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Changing Ecosystems Effects of Global Warming 1st
Edition Julie Kerr Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Julie Kerr, Ph.D. Casper
ISBN(s): 9780816072637, 0816072639
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 15.06 MB
Year: 2009
Language: english
 Gl bal
WarminG
Warmin

Changing
Ecosystems
 Gl bal
Warmin
WarminG

Changing
Ecosystems
Effects of Global Warming

Julie Kerr Casper, Ph.D.

CHANGING ECOSYSTEMS: Effects of Global Warming

Copyright © 2010 by Julie Kerr Casper, Ph.D.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or
retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact:

Facts On File, Inc.
An imprint of Infobase Publishing
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New York NY 10001

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Casper, Julie Kerr.
Changing ecosystems : effects of global warming / Julie Kerr Casper.
   p. cm.—(Global warming)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8160-7263-7 (hardcover)
ISBN 978-1-4381-2739-2 (e-book)
1. Ecology—Popular works. 2. Biotic communities—Popular works. 3. Global warming—Popular
works. I. Title.
QH541.13.C37 2009
577.27'6—dc22 2009001411

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Photo research by the author
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Book printed and bound by Bang Printing, Brainerd, MN
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This book is printed on acid-free paper.

 Contents
Preface viii
Acknowledgments xii
Introduction xiv

1 Signs and Effects of Global Warming 1

The Effects of Global Warming on Ecosystems 2
Scientific Findings 7
Observed and Expected Effects on Ecosystems 10
Why a Few Degrees Matter 14
Results of Global Warming on Ecosystems 15

2 Ecosystems, Adaptation, and Extinction 21

Biodiversity and Ecosystems 21
The Effects of Climate Change on Ecosystems 35
Impacts, Vulnerability, and Adaptation 41
Preservation Issues 44
The Impacts of Land-Use and Land-Cover Change 46

3 Impacts to Forests 49
Temperate Forests 50
Birds, Gardens, and Global Warming 60
Katrina and the Carbon Balance 63
Boreal Forests 65
Tropical Forests 67
Adaptation 75
4 Impacts to Rangelands, Grasslands, and Prairies 77
The Importance of Grasslands 78
Impacts of Global Warming 80
Some Surprises 82
Grasslands around the World 84
Adaptation 90

5 Impacts on Polar Ecosystems 91

Arctic Ecosystems 92
Arctic Impacts 95
The Bear Facts 103
The Threatened and Endangered Species Act 104
TESS 108
Permafrost 109
Shifting Vegetation Zones 110
Antarctic Ecosystems 111
Wildlife 112
Adaptation 116

6 Impacts to Desert Ecosystems 120

Desert Habitats 121
Drought 123
Threatened Deserts 127
Desertification 131
The Straight Facts about Desertification 138
Heat Waves 140
Wildfires 143
Southern California on Fire 145

7 Impacts to Mountain Ecosystems 147

Mountain Ecosystems in Danger Worldwide 148
Lack of Water Storage 150
Glaciers and Flooding 154
A Species Threatened: The Rocky Mountain Pika 156
Challenges in Alpine Regions 158
Economic Challenges 159
Case Study—White Mountains, New England 162
Major Cities Target Global Warming 163
8 Impacts to Marine Ecosystems 169
Temperate Marine Environments 169
Tropical Marine Environments 184
Freshwater Environments 191
Why Estuaries Are Important to the Environment 192

9 Conclusions—Where to Go from Here 198

Adaptation 199
Conclusions Drawn/Lessons Learned 200
Ways to Help 203

Chronology 204
Glossary 210
Further Resources 216
Index 247
 Preface
We do not inherit the Earth from our ancestors—
we borrow it from our children.

T his ancient Native American proverb and what it implies resonates

today as it has become increasingly obvious that people’s actions
and interactions with the environment affect not only living condi-
tions now, but also those of many generations to follow. Humans must
address the effect they have on the Earth’s climate and how their choices
today will have an impact on future generations.
Many years ago, Mark Twain joked that “Everyone talks about the
weather, but no one does anything about it.” That is not true anymore.
Humans are changing the world’s climate and with it the local, regional,
and global weather. Scientists tell us that “climate is what we expect,
and weather is what we get.” Climate change occurs when that average
weather shifts over the long term in a specific location, a region, or the
entire planet.
Global warming and climate change are urgent topics. They are
discussed on the news, in conversations, and are even the subjects of
horror movies. How much is fact? What does global warming mean to
individuals? What should it mean?
The readers of this multivolume set—most of whom are today’s
middle and high school students—will be tomorrow’s leaders and sci-
entists. Global warming and its threats are real. As scientists unlock the
mysteries of the past and analyze today’s activities, they warn that future
viii
 Preface ix

generations may be in jeopardy. There is now overwhelming evidence

that human activities are changing the world’s climate. For thousands of
years, the Earth’s atmosphere has changed very little; but today, there are
problems in keeping the balance. Greenhouse gases are being added to
the atmosphere at an alarming rate. Since the Industrial Revolution (late
18th, early 19th centuries), human activities from transportation, agricul-
ture, fossil fuels, waste disposal and treatment, deforestation, power sta-
tions, land use, biomass burning, and industrial processes, among other
things, have added to the concentrations of greenhouse gases.
These activities are changing the atmosphere more rapidly than
humans have ever experienced before. Some people think that warm-
ing the Earth’s atmosphere by a few degrees is harmless and could have
no effect on them; but global warming is more than just a warming—or
cooling—trend. Global warming could have far-reaching and unpredict-
able environmental, social, and economic consequences. The following
demonstrates what a few degrees’ change in the temperature can do.
The Earth experienced an ice age 13,000 years ago. Global tempera-
tures then warmed up 8.3°F (5°C) and melted the vast ice sheets that cov-
ered much of the North American continent. Scientists today predict that
average temperatures could rise 11.7°F (7°C) during this century alone.
What will happen to the remaining glaciers and ice caps?
If the temperatures rise as leading scientists have predicted, less fresh-
water will be available—and already one-third of the world’s population
(about 2 billion people) suffer from a shortage of water. Lack of water will
keep farmers from growing food. It will also permanently destroy sensitive
fish and wildlife habitat. As the ocean levels rise, coastal lands and islands
will be flooded and destroyed. Heat waves could kill tens of thousands
of people. With warmer temperatures, outbreaks of diseases will spread
and intensify. Plant pollen mold spores in the air will increase, affecting
those with allergies. An increase in severe weather could result in hur-
ricanes similar or even stronger than Katrina in 2005, which destroyed
large areas of the southeastern United States.
Higher temperatures will cause other areas to dry out and become
tinder for larger and more devastating wildfires that threaten forests,
wildlife, and homes. If drought destroys the rain forests, the Earth’s
 Changing Ecosystems

