t

i r ⫹ 2i ⫹ 10 冮 i(t) dt ⫽ 255(1 ⫺ u(t ⫺ 2p)) sin t.

0
This gives the subsidiary equation

c (s ⫹ 2) ⫹ dI ⫽ 2
10 255
(1 ⫺ eⴚ2ps).
s s ⫹1
Its solution is
255s(1 ⫺ eⴚ2ps)
I⫽
(s 2 ⫹ 2s ⫹ 10)(s 2 ⫹ 1)
27s ⫹ 6 27(s ⫹ 1) ⫹ 33
⫽a 2 ⫺ b (1 ⫺ eⴚ2ps).
s ⫹1 (s ⫹ 1) ⫹ 9
2

The inverse transform (the solution of the problem) is

i ⫽ 27 cos t ⫹ 6 sin t ⫺ eⴚt(27 cos 3t ⫹ 11 sin 3t)
⫹ u(t ⫺ 2p)3eⴚ(tⴚ2p)(27 cos 3t ⫹ 11 sin 3t)
⫺ (27 cos t ⫹ 6 sin t)4.

SECTION 6.4. Short Impulses. Dirac s Delta Function. Partial Fractions,

page 225
Purpose. Modeling of short impulses by Dirac’s delta function (also known as unit
impulse function). The text includes a remark that this is not a function in the usual sense
of calculus but a “generalized function” or “distribution.” Details cannot be discussed on
the level of this book; they can be found in books on functional analysis or on PDEs. See,
e.g., L. Schwartz, Mathematics for the Physical Sciences, Paris: Hermann, 1966. The
French mathematician LAURENT SCHWARTZ (1915–2002) created and popularized the
theory of distributions. See also footnote 2.
Main Content
Definition of Dirac’s delta (3)
Sifting property (4)
Transform of delta (5)
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Instructor’s Manual 113

Application to mass–spring systems and electric networks

More on partial fractions (Example 4)
For the beginning of the discussion of partial fractions in the present context, see Sec. 6.2.
Problem Set 6.4
CAS Project 1 involves exploring the nature of solutions with the damping or spring
constant being changed in the presence of one or two Dirac delta functions on the right.
CAS Experiment 2 models a wave of constant area acting for shorter and shorter times.
Problems 3–12 model vibrating systems with driving forces consisting of unit step
functions, Dirac’s delta functions, and other functions.
Problems 14–15 concern rectifiers, sawtooth waves, and staircase functions.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEM SET 6.4, page 230

2. CAS Experiment. Students should become aware that careful observation of graphs
may lead to discoveries or to more information about conjectures that they may want
to prove or disprove. The curves branch from the solution of the homogeneous ODE
at the instant at which the impulse is applied, which by choosing, say a ⫽ 1, 2, 3, Á ,
gives an interesting joint graph.
3. y ⫽ 2 cos (3t) ⫹ 1>3u(t ⫺ 1>2p) cos (3t)
4. The subsidiary equation is
(s 2 ⫹ 16)Y ⫽ 2s ⫹ 4eⴚ3ps
where 2s comes from y(0). The solution is
2s ⫹ 4eⴚ3ps
Y⫽ .
s 2 ⫹ 16
The inverse transform (the solution of the IVP) is
y ⫽ 2 cos 4t ⫹ u(t ⫺ 3p) sin 4t.

0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
⫺1 t
⫺2

Section 6.4. Problem 4

1>2 sin (2t) 0⬍t⬍p

5. y ⫽ μ sin (2t) p ⬍ t ⱕ 2p
1>2 sin (2t) t ⬎ 2p
6. The subsidiary equation is
(s 2 ⫹ 4s ⫹ 5)Y ⫽ 3 ⫹ eⴚs
where 3 comes from y r (0). The solution is
3 ⫹ eⴚs
Y⫽ .
(s ⫹ 2)2 ⫹ 1
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The inverse transform (the solution of the initial value problem) is

y ⫽ 3eⴚ2t sin t ⫹ u(t ⫺ 1)eⴚ2(tⴚ1) sin (t ⫺ 1).
7. y ⫽ 3>5 e ⴚt ⫹ 1>2 u (t ⫺ 1>4) e ⴚ2tⴙ1>2sin (1>2t ⫺ 1>8)
8. The subsidiary equation is
10
(s 2 ⫹ 3s ⫹ 2)Y ⫽ s ⫺ 1 ⫹ 3 ⫹ ⫹ 10eⴚs.
s ⫹1
2

