3.

5 Toughness and toughness test

Toughness
• is a measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy up to fracture under impact load or dynamical load
• Is determined using impact testing machine
Toughness test
• Involves striking a standard specimen with a controlled blow by a V shape hammer and measuring the energy
absorbed in breaking the specimen.
• Can be carried out with:
Charpy testing method
Is the most common of method of toughness testing in which tha sample is supported at two ends
during test
Charpy test specimen it is supported as a beam whereas izod test the specimen is supported as a
cantilever.
Works on the principle of change in potential energy after impact
The energy absorbed in the fracture is measured by recording how high the pendulum swings after
the bar breaks.
Uses a swinging pendulum, having a V shape hammer and a standard bar notched at the middle of its
length.
The standard specimen shall be:
10 by 10 mm cross section and 55 mm long.
a 2 mm deep 45o V-notch with a root radius of 0.25 mm
Izod testing method.
Uses a U-notched specimen which is free at one of its ends but supported at the other
end.
Uses a standard specimen having:
10 by 10 mm cross section and 75 mm long.
a 2 mm deep U-notch
Toughness = MgH – Mgh after impact
Where: M is mass of the hammer
H initial height of the hammer
H: height rise
The energy value indicates the toughness of the material under test.
A material is regarded as being tough if it absorbs a large amount of energy in breaking.
3.6 CREEP
• Occurs when a metal is subjected to a constant tensile load at an elevated
temperature and it will undergo a time-dependent increase in length.
• Materials creep at different temp. Since they have different melting point, each
will creep when the homologous temperature > 0.5

Creep test
• the test is based on the measurement of dimensions which occur when a metal is
subjected to high temperature.
• is carried out by applying a constant load to a tensile specimen maintained at a
constant temperature,
creep curve

Typical creep curve showing three stages of creep or three distinct stages
with different creep rates.
• After an initial rapid elongation o, the creep rate decrease with time
until reaching the steady state.
1) Primary creep provides decreasing creep rate.
- is a period of transient creep. The creep resistance of the
material increases due to material deformation.
- Predominate at low temperature test such as in the creep of lead
at room temp
2) Secondary creep gives the representing constant creep rate.
- Secondary creep provides a nearly constant creep rate. The
average value of the creep rate during this period is called the minimum
creep rate.

3) Tertiary creep yields a rapid creep rate till failure.

- Shows a rapid increase in the creep rate due to effectively
reduced cross-sectional area of the specimen.

Notes: B curve is obtained when the stress rather than the load is maintained.
o is instantaneous strain on loading which is partly recoverable with time
(anelastic) and partly non-recoverable with time (plastic)
4.0 PHASE DIAGRAM:
• Is also called as equilibrium or constitutional diagram.
• Is a graphical representation of the different phases or states of a substance under different
conditions of temperature and pressure.
• Shows the boundaries between the different phases and provides information about the phase
transitions that occur at different points.
• Shows the relationship between temperature, the compositions and the quantities of phases
present in an alloy system under equilibrium conditions.
temperature is usually plotted on the x-axis
pressure is plotted on the y-axis.
• Is divided into regions that represent the different phases of the substance, such as solid,
liquid, and gas.
• Gives information about:
- Phases present
- Composition of phases present
- Percentages of the phase
• Is classified into:
i. Unary Phase Diagram (Single Component):
ii. Binary Phase Diagram (Two Components)
iii. Ternary Phase Diagram (Three Components)
4.1 Unary Phase Diagram
• Is a diagram that applies for one component system and it explicitly shows the variation of
the component ‘s status with pressure and temperature
• Applies largely in pure water, pure metal and carbon.
Phase Diagram for Water
• Is a pressure-temperature diagram that shows water in its various states like ice,
liquid, and steam.