delicate oxygen and carbon balances will be harmed, affecting the water,
air, vegetation, and all life.
Although the United States has been one of the largest contribu-
tors to global warming, it ranks far below countries and regions—such
as Canada, Australia, and western Europe—in taking steps to fix the
damage that has been done. Global Warming is a multivolume set that
explores the concept that each person is a member of a global family
who shares responsibility for fixing this problem. In fact, the only way
to fix it is to work together toward a common goal. This seven-volume
set covers all of the important climatic issues that need to be addressed
in order to understand the problem, allowing the reader to build a solid
foundation of knowledge and to use the information to help solve the
critical issues in effective ways. The set includes the following volumes:
Climate Systems
Global Warming Trends
Global Warming Cycles
Changing Ecosystems
Greenhouse Gases
Fossil Fuels and Pollution
Climate Management
These volumes explore a multitude of topics—how climates change,
learning from past ice ages, natural factors that trigger global warming
on Earth, whether the Earth can expect another ice age in the future,
how the Earth’s climate is changing now, emergency preparedness
in severe weather, projections for the future, and why climate affects
everything people do from growing food, to heating homes, to using
the Earth’s natural resources, to new scientific discoveries. They look
at the impact that rising sea levels will have on islands and other areas
worldwide, how individual ecosystems will be affected, what humans
will lose if rain forests are destroyed, how industrialization and pollu-
tion puts peoples’ lives at risk, and the benefits of developing environ-
mentally friendly energy resources.
The set also examines the exciting technology of computer model-
ing and how it has unlocked mysteries about past climate change and
global warming and how it can predict the local, regional, and global
 Preface xi

climates of the future—the very things leaders of tomorrow need to

know today.

We will know only what we are taught;

We will be taught only what others deem is important to know;
And we will learn to value that which is important.
—Native American proverb
 Acknowledgments

G lobal warming may be one of the most important issues you will
have to make a decision on in your lifetime. The decisions you
make on energy sources and daily conservation practices will determine
not only the quality of your life but also that of your descendants.
I cannot stress enough how important it is to gain a good under-
standing of global warming: what it is, why it is happening, how it can
be slowed down, why everybody is contributing to the problem, and
why everybody needs to be an active part of the solution.
I would sincerely like to thank several of the federal agencies that
research, educate, and actively take part in dealing with the global
warming issue—in particular, the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)—for providing an
abundance of resources and outreach programs on this important
subject. I would especially like to acknowledge the years of leadership
and research provided by Dr. James E. Hansen of NASA’s Goddard
Institute for Space Studies (GISS). His pioneering efforts over the past
20 years have enabled other scientists, researchers, and political lead-
ers worldwide to better understand the scope of the scientific issues
involved at a critical point in time when action must be taken before it
is too late. I give special thanks to Al Gore and Arnold Schwarzeneg-
ger for their diligent efforts toward bringing the global warming issue

xii
 Acknowledgments xiii

so powerfully to the public’s attention. I would also like to acknowl-

edge and give thanks to the many wonderful universities across the
United States, in England, Canada, and Australia, as well as to pri-
vate organizations, such as the World Wildlife Fund and the Union of
Concerned Scientists, that diligently strive to educate others and help
toward finding a solution to this very real problem.
I want to give a huge thanks to my agent, Jodie Rhodes, for her
assistance, guidance, and efforts, and also to Frank K. Darmstadt, my
editor, for all his hard work, dedication, support, and helpful advice
and attention to detail. His efforts in bringing this project to life were
invaluable. Thanks also to the copyediting department for their assis-
tance and the outstanding quality of their work, with a special thank
you to Alexandra Lo Re for all of her input and enthusiasm toward this
critical topic.
 Introduction

T he Earth is getting increasingly warmer—summers are growing

hotter, glaciers are melting, sea levels are rising, and weather events
are becoming more unpredictable. Human-induced global warming
has only emerged as a serious issue in the past few decades, but cli-
matologists have found evidence that humans are slowly changing the
Earth’s climate and environment. Although the change so far is not
rapid, scientists expect it to begin accelerating. They predict that in the
21st century, the Earth will be hotter than it has been for most of the
last 420,000 years.
Natural global warming occurs over time due to factors such as the
relationships between the Earth’s rotation, axis, position, and revolution
around the Sun, as well as a result of major volcanic eruptions (what
has traditionally been small increments of change over thousands of
years). These types of gradual changes allow most species to survive
by migration or adaptation. However, warming has increased dramati-
cally during the last century at an unnatural rate, making specialists
believe that the real cause of global warming today is human induced.
Many activities humans are involved in—such as burning fossil fuels for
energy and massive deforestation—are contributing to the atmospheric
warming at an alarming rate. Experts believe that in the future enough
human-induced damage will have been done to create severe problems
in the distribution of species and their critical habitats, to increase the
occurrence of severe weather events, to contribute to sea-level rise, and