In terms of partial fractions, its solution is

⫺2 3s ⫺ 1
⫹ 10 a b eⴚs.
6 1 1
Y⫽ ⫹ ⫺ 2 ⫺
s⫹2 s⫹1 s ⫹1 s⫹1 s⫹2

Its inverse transform is

y ⫽ ⫺2eⴚ2t ⫹ 6eⴚt ⫺ 3 cos t ⫹ sin t ⫹ 10u(t ⫺ 1)3eⴚt⫹1 ⫺ eⴚ2(tⴚ1)4.
Without the d-term, the solution is ⫺3 cos t ⫹ sin t ⫺ 2eⴚ2t ⫹ 6eⴚt and approaches
a harmonic oscillation fairly soon. With the d-term the first half-wave has a maximum
amplitude of about 5, but from about t ⫽ 8 or 10 on its graph practically coincides
with the graph of that harmonic oscillation (whose maximum amplitude is 110). This
is physically understandable, since the system has damping that eventually consumes
the additional energy due to the d-term.
9. y(t) ⫽ 1>5 e tu(2 ⫺ t) ⫹ 1>5 e 4ⴚtu (t ⫺ 2) (cos (t ⫺ 2) ⫺ 3 sin (t ⫺ 2))
⫹ 1>5( ⫺ cos (t) ⫹ 3 sin (t)) e ⴚt
10. The subsidiary equation is
s
(s 2 ⫹ 5s ⫹ 6)Y ⫽ eⴚps>2 ⫺ eⴚps.
s ⫹1
2

Its solution is
0.1(s ⫹ 1) ⴚps
Y⫽a b eⴚps>2 ⫺ a⫺ be
1 1 0.4 0.3
⫺ ⫹ ⫹ .
s⫹2 s⫹3 s⫹2 s⫹3 s2 ⫹ 1
The inverse transform of Y is
y ⫽ u(t ⫺ 12 p) 3eⴚ2t⫹p ⫺ eⴚ3t⫹3p>24
⫺ 0.1u(t ⫺ p) 3⫺4eⴚ2t⫹2p ⫹ 3eⴚ3t⫹3p ⫺ cos t ⫺ sin t4.
This solution is zero from 0 to 12 p and then increases rapidly. Its first negative half-
wave has a smaller maximum amplitude (about 0.1) than the continuation as a
harmonic oscillation with maximum amplitude of about 0.15.

0.15
0.1
0.05
0
2 4 6 8 10
⫺0.05
t
⫺0.1

Section 6.4. Problem 10

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Instructor’s Manual 115

11. y(t) ⫽ e ⴚt ⫺ e ⴚ2t ⫹ u(t ⫺ 2) (e 2⫺t ⫺ e ⴚ2t⫹4)

⫹ 1>2(1 ⫺ 2e 1⫺t ⫹ e ⴚ2t⫹2)u(t ⫺ 1).
12. The subsidiary equation is
25
(s 2 ⫹ 2s ⫹ 5)Y ⫽ 1 ⫺ 2s ⫹ 2
⫺ 100eⴚps.
s
Its solution is
⫺s 2 ⫹ 2s 3 ⫺ 25 ⫹ 100s 2eⴚps
Y⫽ .
s 2((s ⫹ 1)2 ⫹ 4)
Its inverse transform (the solution of the IVP) is
y ⫽ 5t ⫺ 2 ⫺ 50u(t ⫺ p)eⴚt⫹p sin 2t.
This is essentially a straight line, sharply deformed between p and about 8.

40

30

20

10

0
2 4 6 8 10
⫺10 t

Section 6.4. Problem 12

14. TEAM PROJECT. (a) If f (t) is piecewise continuous on an interval of length p, then
its Laplace transform exists, and we can write the integral from zero to infinity as the
series of integrals over successive periods:
⬁ p 2p 3p

l( f ) ⫽ 冮e 0
ⴚst
f (t) dt ⫽ 冮e
0
ⴚst
f dt ⫹ 冮
p
e ⴚst
f dt ⫹ 冮
2p
eⴚstf dt ⫹ Á .

If we substitute t ⫽ t ⫹ p in the second integral, t ⫽ t ⫹ 2p in the third integral, Á ,

t ⫽ t ⫹ (n ⫺ 1)p in the nth integral, Á , then the new limits in every integral are 0
and p. Since
f (t ⫹ p) ⫽ f (t), f (t ⫹ 2p) ⫽ f (t),
etc., we thus obtain
p p p

l( f ) ⫽ 冮
0
eⴚstf (t) dt ⫹ 冮
0
eⴚs(t⫹p)f (t) dt ⫹ 冮e
0
ⴚs(t⫹2p)
f (t) dt ⫹ Á .

The factors that do not depend on t can be taken out from under the integral signs;
this gives
p

l( f ) ⫽ 31 ⫹ e ⴚsp
⫹e ⴚ2sp
⫹ Á4 冮e
0
ⴚst
f (t) dt.
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The series in brackets 3 Á 4 is a geometric series whose sum is 1>(1 ⫺ eⴚps). The
theorem now follows.
(b) From (11) we obtain
p>v
l( f ) ⫽
1
1 ⫺ eⴚ2ps>v
冮0
eⴚst sin vt dt.