●
• Is plotted from zero pressure to Critical pressure and from 0 degree celsus to
critical temperature
Critical pressure : Is the temperature above which, a gas cannot be
converted to liquid even by application of pressure.
Critical temperature: is the temperature at and above which vapour of
the substance cannot be liquefied, no matter how much pressure is applied.
Critical temperature of water or any liquid is defined as the maximum
temperature range at which gas can be easily liquefied by applying pressure
over it.
• Consists the following equilibrium points:
Point ‘A’ which is the only triple point in the diagram in which three
phases (solid, liquid and gas) are in equilibrium
Line ‘ABC’ in which Liquid water is in equilibrium with the solid ice
Line ‘ADE’ in which gas (steam) becomes in equilibrium with liquid
water
Line ‘AF’ in which gas (steam) becomes in equilibrium with the solid
ice
Degree of freedom
• Is the number of parameter of the equilibrium system that can be
independently varied without causing a change the phases
• Depends on the number of phases
• Is determined by Gibbs Phase rule for an enclosed system at equilibrium
which states that:
F = C − P + 2.
Where, F is degree of freedom
C is Number of chemical component in the system
Water phase diagram is one-component system, C = 1
P is the number of phases.
If P is 1 (at H, N, M), F will be 2 (Bivariant system)
F = C − P + 2 = 1 - 1 + 2 = 2 (temperature and
pressure)
If P is 2, F will be 1 (Univariant system)
F = C − P + 2 = 1 - 2 + 2 = 1 (there is one pressure
for each temperature)
If P is 3 (at A, triple point), F will be 0 (Invariant system)
F = C − P + 2 = 1 - 3 + 2 = 0 (temperature and
pressure are fixed at the triple point)
4.2 Binary Phase Diagram (Two Components):
• Is classified into:
i. Binary Isomorphous Systems
here the two materials are completely soluble in liquid as well as
solid state under a substitutional solid solution
The two metals will generally have the same type of crystal
structure and differ in atomic radii by less than 8%.

The upper curve is called liquidus line (showing the beginning of solidification)
There is no solid phase above the liquidus line
The lower line is called solidus line (showing the end of solidification)
There is no liquid phase below the solidus line
There are both solid and liquid phases in between the liquidus and solidus lines
 ii. Eutectic Type Phase Diagram:
• Is a phase diagram in which materials are completely soluble in liquid state
but partially soluble in solid state (eutectic phase diagram)
• Has eutectic point at which degree of freedoms is zero.
Eutectic point is the composition and temperature at which a mixture of
two or more solids melts and crystallizes simultaneously
Example 1: Eutectic Bi-Cd phase diagram
Example 2: Eutectic Cu-Ag phase diagram
Phase Rule (Lever Rule)
• Is a formula used to determine the relative amounts of different phases present in a
two-phase system.
• takes into account the compositions and volume fractions of the phases to calculate
the fraction of each phase in the system.
• Determines the percentage of each element present in a mixture.
• Uses the given procedures:
Drawing a horizontal line (tie line) to the boundaries of the field
Dropping the points of intersection to the base line
Determining the relative amount of each phase using
• Consider the diagram below and point ‘n’ having L + S and a total concentration of
20%B. the concentration of B in L and B in S is determined by Lever rule using ‘n’
as a fulcrum.
• Divides the horizontal tie line into two parts ‘mn’ and ‘no’.
The entire length of the tie line mo is taken to represent 100% or the total weight
of the two phases present at temperature T, the lever rule may be expressed
mathematically as:
 Example
Consider a Binary alloy of A-B. It is assumed that the alloy will have two phases 
and . Seeing the phase diagram given below, determine the amount of solid phase
 and liquid phase L present for an alloy with 20% of B and 80% of A at a
temperature T2

Solution
i. Draw a horizontal line that passes through point temperature T2 to meet the
solidus and liquidus line
ii. Draw a vertical line along an alloy with 20% of B and 80% A and mark the point
at which the vertical line crosses the horizontal line.
iii. Use the point of intersection as a fulcrum to calculate the amount of the phases
Weight of  X nm = weight of L X no
𝑚𝑛
Liquid (%) = 𝑋100
𝑚𝑜

10
= 𝑋100 = 62.5
16

𝑛𝑜
 (%) = 𝑋100
𝑚𝑜
6
= 𝑋100 = 37.5%
16