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Lec 9

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20 views6 pages

Lec 9

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s5022088
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Lec.

9 Dr Yasir Al-Juraisy

Plastids
The plastids are major double-membrane organelles found in plant cells and
algae. Plastids are the site of manufacture and storage of important chemical
compounds used by the cell. They contain pigments used in photosynthesis; the
types of pigments present can change or determine the cell's colour. They have a
double-stranded DNA molecule, which is circular, like that of prokaryotes.

In plants, plastids may differentiate into several forms, depending upon which
function they play in the cell. Undifferentiated plastids (proplastids) may develop
into any of the following variants:

Chromoplasts

Chromoplasts are red, yellow, or orange in colour and are found in the petals of
flowers and in fruit. Their colour is due to two pigments, carotene and xanthophyll.

Functions: in flowers is to attract agents of pollination, and in fruit to attract agents


of dispersal.

Leucoplasts

Leucoplasts are colourless plastids and occur in plant cells not exposed to light,
such as roots and seeds. They are colourless due to the absence of pigments.
Leucoplasts sometimes differentiate into more specialized plastids:

• Amyloplasts: for starch storage.

• Elaioplasts: for storing fat .

• Proteinoplasts: for storing and modifying protein.

• Tannosomes: for synthesizing and producing tannins and polyphenols.

Functions: centers of starch grain formation; and synthesis of oils and proteins.
Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts are probably the most important among the plastids since they are
directly involved in photosynthesis. They are usually situated near the surface of
the cell. The green colour of chloroplasts is caused by the green pigment
chlorophyll.

Functions: chloroplasts are the sites for photosynthesis; they contain enzymes and
co-enzymes necessary for the process of photosynthesis.

Chloroplast structures include:

 Membrane Envelope: contains inner and outer membranes that act as


protective coverings and keep chloroplast structures enclosed.

 Outer membrane: It is a semi-porous membrane and is permeable to small


molecules and ions, which diffuses easily. The outer membrane is not
permeable to larger proteins.
 Intermembrane Space: It is usually a thin intermembrane space about 10-20
nanometers, and it is present between the outer and the inner membrane of
the chloroplast.
 Inner membrane: The inner membrane of the chloroplast forms a border to
the stroma. It regulates the passage of materials in and out of the chloroplast
and forms fatty acids, lipids, and carotenoids.
 Thylakoid Membrane: internal membrane system consisting of flattened sac-
like membrane structures called thylakoids that serve as conversion sites of
light energy to chemical energy.

 Grana (singular granum): densely layered stacks of thylakoid sacs that serve
as the sites of conversion of light energy to chemical energy.

Chlorophyll - a green photosynthetic pigment within the chloroplast grana that


absorbs light energy.

 Stroma: dense fluid within the chloroplast that lies inside the envelope but
outside the thylakoid membrane. This is the site of the conversion of carbon
dioxide to carbohydrates (sugar). The chloroplast DNA, chloroplast
ribosomes, thylakoid system, starch granules, and many proteins are found
floating around the stroma.

Origin of plastids

Symbiosis may explain the origin of chloroplasts. Chloroplasts have many


similarities with photosynthetic bacteria, including circular DNA, prokaryotic-
type ribosomes, and similar proteins in the photosynthetic reaction
center. The endosymbiotic theory suggests that photosynthetic bacteria were
acquired (by endocytosis) by early eukaryotic cells to form the first plant cells.
Therefore, chloroplasts may be photosynthetic bacteria that adapted to life inside
plant cells.

Chloroplast: Photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis is the process of converting light energy to chemical energy


and storing it in the bonds of sugar. This process occurs in plants and some
algae. Plants need only light energy, CO2, and H2O to make sugar. The
process of photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts, specifically using
chlorophyll.

The overall chemical reaction involved in photosynthesis is:

6 CO2 + 6 H2O (+ light energy) → C6H12O6 + 6 O2

Photosynthesis occurs in two stages:

• The light reaction stage takes place in the presence of light and occurs
within the chloroplast grana. The primary pigment used to convert light
energy into chemical energy is “chlorophyll a”. Other pigments involved in
light absorption include chlorophyll b, xanthophyll, and carotene. In the
light reaction stage, sunlight is converted to chemical energy in the form of
ATP (a free energy-containing molecule) and NADPH (a high energy
electron-carrying molecule). Both ATP and NADPH are used in the dark
reaction stage to produce sugar.

• The dark reaction stage is also known as “the carbon fixation stage” or
the “Calvin cycle”. Dark reactions occur in the stroma. The stroma contains
enzymes that facilitate a series of reactions that use ATP, NADPH, and
carbon dioxide to produce sugar. The sugar can be stored in the form of
starch, used during respiration, or used in the production of cellulose.

Green plants are green because they contain a pigment called chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll absorbs certain wavelengths of light within the visible light spectrum.
Chlorophyll absorbs light in the red (long wavelength) and the blue (short
wavelength) regions of the visible light spectrum. Green light is not absorbed but
reflected, making the plant appear green.
Difference between light and dark reactions in photosynthesis

Light Reaction Dark Reaction


Occurs: Grana of the chloroplasts. Occurs: Stroma of the chloroplast
It is a light-dependent process. This process does not require light.
Involves two photosystems: PS I and PS II No photosystem is required.
Photolysis of water takes place and oxygen Photolysis of water does not take place.
is liberated. Carbon dioxide is absorbed.
ATP and NADPH are produced, and they Glucose is produced, and NADPH is
are used to drive the dark reaction. oxidized to NADP+.
Differences between Photosynthesis and Respiration

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