xiv
 Introduction xv

to trigger a host of health and quality-of-life issues that will affect every-
one on Earth. Unfortunately, no ecosystem will escape the impact of
human-induced global warming.
This volume in the Global Warming set looks at this serious issue
and the far-reaching effects it is having right now, and will have in the
future, on every ecosystem on Earth. It also explains why it is important
for you—the reader—to understand the relevant issues now so that you
can help solve this problem before it is too late and many species and
habitats are gone forever.
In chapter 1, you learn about the effects of global warming on eco-
systems—the current scientific findings, the observed effects, and the
expected future effects. This chapter illustrates why even a few degrees
of warming is a big deal.
Chapter 2 looks at the concept of biodiversity and just how vulner-
able species can be, even in a well-established ecosystem. You see how
disturbances and influences force a species to either adapt or die. This
chapter also explains why changing land-use practices can wreak havoc
on natural ecosystems, even though the change may be better or more
convenient for humans.
Chapter 3 looks exclusively at the impacts of global warming on
forest ecosystems. It classifies the forests of the world into three catego-
ries: temperate, boreal, and tropical; illustrates why they are the treasure
troves of multitudes of natural resources; and examines just how global
warming is threatening to destroy them. Some forest resources could be
cures for diseases and may be destroyed before the cures are discovered.
This chapter also shows you how humans are contributing to the prob-
lem and accelerating the destruction of forests, actually increasing their
vulnerability to global warming.
Chapter 4 centers on warming’s effects on the world’s rangelands,
grasslands, and prairies. Not often mentioned in the media when global
warming is discussed, these ecosystems support an abundance of wildlife
and serve as the source of much of the world’s food. You will learn in this
chapter just how critical these ecosystems are to every person on Earth
and why it is important that the health of the ecosystems be maintained.
xvi Changing Ecosystems

Chapter 5 takes you to the ends of the Earth—the polar regions.

These regions are among the Earth’s most fragile and are being affected
the most drastically now. Wildlife, such as the magnificent polar bear, is
facing extinction as the Arctic Ocean ice melts. Used as their hunting,
breeding, and feeding grounds, without the ice, the polar bears simply
cannot survive. Even though the polar regions seem far away, our use
of fossil fuels is writing the bears’ death sentences. This chapter also
focuses on the dynamics of permafrost and why its melting will cause so
much destruction. It also deals with shifting vegetation zones and what
species may disappear because of them.
Chapter 6 focuses on desert ecosystems and what the specific
threats are to them in a world of increased warming. It addresses the
topic of drought, why and where it is increasing, and then touches on
the process of desertification, where it can happen, who it can affect,
and whether or not it is possible to manage. You will learn about deadly
heat waves that have killed thousands of people already and what role
the heat waves will play in the future. Finally, we will examine the fright-
ening issue of wildfires and how fires, like those happening in South-
ern California, will only become more common in the years to come if
global warming increases.
Chapter 7 addresses how warming affects the world’s mountain
ecosystems and the threats they face. It shows why the world’s moun-
tain regions are in danger and which parts have nowhere to go when
the temperatures climb too high. It also gives you a perspective as to
what global warming will do to the economy of these regions and why
certain winter vacation resorts may not have many customers booking
vacations in the future.
Chapter 8 provides a glimpse into the impacts currently felt by
marine ecosystems—shoreline, deep ocean, temperate, tropical, and
freshwater areas. The tragic fate of the world’s spectacular reefs is
explained, and we show what countries are attempting to do in order
to stop their demise. It also focuses on the scarcity of the Earth’s supply
of accessible freshwater and what the consequences will be if we do not
protect and manage it intelligently.
Finally, this volume looks at the future—what our options are, what
we know based on what we have already seen happen to existing eco-
 Introduction xvii

systems now and in the past, and the many ways in which each one of
us can help solve the problem that every ecosystem in the world is now
experiencing. You will discover how to empower yourself and become
eco-responsible. After all, we share this planet with a diverse array of
life—and we need to keep it that way.
 1

Signs and Effects of

Global Warming
G lobal warming is one of the most controversial issues facing the
world today. It is controversial not only because it involves very
serious, far-reaching—global—issues that can permanently and nega-
tively affect the world, but also because it involves the lifestyles and per-
sonal choices of everyone on Earth. While it is true that some people
and ecosystems may suffer the negative effects more than others and
some people may have to be willing to make larger lifestyle changes,
everyone will have a responsibility and a stake in the outcome. If eco-
logically sound decisions are made, then life will be much better for not
only today’s population but also the generations of the future. If people
choose not to make wise environmental choices today, then the future
of upcoming generations will pay the price.
This chapter presents the current effects of global warming on eco-
systems and what that means for the future, as well as the scientific find-
ings of more than 2,500 scientists worldwide working together to better

 Changing Ecosystems

understand the pertinent aspects of global warming and what they

mean to every individual on Earth. It then discusses global warming’s
present and potential effects on ecosystems if global warming continues
unabated and why the Earth will become a very different place to try to
adapt to in the future. In order to understand what certain parts of the
world will be like in the face of global warming, it is first necessary to
understand the concept of ecosystems and the related signs and effects
of global warming.

The Effects of Global Warming on Ecosystems

Although not every scientist worldwide may look at global warming
in the same way, they do overwhelmingly agree that the Earth’s atmo-
sphere is getting warmer. Worldwide temperatures have risen more
than 1°F (0.6°C) over the past century, and 17 of the past 20 years have
been the hottest ever recorded. According to a special report issued by
Time magazine on April 3, 2006, the Intergovernmental Panel on Cli-
mate Change (IPCC), in their third report, released in 2001, had ana-
lyzed data from the past two decades representing properties such as air
and ocean temperatures and the habitat characteristics and patterns of
wildlife. Examples of observed changes included “shrinkage of glaciers,
thawing of permafrost, later freezing and earlier breakup of ice on rivers
and lakes, lengthening of mid- to high-latitude growing seasons, pole-
ward and altitudinal shifts of plant and animal ranges, declines of some
plant and animal populations, and earlier flowering of trees, emergence
of insects, and egg-laying in birds. Associations between changes in
regional temperatures and observed changes in physical and biological
systems have been documented in many aquatic, terrestrial, and marine
environments.”
The IPCC is an organized group of more than 2,500 climate experts
from around the world that consolidates their most recent scientific
findings every five to seven years into a single report, which is then pre-
sented to the world’s political leaders. The IPCC was established in 1988
by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to specifically address the
issue of global warming. As a result of their comprehensive analysis,
they have determined that this steady warming has had a significant
 Signs and Effects of Global Warming 

impact on at least 420 animal and plant species and also on natural
processes. Furthermore, this has not just occurred in one geographical
location but worldwide.
In the IPCC’s fourth report, released in February 2007, they con-
cluded that it is “very likely” (> 90 percent) that heat-trapping emis-
sions from human activities have caused “most of the observed increase
in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century.”
Also, in the February 2007 report, they concluded the following:

“Human induced warming over recent decades is already affecting

many physical and biological processes on every continent. Nearly
90 percent of the 29,000 observational data series examined revealed
changes consistent with the expected response to global warming, and
the observed physical and biological responses have been the greatest
in the regions that have warmed the most.”

In these studies, scientists have been able to break down the natural
and human-caused components in order to see how much of an effect
humans have had. Human effects can include activities such as burning
fossil fuels, agricultural practices, deforestation, industrial processes, the
introduction of invasive plant or animal species, and various types of
land-use change.
In many cases, scientists do not need to look very far to see the
effects a warming world is having on the environment and the Earth’s
ecosystems. Glaciers worldwide are melting at an accelerated rate never
seen before. The cap of ice on top of Kilimanjaro is rapidly disappear-
ing, the glaciers of world-renowned Glacier National Park in the United
States and Canada are melting and projected to be gone in the next
few decades, and the glaciers in the European Alps are experiencing a
similar fate.
In the world’s tropical oceans, vast expanses of beautiful, brilliantly
colored coral reefs are dying off as oceans slowly become too warm.
Unable to survive the higher temperatures, the corals are undergoing a
process called bleaching and are turning white and dying. In the Arctic,
as temperatures climb, ice is melting at accelerated rates, leaving polar
bears stranded, destroying their feeding and breeding grounds, and
causing them to starve and drown. Permafrost is melting at accelerated
 Changing Ecosystems

As the Earth warms under the influence of global warming, species

that need cooler temperatures will attempt to migrate to cooler re-
gions. They will move globally closer to the polar areas or locally up
mountain ranges to higher elevations. (Nature’s Images)

rates. As the ground thaws, it is disrupting the physical and chemical

components of the ecosystem by causing the ground to shift and settle,
toppling buildings and twisting roads and railroad tracks, as well as
releasing methane gas into the atmosphere (another potent greenhouse
gas responsible for global warming).
Weather patterns are also changing. El Niño events are triggering
destructive weather in the eastern Pacific (in North and South Amer-
ica). There has been an increase in extreme weather events, such as
hurricanes. Droughts have become more prevalent in some geograph-
ical areas, such as parts of Asia, Africa, Australia, and the American
Southwest.
Animal and plant habitats have been disrupted, and, as temperatures
continue to climb, there have been several documented migrations of
individual species moving northward (toward the poles) or to higher
elevations on individual mountain ranges. Migration patterns are also
 Signs and Effects of Global Warming 

being affected, such as those already documented of beluga whales, but-

terflies, and polar bears. Spring is also arriving earlier in some areas,
which is now influencing the timing of bird and fish migration, egg lay-
ing, leaf unfolding, and spring planting for agriculture. In fact, based on
satellite imagery documentation of the Northern Hemisphere, growing
seasons have steadily become longer since 1980.
While species have been faced with changing environments in
the past and have been able to adapt in many cases, the IPCC cli-
mate change scientists view this current rate of change with alarm.
They fully expect the magnitude of these changes to increase with the
temperatures over the next century and beyond. The concern is that
many species and ecosystems will not be able to adapt as rapidly as
the effects of global warming will cause the environment to change.
In addition, there will also be other disturbances, such as floods,
insect infestations, and the spread of disease, wildfire, and drought.
Any of these additional challenges can destroy a species or habitat.
In particular, alpine (high mountain) and polar species are especially
vulnerable to the effects of climate change because as species move
northward (poleward) or higher on mountains, these species’ habitats
will shrink, leaving them with nowhere to go.
With so much evidence, most scientists no longer doubt that global
warming is real, nor do they question the fact that humans are to blame.
All it takes is a look at the air quality over significant population and
industrial centers to begin to grasp the effect that humans can have on
the environment.
Based on temperature records kept before the beginning of the
Industrial Revolution, carbon dioxide (the most abundant greenhouse
gas) in the atmosphere has increased 30 percent above those earlier lev-
els. Not only are the levels higher, but they increase annually. According
to the IPCC, at current conditions, by the year 2100, the average tem-
perature is expected to increase between 2° and 11.5°F (1.1°–6.4°C)—
an amount more than 50 percent higher than what was predicted only
50 years ago. Within the IPCC’s predicted temperature range, at the
lower end, storms would become more frequent and intense, droughts
would be more severe, and coastal areas would be flooded by rising sea
levels from melting glaciers and ice caps. There would be enough of a
 Changing Ecosystems

One of the visible effects of the human-caused increase of CO2 in the

atmosphere can be seen as air pollution—also called smog—over the
world’s major cities. This photo is of Mexico City—the second-largest
urban area in the world, with a current population of 18,131,000.
(Nancy A. Marley, Argonne National Laboratory)

­ isruption that ecosystems worldwide would be thrown out of balance

d
and altered. If, however, the temperature rise falls toward the higher
end of the estimate, the results on ecosystems worldwide would be
disastrous.
Sea levels could rise so much that entire islands of low elevation,
such as the Maldives, could completely disappear. Other areas, such as
the Nile Delta and much of the United States’ coastal southeast (Flor-
ida, Louisiana, Mississippi), could become completely uninhabitable.
Climate zones could shift, completely disrupting land-use practices.
For instance, the current agricultural region of the Great Plains in the
 Signs and Effects of Global Warming 