ⴚ2ps>v ⴚps>v ⴚps>v

Using 1 ⫺ e ⫽ (1 ⫹ e )(1 ⫺ e ) and integrating by parts or noting
that the integral is the imaginary part of the integral
p>v p>v
⫺s ⫺ iv
冮
0
e(ⴚs⫹iv)t dt ⫽
1
⫺s ⫹ iv
e(ⴚs⫹iv)t `
0
⫽
s 2 ⫹ v2
(⫺eⴚsp>v ⫺ 1)

we obtain the result.

(c) From (11) we obtain the following equation by using sin vt from 0 to p>v and
⫺sin vt from p>v to 2p>v:

v 1 ⫹ eps>v v eⴚps>2v ⫹ eps>2v

⫽
s 2 ⫹ v2 eps>v ⫺ 1 s 2 ⫹ v2 eps>2v ⫺ eⴚps>2v
v cosh (ps>2v)
⫽ .
s 2 ⫹ v2 sinh (ps>2v)

This gives the result.

(d) The sawtooth wave has the representation

k
f (t) ⫽ p t if 0 ⬍ t ⬍ p, f (t ⫹ p) ⫽ f (t).

Integration by parts gives

p p p

冮
0
eⴚstt dt ⫽ ⫺ s eⴚst `
t
0
1
⫹ s 冮e
0
ⴚst
dt

p 1
⫽ ⫺ eⴚsp ⫺ 2 (eⴚsp ⫺ 1)
s s

and thus from (11) we obtain the result

k keⴚps
l( f ) ⫽ ⫺ (s ⬎ 0).
ps 2 s(1 ⫺ eⴚps)

SECTION 6.5. Convolution. Integral Equations, page 232

Purpose. To find the inverse h(t) of a product H(s) ⫽ F(s)G(s) of transforms whose
inverses are known.
Main Content, Important Concepts
Convolution f * g, its properties
Convolution theorem
Application to ODEs and integral equations
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Comment on Occurrence
In an ODE the transform R(s) of the right side r(t) is known from Step 1. Solving
the subsidiary equation algebraically for Y(s) causes the transform R(s) to be multiplied
by the reciprocal of the factor of Y(s) on the left (the transfer function Q(s); see
Sec. 6.2). This calls for the convolution theorem, unless one sees some other way or
shortcut.
Very Short Courses. This section can be omitted.
Problem Set 6.5
This set concerns integrations needed to obtain convolutions (Probs. 1–7), the use of the
latter in solving a certain class of integrations (Probs. 8–14), the effect of varying a
parameter in an integral equation (CAS Experiment 15), a problem (Prob. 16) on general
properties of convolution.
Problems 17–26 show how to obtain inverse transforms by evaluating integrals that
define convolutions.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEM SET 6.5, page 237

1. ⫺t
t
cos vt t 1 ⫺ cos vt
2. 1 * sin vt ⫽ 冮 sin vt dt ⫽ ⫺
0
v `0⫽ v
1 t ⴚt
3. 2 (e ⫹ e ) ⫽ sinh t
4. We obtain

t t

冮
0
cos vt cos (vt ⫺ vt) dt ⫽
1
2 冮 3cos vt ⫹ cos (2vt ⫺ vt)4 dv
0

sin vt ⫺ sin (⫺vt)

c t cos vt ⫹ d ⫽ t cos vt ⫹
1 1 1
⫽ sin vt.
2 2v 2 2v

sin vt
5. v
t t
eat ⫺ ebt
6. eat * ebt ⫽ 冮
0
eateb(tⴚt) dt ⫽ ebt 冮e
0
(aⴚb)t
dt ⫽
a⫺b

7. te ⴚt ⫺ te ⴚ2t.
8. The integral equation can be written

y(t) ⫹ 4y(t) * t ⫽ 2t.

By the convolution theorem it has the transform

Y ⫹ 4Y>s 2 ⫽ 2>s 2.
The solution is Y ⫽ 2>(s 2 ⫹ 4). Its inverse transform is y ⫽ sin 2t.
9. y ⫹ 1 * y ⫽ 2; Y ⫽ s ⫹2 1; y ⫽ 2eⴚt
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10. In terms of convolution the given integral equation is

y(t) ⫺ y(t) * sin 2t ⫽ sin 2t.

By the convolution theorem its transform is

Y ⫺ 2Y>(s 2 ⫹ 4) ⫽ 2>(s 2 ⫹ 4).

Multiplication by s 2 ⫹ 4 gives

2
Y(s 2 ⫹ 2) ⫽ 2; thus Y⫽ .
s ⫹2
2

The inverse transform (the solution of the integral equation) is

y ⫽ 12 sin (t 12).
s
11. Y ⫽ s2 ⫺ 1 ; y ⫽ cosh t.
12. The integral equation can be written

y(t) ⫹ y(t) * cosh t ⫽ t ⫹ et.

This implies, by the convolution theorem, that its transform is

s 1 1
Y⫹ Y⫽ 2⫹ .
s ⫺1
2
s s⫺1

The solution is

s2 ⫺ 1
a ⫹ b⫽ 2⫹ .
1 1 1 1
Y⫽
s ⫹ s ⫺ 1 s2
2
s⫺1 s s

Hence its inverse transform gives the answer y(t) ⫽ t ⫹ 1. This result can easily be
checked by substitution into the given equation and integration.