United States (Nebraska, Oklahoma, Kansas) could be shifted to Can-

ada. The southern portion of the United States could become more like
Central or South America. Siberia would no longer be a frozen, deso-
late landscape. Parts of Africa could become dry, desolate wastelands.
If this were to happen, it would have a severe impact on the production
of agriculture. Areas currently equipped to produce agriculture would
no longer be able to, and areas that were able, based on climate, may
not have the financial resources or the proper soils. The ripple effect of
these disruptions would be felt worldwide. Millions of people would be
forced to migrate from newly uninhabitable regions to new areas where
they could survive.
This would also affect public health. Rising seas would contaminate
freshwater with salt water; there would be more heat-related illnesses
and deaths; and disease-carrying rodents and insects, such as mice, rats,
mosquitoes, and ticks, would spread diseases such as malaria, encepha-
litis, Lyme disease, and dengue fever.
Scientists of the IPCC agree that one of the most serious aspects of
all this drastic change is that it is happening so fast. These changes are
happening at a faster pace than the Earth has seen in the last 100 mil-
lion years. While humans may be able to pick up and move to a new
location, animals and their associated ecosystems cannot. The choices
people make and the actions they take today will determine the fate of
other life and their ecosystems tomorrow.

Scientific Findings
In order to understand climate trends and behavior, it is first neces-
sary to study the climate history of the Earth’s past, obtained from
written documentation since record keeping of global temperatures
began in 1867. Before that, consistent, reliable data are not directly
available. Data can be obtained from sources such as ice cores, tree
rings, and coral.
Once past evidence is put together, climatologists work at determin-
ing the cause and then try to project forward in order to determine what
the outcome may be over the near term, mid term, and long term. Once
specific contributions toward the climate’s condition are identified, the
information is loaded into powerful computer programs that try to
 Changing Ecosystems

model one of the most complex systems ever known—the Earth’s cli-
mate system. Typically, when models are run, several different versions
are run in order to provide a range of predictions, which is why estimates
of future temperature rise are generally given within a range of values.
Invariably, the issue of climate change comes down to a key issue:
Are humans involved, and, if so, by how much? Through the cre-
ation of climate models that take into account the interactions of the
Earth’s oceans and atmosphere, the only way scientists have been able
to refine the models so that they accurately depict reality is by add-
ing in the specific components of the climate caused by humans. This
human footprint, as it is called, is the result of actions such as burning
fossil fuels, destroying the world’s forests, and changing land-use pat-
terns. These activities are causing CO2 to accumulate at accelerated
rates in the atmosphere, where it then acts as an insulator and heats
up the oceans, atmosphere, and the Earth’s surface. These higher tem-
peratures are serious enough that it is their presence in climate mod-
els that best duplicates the reality that scientists are measuring in the
Earth’s environment today.
In material that the IPCC has published in the two decades since
its formation, the reports released in 2007 have been the strongest and
most definitive yet as to the seriousness of global warming not only
today but for future generations. A report issued by Dr. James Hansen
of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Goddard Insti-
tute for Space Studies (NASA GISS) says that global warming in recent
decades has taken global temperature to its highest level in the past
millennium and that the Kyoto reductions will have little effect in the
21st century. Furthermore, the report states that “thirty Kyotos” may be
needed to reduce warming to an acceptable level. Enough damage has
been done at this point that there is no way to stop the effects of global
warming now. The levels of CO2 that have already been released into
the atmosphere will continue to heat the Earth for decades to come.
However, assertive action today can slow it down.
According to the IPCC, this past decade (1998–2007) is the warm-
est on record—the current global mean temperature (end of 2007)
is estimated at 0.74°F (0.41°C) above the 1961–90 annual average of
57.2°F (14°C). In addition to the notable increase in temperature, 2007
 Signs and Effects of Global Warming 

This chart depicts the average global temperatures recorded from

1880 to 2007. Although individual dips and spikes are present from
year to year, the overall trend of temperature rise over time is appar-
ent. (NASA, GISS)

also saw a record low Arctic sea ice level. In fact, enough ice melted in
the Arctic that the Northwest Passage was ice free and passable by ships
for the first time in recorded history.
The National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) states in its 2006
report that “during the past century, global surface temperatures have
increased at a rate near 0.11°F (0.06°C) per decade, but this trend has
increased to a rate roughly 0.32°F (0.18°C) per decade during the past
25 to 30 years.” In addition, the NCDC’s Preliminary Annual Report on
the Climate of 2007, released on December 13, 2007, states the follow-
ing points:
10 Changing Ecosystems

1. The global annual temperature for combined land and ocean

surfaces for 2007 is expected to be near 58°F (14.4°C) and
would be the fifth warmest since records began in 1880, and
2. the year 2007 is on pace to become one of the 10 warm-
est years for the conterminous United States since national
records began in 1895.

These findings are based on a huge amount of data collected worldwide.

On February 2, 2007, the IPCC’s first volume in its Fourth Assessment
Report states that “not only do the records show a warming trend dur-
ing the past 50 years in temperatures taken on land, but also in ocean
temperatures taken worldwide.” This is significant, because it is these
“warmer” ocean readings that assure scientists that the warming is not
just occurring on land around cities, where a lot of heat is released from
industry, traffic, and homes.
The NCDC has also stated that this period of worldwide warming
has been pronounced in the conterminous United States. It states that
the 2006 average annual temperature was the warmest on record, nearly
identical to the record set in 1998 for the hottest year. The NCDC col-
lects its data from a dense network of more than 1,200 points across
the country at U.S. Historical Climatology Network (U.S. HCN) stations.
When the data is collected, if it was from an urban location, the artificial
heat effect caused by cities (called the urban heat island effect) has been
removed so that the data is not biased if it is collected near large cities.
The IPCC, who until 2007 had been fairly conservative in its opin-
ions and conclusions (partly because the data had to be accepted by
more than 2,500 scientists on the panel), has concluded in its 2007
assessment that “warming of the climate system is unequivocal.”
It concludes with “very high confidence (at least 90 percent chance
of being correct) that the globally averaged net effect of human activi-
ties since 1750 (the start of the Industrial Revolution) has been one of
warming” of the Earth’s climate system.

Observed and Expected Effects on Ecosystems

There are several pieces of physical evidence that scientists have already
identified indicating that global warming is already in progress and
 Signs and Effects of Global Warming 11

affecting all the ecosystems on Earth. By monitoring the health of eco-

logical conditions, scientists can see the effects climate change is having
on the individual components that comprise the ecosystem. Because
an ecosystem is such a tightly knit system of living things within their
natural environment, if one component is affected, a ripple effect can be
started, eventually endangering the entire ecosystem.

Polar and Ice-Related Changes

Of all the Earth’s ecosystems, climate change in the polar regions is
expected to be more rapid and more severe than anywhere else. If snow
and ice are melted, this will greatly change the albedo of the environ-
ment. As darker surfaces increase, more sunlight will be absorbed,
rapidly heating up the Earth’s surface and atmosphere. In addition, as
worldwide species continue to migrate northward under warming tem-
peratures, thick dark vegetation will crowd areas that were once wide-
open snowfields, also lowering the albedo.
According to the IPCC, the average annual temperature in the Arc-
tic has increased by 1.67°F (1°C) over the past century—which equals
a rate roughly twice as fast as the global average. Winter temperatures
have been consistently 3.3°F (2°C) warmer over the past century. The
effects of this warming have been seen in decreases in thickness and
extent of sea ice, the melting of permafrost, and later freezing and ear-
lier breakup dates of winter sea ice. Glaciers worldwide are also melting.
There are glaciers on all the Earth’s continents except Australia and at
all latitudes from the Tropics to the polar regions. There is widespread
evidence that glaciers are retreating in many areas of the world.
Because sea ice in the polar regions is breaking up earlier in the year,
polar bears and walrus are already suffering. Their feeding and breed-
ing grounds are disappearing, their territorial boundaries are gone, and
they are dying. Early breakup is also affecting the hunting habits and
lifestyles of northern native inhabitants, forcing many to abandon life-
long rich, traditional cultures and relocate to other areas.

Fire and Drought

Over large areas of the Earth, nights have warmed up more than days
have. In fact, since 1950, minimum temperatures on land have rapidly
12 Changing Ecosystems

increased. An increase in warm temperatures will lead to increases in

the number of heat waves that strike urban areas, which will cause more
heat-related illnesses and deaths.
Global warming is causing a more intense hydrologic cycle with
increased evaporation. The greater the evaporation rates, the more
soils and vegetation will dry out. As temperatures rise and vegetation
dries out, areas will become drier under droughtlike conditions, and
wildfires will become more common. This occurred during the 2007
summer and fall in California. During this tragic event, more than 772
square miles (2,000 km2) of land burned from Santa Barbara County
to the U.S.-Mexico border. Nearly 100 people were injured, 9 died, and
more than 1,500 homes were destroyed. Wildfires forced 265,000 resi-
dents to flee their homes. Enormous fires took place in 2008, resulting
in a tremendous loss of property, habitat, and lives. To see details, visit
http://www.firescope.org/fires.htm.

Biological Changes
Global warming also affects the occurrence and spread of disease. It
makes large populations vulnerable if the pathogen is spread quickly.
Warmer temperatures and more precipitation will help spread disease
organisms from rodents and insects to larger areas. The world’s unde-
veloped countries are expected to be hit the hardest.
Rising sea levels due to the melting of glaciers and ice caps are caus-
ing coral to lose the symbiotic algae that they must have for nutrition.
This algae is also what gives them their beautiful, vibrant colors. When
the algae die, the coral looks white and is referred to as bleached. It only
takes a small increase in temperature (1.67°F or 1°C) above normal sum-
mer levels for periods of time as short as only two or three days to cause
this reaction. In 1998, one of the hottest years on record, coral reefs
worldwide experienced the most extensive bleaching ever recorded.
Coral bleaching was reported in 60 countries and island nations in the
Indian Ocean, Red Sea, Pacific Ocean, Persian Gulf, Mediterranean,
and Caribbean.
Plant and animal species are located where the climatic factors
(temperature, precipitation, soil condition, humidity, and airflow)
enable them to thrive. If any of these characteristics change—as
 Signs and Effects of Global Warming 13

they do with global warming—then species will attempt to migrate.

Whether they are successful or not depends on several factors: the
rate of change, availability of acceptable habitat, a physical way to
relocate to acceptable habitat, and avoidance of predators. If any of
these factors works out wrong, the species can become threatened,
endangered, or extinct.
According to NASA, based on data obtained through satellite obser-
vation over the past 20 years, areas in both North America and Eurasia
have longer growing seasons associated with the buildup of greenhouse
gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. During the course of data collection,
NASA scientists noticed dramatic changes in the timing of when leaves
first appeared in the spring and when they fell off in the fall. By moni-
toring when things turn green, NASA scientists determined that in Eur-
asia the growing season is currently almost 18 days longer than it was
two decades ago. Today, spring arrives a week earlier and autumn 10
days later than they did in the past.

Physical Changes
The rise in mean global surface temperature has caused spring to come
earlier in many parts of the world. This has led to a longer growing
season in middle and high-latitude areas. The effects of this are wide-
spread—leaves come out earlier and stay longer, and breeding and
migration patterns of wildlife are affected. For instance, in the north-
eastern United States, the frost-free season now begins approximately
11 days earlier than it did in the 1950s.
As worldwide temperatures climb, the hydrologic cycle will inten-
sify, producing more intense phenomenon such as flooding, landslides,
and erosion. The areas at highest risk are those at mid to high latitudes.
Trends are already apparent in several polar locations in the Northern
Hemisphere. According to P. Y. Groisman and D. R. Easterling of the
NCDC, over the past few decades snowfall has increased about 20 per-
cent over northern Canada and about 11 percent over Alaska.
An increase in snowfall has also been observed over China. Accord-
ing to T. R. Karl and R. W. Knight (also of the NCDC), observations for
the last century indicate that extreme weather events (more than two
inches [five cm] in 24 hours) in the United States have increased by
14 Changing Ecosystems