14. Y a1 ⫺ 2b ⫽
1 2 1
⫺ 3 , hence
s s s

2s 2 ⫺ 1 1 s
Y⫽ ⫽ ⫹ 2 .
s(s 2 ⫺ 1) s s ⫺1

The answer is y ⫽ 1 ⫹ cosh t.

16. Team Project. (a) Setting t ⫺ t ⫽ p, we have t ⫽ t ⫺ p, dt ⫽ ⫺dp, and p runs
from t to 0; thus
t 0
f*g⫽ 冮
0
f (t)g(t ⫺ t) dt ⫽ 冮 g( p) f (t ⫺ p)(⫺dp)
t

⫽ 冮
0
g( p) f (t ⫺ p) dp ⫽ g * f.
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(b) Interchanging the order of integration and noting that we integrate over the shaded
triangle in the figure, we obtain
( f * g) * v ⫽ v * ( f * g)
t tⴚp

⫽ 冮 v( p) 冮
0 0
f (t)g(t ⫺ p ⫺ t) dt dp

t tⴚt
⫽ 冮
0
f (t) 冮 0
g(t ⫺ t ⫺ p)v( p) dp dt

⫽ f * (g * v).

t
p=t–
=t–p

0
0 t p

Section 6.5. Team Project 16(b)

(c) This is a simple consequence of the additivity of the integral.

k
(d) Let t ⬎ k. Then ( fk * f )(t) ⫽ 冮
0
1
k
f (t ⫺ t) dt ⫽ f (t ⫺ ~
t ) for some ~
t between 0

and k. Now let k : 0. Then ~t : 0 and fk(t ⫺ ~

t ) : d(t), so that the formula follows.
(e) s Y ⫺ sy(0) ⫺ y r (0) ⫹ v2Y ⫽ l(r) has the solution
2

y r (0)
a 2 2 b l(r) ⫹ y(0) 2
1 v s v
Y⫽ 2 ⫹
v s ⫹v s ⫹v v s 2 ⫹ v2
etc.
t t

18. eat * eat ⫽ 冮0

a atea(tⴚt) dt ⫽ eat 冮 0
dt ⫽ teat

20. 9 * eⴚ3t ⫽ 9 冮 0
eⴚ3t dt ⫽ 3 ⫺ 3eⴚ3t

21. ⫺wt ⫹ sinh (wt)

w2 .

t t

22. u(t ⫺ a) * e2t ⫽ 冮

a
e2(tⴚt) dt ⫽ e2t 冮
a
eⴚ2t dt ⫽
1 2(tⴚa)
2
(e ⫺ 1) if t ⬎ a and 0 if

t⬍a
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120 Instructor’s Manual

24. 48 (sin t) * (sin 5t) ⫽ 48 冮 sin t sin 5(t ⫺ t) dt. Using formula (11) in App. 3.1, convert
0
the product in the integrand to a sum and integrate, obtaining
t

24 冮 3⫺cos (5t ⫺ 4t) ⫹ cos (t ⫺ 5t ⫹ 5t)4 dt

0
t
⫽ 24[⫺ 14 sin (⫺5t ⫹ 4t) ⫹ 16 sin (6t ⫺ 5t)] `
0
⫽ 3(sin t ⫺ sin 5t) ⫹ 2(sin t ⫹ sin 5t)
⫽ 10 sin t ⫺ 2 sin 5t.

SECTION 6.6. Differentiation and Integration of Transforms. ODEs with

Variable Coefficients, page 238
Purpose. To show that, roughly, differentiation and integration of transforms (not of
functions, as before!) correspond to multiplication and division, respectively, of functions
by t, with application to the derivation of further transforms and to the solution of
Laguerre’s differential equation.
Comment on Application to Variable-Coefficient Equations
This possibility is rather limited; our Example 3 is perhaps the best elementary example
of practical interest.
Very Short Courses. This section can be omitted.
Problem Set 6.6
Problems 2–11 concern single or twofold applications of differentiation with respect to s,
as the only method wanted for solving these problems, whereas in Probs. 14–20 the student
has first to select a suitable one among several possible methods suggested.
Problem 13 is an invitation to study Laguerre polynomials in somewhat more detail, in
particular, to compare the locations of the extrema depending on the parameter n.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEM SET 6.6, page 241

2. F(s) ⫽ ⫺3 a b ⫽
4 r 24s
s ⫺ 16
2
(s ⫺ 16)2
2

3. 14(s ⫹ 2)ⴚ2
4. We have
s⫹1 s⫹1
l(eⴚt cos t) ⫽ ⫽ .
(s ⫹ 1) ⫹ 1
2
s ⫹ 2s ⫹ 2
2

Differentiation and simplification gives the answer

s⫹1 s 2 ⫹ 2s ⫹ 2 ⫺ (s ⫹ 1)(2s ⫹ 2)
F r (s) ⫽ ⫺ a b ⫽⫺
r
s 2 ⫹ 2s ⫹ 2 (s 2 ⫹ 2s ⫹ 2)2
s 2 ⫹ 2s
⫽ .
(s 2 ⫹ 2s ⫹ 2)2
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Instructor’s Manual 121