Why a Few Degrees

Matter
When scientists predict that the Earth’s atmosphere will get much warmer
because of global warming, some people expect to hear that the temper-
ature will get 10, 20, or 30 degrees warmer. Some have visions of sitting in
a hot, steamy sauna, melting away. So, when climate scientists predict a
temperature rise of 2–11.5°F (1.1–6.4°C), they are inclined to ask what the
big deal is about global warming. It is just a few degrees, right?
Wrong.
Look at it this way: During the Earth’s last ice age, the Earth was only
about 6.7–10°F (4–6°C) cooler than it is today. Although it may not seem
like much, these few degrees were responsible for blanketing huge areas
of the Earth in thick layers of ice. It had such an impact on ecosystems that
some animal species became extinct.
Thus, although a few degrees may seem trivial, the Earth’s climate is
so sensitive those few degrees can make a big difference. Scientists have
already proven that temperatures are rising, making it something peo-
ple cannot ignore now or in the future. The more people learn about the
effects of global warming and how it can affect ecosystems worldwide,
the more that can and must be done to slow down the changes. Society
has progressed to a point where avoiding global warming is no longer an
option, but learning how to slow it down, adapt, and have each person
learn to do their part are important pieces of any solution.

about 20 percent. Increases in heavy rainfall have also been reported in

Japan and northeastern Australia.
Tidal gauges are placed worldwide and mean sea level is moni-
tored. Over the past century, global mean sea level has risen 4 to 10
inches (10 to 25 cm), with the average being 7 inches (18 cm). This rate
is greater than what the average has been over the past few thousand
years. The IPCC, although unsure how much ocean levels will rise in
the next century, has projected that the rate will be at least two to four
times the rate of the last century. The reason for the uncertainty is that
the behavior of the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets remains uncer-
 Signs and Effects of Global Warming 15

Today is the time for action, and people can make a difference. It is
key to understand the following:

• Global warming cannot be completely avoided any longer—

it is already under way.
• The Northern Hemisphere is expected to warm up more than
the Southern Hemisphere.
• Global warming is already having an impact on ecosystems,
such as communities, forests, sea ice, permafrost, and wildlife
habitats.
• Although some change in climate is normal, humans are caus-
ing the bulk of recent changes and rises in temperatures.
• It is humans who are adding GHGs at accelerated rates to the
atmosphere, and there are measures that can be taken to
help reduce climate change, such as using renewable energy
and conserving precious natural resources and other environ-
mentally friendly decisions.

Therefore, although a few degrees may not seem like a lot, it is enough
to serve as a tipping point—a big enough influence on the climate that
once reached will set into motion changes with global ramifications.

tain at this point. If their melting rate increases, future sea-level rise
will most likely be on the larger side of the projection. Sea-level rise
and coastal flooding are also governed by wind and pressure patterns,
ocean circulation, and the characteristics of the coastline—whether
there are coastal wetlands, beaches, islands, or other structures to act
as barriers.

Results of Global Warming on Ecosystems

In a study on the effects of global warming on the Earth’s ecosystems
conducted by Chris Thomas, a conservation biologist at the University
16 Changing Ecosystems

of Leeds in the United Kingdom, he states “Climate change now rep-

resents at least as great a threat to the number of species surviving on
Earth as habitat destruction and modification.” Thomas worked with
a group of 18 scientists worldwide in the largest study of its type ever
accomplished.
The end result of their study came down to this conclusion: “By 2050,
rising temperatures, made more severe through human-induced input,
such as the burning of fossil fuels, could send more than a million of
Earth’s land-dwelling plants and animals down the road to extinction.”
The research team worked by themselves in six biodiversity-rich
areas around the world, ranging from Australia to South Africa. As
they gathered field data about species distribution and regional climate,
they programmed the information into computer climate models. The
purpose of the computer models was to simulate the direction and dis-
tance individual species would migrate in response to temperature and
climate changes. Once all team members had collected their specific
data, they combined it into a single model in order to understand the
global concept.
Once the model had been carefully evaluated, it was determined
that by the year 2050, at predicted global warming rates, 15 to 37 per-
cent of the 1,103 species studied (165 to 408 species) could be at risk
of extinction. When the study area was expanded to cover the entire
Earth, the researchers estimated that worldwide more than a million
species could begin to face extinction by 2050.
“This study makes clear that climate change is the biggest new
extinction threat,” said coauthor Lee Hannah of Conservation Interna-
tional (CI) in Washington, D.C.
“In some cases we found that there will no longer be anywhere cli-
matically suitable for these species to live; in other cases they may be
unable to reach distant regions where the climate will be suitable. Other
species are expected to survive in much reduced areas, where they may
then be at risk from other threats,” said coauthor Guy Midgley of the
National Botanical Institute in Cape Town, South Africa.
“Seeing the range of responses across all 1,103 species, it becomes
obvious that we have a lot of work left to do before we can accurately
predict what types of animals and plants are most at risk. This range
 Signs and Effects of Global Warming 17