5. 2(s2 ⫹svv2)2
6. We need two differentiations. We can drop the two minus signs. Starting from the
transform of sin 3t, we obtain
⫺6s
a b ⫽a b
3 s r
s ⫹9
2
(s ⫹ 9)
2 2

⫺6(s 2 ⫹ 9)2 ⫹ 6s # 2(s 2 ⫹ 9) # 2s

⫽
(s 2 ⫹ 9)4
⫺6s ⫺ 54 ⫹ 24s 2
2
⫽
(s 2 ⫹ 9)3
18(s ⫺ 3) 2
⫽ 2 .
(s ⫹ 9)3
7. (s ⫺ 2)ⴚ3 ⫺ (s ⫹ 2)ⴚ3.
2(s ⫹ k)
8. ⫺ a b ⫽
1 r
(s ⫹ k) ⫹ 1
2
((s ⫹ k)2 ⫹ 1)2
⫺ 3p )
2 2
9. 16s(4s
(4s 2 ⫹ p2)3
n! 1
10. l(t nekt) ⫽ can be obtained from l(ekt) ⫽ by n subsequent
(s ⫺ k) n⫹1 s⫺k
differentiations,
(n) (nⴚ1)
⫺1 (⫺1)nn!
a b ⫽a b
1
⫽ Á ⫽
s⫺k (s ⫺ k)2 (s ⫺ k)n⫹1
and multiplication by (⫺1)n (to take care of the minus sign in (1) in each of the
n steps), or much more simply, by the first shifting theorem, starting from
l(t n) ⫽ n!>s n⫹1.
11. s2 ⫹p4p2.
12. CAS Project. Students should become aware that usually there are several possibilities
for calculations, and they should not rush into numeric work before carefully selecting
formulas.
(b) Use the usual rule for differentiating a product n times. Some of the Laguerre
polynomials are
l2 ⫽ 1 ⫺ 2t ⫹ 12 t 2
l3 ⫽ 1 ⫺ 3t ⫹ 32 t 2 ⫺ 16 t 3
l4 ⫽ 1 ⫺ 4t ⫹ 3t 2 ⫺ 23 t 3 ⫺ 24
1 4
t
5 3 5 4 1 5
l5 ⫽ 1 ⫺ 5t ⫹ 5t ⫺ 3 t ⫺ 24 t ⫺ 120
2
t .
14. By differentiation we have
⫺8s
a b ⫽
4 r .
s ⫹ 16
2
(s ⫹ 16)2
2

Hence the answer is 18 t sin 4t. By integration we see that

⬁ 1
s~
冮
s
~
(s ⫹ 16)
2 2
ds~ ⫽ 2
2

s ⫹ 16
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122 Instructor’s Manual

has the inverse transform 18 sin 4t and gives the same answer. By convolution,
t

(cos 4t) * (14 sin 4t) ⫽ 冮 cos 4t sin (4t ⫺ 4t) dt

0

and gives the same answer.

15. F(s) ⫽ ⫺12(s2 1⫺ 4)r; f(t) ⫽ 14 sinh 2t.
16. By (6),
⬁
2s~ ⫹ 6
冮 ⫽ la b.
1 f
ds~ ⫽ 2
s (s ⫹ 6s~ ⫹ 10)
~2 2
s ⫹ 6s ⫹ 10 t

The inverse transform of the integral is eⴚ3t sin t. Answer:

teⴚ3t sin t.
1> p ⫺p
18. aarccot p b ⫽ ⫺
s r
⫽ shows that the answer is (sin pt)>t.
2
s ⫹ p2
2

1 ⫹ apb
s

⬁ ⬁
s⫹a
20. ln
s⫹b
⫽ ln (s ⫹ a) ⫺ ln (s ⫹ b) ⫽ ⫺ 冮s
ds
s⫹a
⫹ 冮
s
ds
s⫹b
. This shows that the

answer is (⫺eⴚat ⫹ eⴚbt)>t.

SECTION 6.7. Systems of ODEs, page 242

Purpose. This section explains the application of the Laplace transform to systems of
ODEs in terms of three typical examples: a mixing problem, an electrical network, and
a system of several (two) masses on elastic springs.
Note that Examples 1 and 2 in the text concern first-order systems, whereas the system
in Example 3 is of second order.
Problem Set 6.7
Team Project 1 concerns Examples 1 and 2 of Sec. 4.1, namely, a comparison of the usual
method and the present transform method.
Problems 2–10 involve IVPs for first-order systems, Probs. 11–13 second-order sys-
tems, and Probs. 14–15 systems of three ODEs.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEM SET 6.7, page 246

2. y1(t) ⫽ t sin (t) ⫹ cos (t), y2(t) ⫽ t cos (t)

3. y1(t) ⫽ cosh (t) ⫹ 2 sinh (t), y2(t) ⫽ sinh (t)
4. The subsidiary equations are
8s
sY1 ⫽ 4Y2 ⫺
s ⫹ 16 2

36
sY2 ⫽ 3 ⫺ 3Y1 ⫺ 2 .
s ⫹ 16
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Instructor’s Manual 123

The solution is
4 3s
Y1 ⫽ , Y2 ⫽ .
s ⫹ 16
2
s ⫹ 16
2

The inverse transform is y1 ⫽ sin 4t, y2 ⫽ 3 cos 4t.

5. y1(t) ⫽ 1 ⫺ u(t ⫺ 1)(2 (sin (1>2t ⫺ 1>2)2 ⫹ sin (t ⫺ 1)) ⫹ 2sin (t),
y2(t) ⫽ ⫺2 ⫹ 2 cos (t) ⫹ (⫺sin (t ⫺ 1) ⫹ 2 (sin (1>2t ⫺ 1>2))2)u(t ⫺ 1)
6. The subsidiary equations are

sY1 ⫺ 1 ⫽ 5Y1 ⫹ Y2
sY2 ⫹ 3 ⫽ Y1 ⫹ 5Y2.

The solution is

s⫺8 (s ⫺ 5) ⫺ 3
Y1 ⫽ ⫽
(s ⫺ 5)2 ⫺ 1 (s ⫺ 5)2 ⫺ 1
⫺3s ⫹ 16 ⫺3(s ⫺ 5) ⫹ 1
Y2 ⫽ ⫽ .
(s ⫺ 5) ⫺ 1 2
(s ⫺ 5)2 ⫺ 1

The inverse transform is

y1 ⫽ e5t cosh t ⫺ 3e5t sinh t ⫽ 2e4t ⫺ e6t

y2 ⫽ ⫺3e5t cosh t ⫹ e5t sinh t ⫽ ⫺2e4t ⫺ e6t.

8. The subsidiary equations are

sY1 ⫽ 4 ⫺ 2Y1 ⫹ 3Y2

sY2 ⫽ 3 ⫹ 4Y1 ⫺ Y2.

The solution is

4s ⫹ 13 3 1
Y1 ⫽ ⫽ ⫹
s 2 ⫹ 3s ⫺ 10 s⫺2 s⫹5

3s ⫹ 22 4 1
Y2 ⫽ ⫽ ⫺ .
s 2 ⫹ 3s ⫺ 10 s⫺2 s⫹5

The inverse transform is

y1 ⫽ 3e2t ⫹ eⴚ5t, y2 ⫽ 4e2t ⫺ eⴚ5t.

9. y1(t) ⫽ ⫺(t ⫺ 1)e 2t, y2(t) ⫽ ⫺te 2t

10. The subsidiary equations are

sY1 ⫽ 1 ⫺ Y2
2s 2eⴚ2pss
sY2 ⫽ ⫺Y1 ⫹ ⫺ .
s2 ⫹ 1 s2 ⫹ 1
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124 Instructor’s Manual

The solution is
s(s 2 ⫺ 1 ⫹ 2eⴚ2ps)
Y1 ⫽
s4 ⫺ 1
s 2seⴚ2ps
⫽ ⫹
s2 ⫹ 1 s4 ⫺ 1
1 1

⫹ eⴚ2ps a b
s 2 2 s
⫽ ⫹ ⫺ 2
s2 ⫹ 1 s⫺1 s⫹1 s ⫹1
s 2 ⫺ 1 ⫺ 2s 2eⴚ2ps
Y2 ⫽
s4 ⫺ 1

⫹ eⴚ2ps a a b⫺ 2 b.
1 1 1 1 1
⫽ ⫺
s2 ⫹ 1 2 s⫹1 s⫺1 s ⫹1

The inverse transform is

y1 ⫽ cos t ⫹ u(t ⫺ 2p) 3⫺cos t ⫹ 12 (eⴚt⫹2p ⫹ etⴚ2p)4
y2 ⫽ sin t ⫹ u(t ⫺ 2p) 3⫺sin t ⫹ 12 (eⴚt⫹2p ⫺ etⴚ2p)4.
Thus y1 ⫽ cos t and y2 ⫽ sin t if 0 ⬍ t ⬍ 2p, y1 ⫽ cosh (t ⫺ 2p), and y2 ⫽
⫺sinh (t ⫺ 2p) if t ⬎ 2p.
12. The subsidiary equations are
s 2Y1 ⫽ s ⫺ 4Y1 ⫹ 5Y2 (1)
s 2Y2 ⫽ 2s ⫺ Y1 ⫹ 2Y2 (2)
The solution is
s(8 ⫹ s 2) 5 s 9 9
Y1(t) ⫽ ⫽⫺ ⫹ ⫹
⫺3 ⫹ s ⫹ 2s
4 2 4 s2 ⫹ 3 8(s ⫹ 1) 8(s ⫺ 1)
s(2s 2 ⫹ 7) 1 s 9 9
Y2(t) ⫽ ⫽⫺ ⫹ ⫹
⫺3 ⫹ s ⫹ 2s
4 2 4s ⫹3
2 8(s ⫹ 1) 8(s ⫺ 1)

Hence the inverse transform is

y1 ⫽ ⫺5>4 cos(23t) ⫹ 9>4 cosh (t),
y2 ⫽ ⫺1>4 cos(23t) ⫹ 9>4 cosh (t)
14. The subsidiary equations are
4sY1 ⫺ 8 ⫹ sY2 ⫺ 2sY3 ⫽ 0
1
⫺2sY1 ⫹ 4 ⫹ sY3 ⫽ s

16
2sY2 ⫺ 4sY3 ⫽ ⫺ .
s2
The solution is

Y1 ⫽ 2 a ⫹ 3 b ,
1 1 2 1 4
Y2 ⫽ , Y3 ⫽ ⫹ 3.
s s s2 s2 s
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Instructor’s Manual 125

The inverse transform is

y1 ⫽ 2 ⫹ t 2, y2 ⫽ 2t, y3 ⫽ t ⫹ 2t 2.

15. y1 ⫽ ⫺3>2 cosh (t) ⫹ 1>2 sinh (t) ⫹ 3>2, y2 ⫽ ⫺3>2 cosh (t) ⫹ 5>2 sinh (t) ⫹ 3>2,
y3 ⫽ ⫺1>2 cosh (t) ⫹ 3>2 sinh (t) ⫹ 3>2.
16. The subsidiary equations are

11
s 2Y1 ⫺ s ⫺ 1 ⫽ ⫺8Y1 ⫹ 4Y2 ⫹
s ⫹1
2

11
s 2Y2 ⫺ s ⫹ 1 ⫽ ⫺8Y2 ⫹ 4Y1 ⫺ .
s ⫹1
2

The solution, in terms of partial fractions, is

s 1
Y1 ⫽ ⫹
s ⫹4
2
s ⫹1
2

s 1
Y2 ⫽ ⫺ .
s ⫹4
2
s ⫹1
2

The inverse transform is

y1 ⫽ cos 2t ⫹ sin t
y2 ⫽ cos 2t ⫺ sin t.

18. The new salt contents are

y1 ⫽ 100 ⫺ 62.5eⴚ0.24t ⫺ 37.5eⴚ0.08t

y2 ⫽ 100 ⫹ 125eⴚ0.24t ⫺ 75eⴚ0.08t.

Setting 2t ⫽ t gives the old solution, except for notation.

20. For 0 ⬉ t ⬉ 2p the solution is as in Prob. 19; for i 1 we have

i 1 ⫽ ⫺26eⴚ2t ⫺ 16eⴚ8t ⫹ 42 cos t ⫹ 15 sin t.

For t ⬎ 2p we have to add to this further terms whose form is determined by this
solution and the second shifting theorem,

u(t ⫺ 2p)326eⴚ2t⫹4p ⫹ 16eⴚ8t⫹16p ⫺ 42 cos t ⫺ 15 sin t4.

The cosine and sine terms cancel, so that

i 1 ⫽ ⫺26(1 ⫺ e4p)eⴚ2t ⫺ 16(1 ⫺ e16p)eⴚ8t if t ⬎ 2p.

Similarly, for i 2 we obtain

⫺26eⴚ2t ⫹ 8eⴚ8t ⫹ 18 cos t ⫹ 12 sin t

i2 ⫽ •
⫺26(1 ⫺ e4p)eⴚ2t ⫹ 8(1 ⫺ e16p)eⴚ8t.
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126 Instructor’s Manual

SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 6 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS,

page 251
3s
11. s2 ⫺ 1 ⫺ s2 10
⫺ 4.
s ⫺ 6
12. (s ⫹ 2)2 ⫹ 4
1 p2 ⫹ 2s 2
13. 2 s(s 2 ⫹ p2)

14. We have

16t 2 ⫽ 16(t ⫺ 14)2 ⫹ 8(t ⫺ 14) ⫹ 1.

The transform is
32 8 1
⫹ 2⫹ .
s3 s s

This times eⴚs>4 gives the answer (the transform of the given function).
ⴚ1ⴚ2s
15. 21e ⫹ 2s
eⴚ2sps
16. s2 ⫹ 4
⫺ 1)
2
17. s(s
(s 2 ⫹ 1)2
18. The transform of sin vt is v>(s 2 ⫹ v2), and that of cos vt is s>(s 2 ⫹ v2). Hence,
by convolution, the given function (use (11) in Appendix 3.1 in integration)

(sin vt) * (cos vt) ⫽ 12 t sin vt

has the transform
vs
.
(s 2 ⫹ v2)2
19. (s ⫹8 2)s3
20. 1.25(e4t ⫺ eⴚ2t) ⫽ 2.5et sinh 3t
21. (2 ⫺ t) u (t ⫺ 1)
1 1 # 1
16 2 8
22. 1
⫽ 1 2 1
. Hence 18 eⴚt>2 sin 12 t.
s ⫹s⫹
2
(s ⫹ ⫹
2 2) 4
23. sin (u ⫺ vt)
24. The given transform suggests the differentiation
s 2 ⫹ 6.25 ⫺ s # 2s s 2 ⫺ 6.25
a b ⫽
s r ⫽⫺
s 2 ⫹ 6.25 (s 2 ⫹ 6.25)2 (s 2 ⫹ 6.25)2

and shows that the answer is t cos 2.5t.

25. t(t ⫺ 2)
2s ⫺ 10 2 10
26. 3
⫽ 2
⫺ . This shows that the inverse transform is
s s s3

u(t ⫺ 5) 32(t ⫺ 5) ⫺ 5(t ⫺ 5)24 ⫽ u(t ⫺ 5) 3⫺5t 2 ⫹ 52t ⫺ 1354.

27. 1>2e ⴚt(4 cos 2t ⫺ sin 2t)

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Instructor’s Manual 127

3s 3(s ⫺ 1) ⫹ 3
28. ⫽ . Hence the inverse transform is
s ⫺ 2s ⫹ 2
2
(s ⫺ 1)2 ⫹ 1
3et(cos t ⫹ sin t).

29. y ⫽ 5t ⫺ 2 ⫺ 5e ⴚt sin 2t
30. y ⫽ ⫺cos 4t ⫹ u(t ⫺ p) sin 4t. To see the impact of 4d(t ⫺ p), graph both the
solution and the term ⫺cos 4t, perhaps in a short t-interval with midpoint p.
31. y ⫽ 12eⴚ2t ⫹ 5 (u (p ⫺ t) ⫺ 1)etⴚp ⫹ (s sin t ⫺ 9 cos t ⫺ 4eⴚ2tⴙ2p) u (t ⫺ p)
32. y ⫽ cos 2t ⫹ 123u(t ⫺ p) ⫺ u(t ⫺ 2p)4 sin 2t. The curve has cusps at t ⫽ p and 2p
(abrupt changes of the tangent direction).
0 t⬍1
33. y ⫽ e
1 ⫺ 3e 2tⴚ2 ⫹ 2e 3tⴚ3 1 ⱕ t
1
34. y1 ⫽ 2u(t ⫺ p) sin 2t, y2 ⫽ u(t ⫺ p) cos 2t. Hence y1 is continuous at p, whereas
y2 has an upward jump of 1 at that point.
36. y1 ⫽ ⫺6e4t ⫹ 2, y2 ⫽ ⫺3e4t ⫺ 1. Note that, from the given system, we see that
y2r ⫽ 12 y1r , so that y2 ⫽ 12 y1 ⫹ const.

⫺0.2
1

⫺0.4
0.5

⫺0.6
0
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5
⫺0.8 t
⫺0.5

⫺1
3 3.05 3.1 3.15 3.2 3.25 3.3
⫺1
t

Problem 30 Problem 32

⫺4

⫺4.2

⫺4.4

⫺4.6

⫺4.8

⫺5
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
t

Problem 36

37. y1 ⫽ 2 cos (t) ⫺ u (t ⫺ p) sin (t) ⫺ 1,

y2 ⫽ 2 sin (t) ⫹ 2u (t ⫺ p)(cos (1>2t))2
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128 Instructor’s Manual

38. ⫺k 1y1 is the force in the first spring when extended by an amount y1; it tends to pull
m 1 to the left, hence the minus. Similarly, a positive y2 ⫺ y1 causes the spring force
k 2(y2 ⫺ y1) in the second spring, pulling m 1 to the right. The spring force
⫺k 2(y2 ⫺ y1) in the second equation pulls m 2 to the left. Finally, a y2 ⬎ 0 causes a
compression of the third spring and a spring force ⫺k 3y2 in the negative direction,
pushing m 2 to the left.
40. We now have masses m 1, m 2, m 3 in a row, connected to each other by two springs and
connected to the two walls at the ends by the other two springs. The two springs pulling
or pushing at each of the three masses give two terms in each of the three ODEs
m 1 y1s ⫽ ⫺k 1y1 ⫹ k 2( y2 ⫺ y1)
m 2 y2s ⫽ ⫺k 2( y2 ⫺ y1) ⫹ k 3( y3 ⫺ y2)
m 3 y3s ⫽ ⫺k 3( y3 ⫺ y2) ⫺ k 4 y3.

1 ⫺ 12 (eⴚt ⫹ cos t ⫹ sin t) if 0 ⬍ t ⬍ p

42. q ⫽ •
2 3(e
ⴚp
1
⫺ 3) cos t ⫺ (eⴚp ⫹ 1) sin t4 if t ⬎ p.
ⴚt ⴚt
44. i 1 ⫽ 2(1 ⫺ e ), i 2 ⫽ 2e .
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