of responses shows that species will not be able to move as whole bio-
logical communities, and that the typical natural communities we rec-
ognize today will probably not exist under future conditions. Figuring
out what will replace them requires a lot of imagination,” said coauthor
Alison Cameron of the University of Leeds.
According to Chris Thomas, almost all future climate projections
expect more warming and even more extinction between 2050 and
2100, and, even though projections are only made to 2100, temperatures
will still keep going up and more warming will occur after that. This
group of researchers say that taking action now to slow global warming
is important to make sure that climate change ends up on the low end of
the prediction in order to avoid “catastrophic extinctions.”
Thomas also stated that because there may be a time lag between
the climate changing and the last individual of a species dying off, the
rapid reduction of greenhouse gas emissions may enable some species to
survive. It is also important to keep in mind that although some species
may be able to migrate successfully to a new location, some plant and
animal species that live in high mountain or polar ecosystems cannot
move farther to escape warming temperatures. Similarly, coral reef sys-
tems cannot just pick up and move to a new location. Long-established
communities have remained where they are in order to survive.
Robert Puschendorf, a biologist at the University of Costa Rica,
believes these estimates “might be optimistic.” As global warming inter-
acts with other factors such as habitat destruction, increase in invasive
species, and the buildup of carbon dioxide in the environment, there
may be more than a million species that face extinction.
In connection with Chris Thomas’s study, Richard J. Ladle, et al.,
from Oxford University, published an article in Nature titled “Dan-
gers of Crying Wolf Over Risk of Extinctions,” bringing up an issue
important to all scientific investigations. It cautioned that the scientific
world needs to “learn how to deal with increasingly sensationalist mass
media.” They warn that policy-makers must be informed by a “balanced
assessment of scientific knowledge and not popular perception created
by commercially driven media. Departure from rational objectivity
risks undermining public trust in the natural sciences and could play
into the hands of antienvironmentalists. This places responsibilities on
18 Changing Ecosystems

both scientists and journalists to ensure fair and accurate reporting of

their work.”
Ladle’s report clarified that a large portion of the media incorrectly
focused on the idea that more than a million species would definitely go
extinct by 2050 when the study actually concluded that the extinctions
will occur eventually and not in the next 50 years. They reported that
21 out of 29 articles quoting Thomas’s study misinformed the public by
inferring the species would be extinct by 2050.
Their chief concern is that the media, or anyone else, through
unclear presentation, could inadvertently increase public cynicism and
complacency about climate change and biodiversity loss. The resulting
message is that when valuable studies, such as Chris Thomas’s, are con-
ducted and the results are released, in order to receive the best results
from the scientific community, policy-makers, and the public in gen-
eral, it is critical not to sensationalize or misrepresent the facts. Other-
wise, it puts the real message in jeopardy and may even do more harm
than good.
Both plant and animal species are at risk due to the effects of global
warming. According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), the golden
toad (Bufo periglenes) and the harlequin frog (Atelopus varius) of Costa
Rica have already disappeared as a direct result of global warming. As
different components of an ecosystem change, it can upset the natural
balance in many ways. For instance, it can disrupt a species by having
spring show up a week or two earlier. Over time, delicate balances have
been set up between animals and the food they eat. If a certain animal
relies on a specific food, but global warming has already caused the food
to grow through its life cycle before the animal is ready to use it, then
it will have a direct negative effect on that animal—the food will not be
available when the animal needs it. That animal’s health and existence
may be threatened. Furthermore, this could cause a ripple effect in the
food chain, having an impact on more than one species.
One example of this is when spring comes earlier than it has in
the past. The timing of feeding for newly hatched birds may not corre-
spond to the availability of worms or insects, impacting the fledglings’
chances of survival. According to the WWF, climate records compared
with long-term records of flowering and nesting times show a notice-
 Signs and Effects of Global Warming 19

able shift away from each other, depicting global warming trends. In
Britain, flowering time and leaf-on records, which date back to 1736,
have provided concrete evidence of climate-related seasonal shifts.
Long-term trends toward earlier bird breeding, earlier spring migrant
arrival, and later autumn departure dates have also been recorded in
North America. Changes in migratory patterns have also been docu-
mented in Europe.
Once again, the WWF documents that climate change and global
warming are currently affecting species in many ways. Animals and
plants that require cooler temperatures in order to survive, which need
to either migrate northward or higher in elevation in a mountain eco-
system, are already being documented in several places worldwide. This
is occurring in the European Alps, in Queensland in Australia, and in
the rain forests of Costa Rica. Fish in the North Sea have been docu-
mented migrating northward. Fish populations that used to inhabit
areas around Cornwall, England, have migrated as far north as the
Shetland and Orkney Islands. WWF global warming experts believe,
based on this evidence, that “the impacts on species are becoming
so significant that their movements can be used as an indicator of a
warming world. They are silent witnesses of the rapid changes being
inflicted on the Earth.”

Species Threatened and Endangered

by Global Warming
polar bear sea turtles
North Atlantic right whale
giant panda
marine turtles (multiple chelonian
species) pikas
multiple bird species (mountain,
wetland flora and fauna
island, wetland, arctic, antarctic,
seabirds, migratory birds) salt wetland flora and fauna
snowy owls
cloud forest amphibians
mountain gorilla (Africa)
Andes spectacled bear Bengal tiger
20 Changing Ecosystems

Habitats Threatened and Endangered

by Global Warming
coral reefs mountain ecosystems
coastal wetlands
prairie wetlands
mangroves
permafrost ecosystems ice-edge ecosystems

In fact, these same scientists believe that global warming could

begin causing extinctions of animal species in the near future because
the heating caused by accelerated global warming has a severe impact
on the Earth’s many delicate ecosystems—both on the land and the spe-
cies that live on it. Worldwide, there are species and habitats that have
now been identified as being threatened and endangered due to the
effects of global warming. These species and habitats can be seen in the
table above and will be discussed in greater detail in later chapters of
this book.
Because ecosystems can be altered to the point where the damage
becomes irreversible and species must either adapt to survive or face
extinction, it is critical that the issue of global warming be addressed
and acted upon now before it is too late. The remainder of this book will
illustrate why the best time to take positive action is today.
 2
Ecosystems,
Adaptation, and
Extinction
T his chapter introduces the concepts of ecosystems—what they are,
why they exist where they do, how they function, what affects them,
and the types of activities that can force them to change. It presents
the concept of biodiversity and explains why it is so important. Next,
it explores the issue of global warming and how it is currently affecting
different plant and animal species around the world, as well as what will
happen to them if global warming continues unchecked. It then exam-
ines key habitat preservation issues and how land-use change is having
a huge impact on both ecosystems and the global warming dilemma. It
is important for today and tomorrow’s land managers to understand the
cause-and-effect relationships of ecosystem health and global warming.

Biodiversity and Ecosystems

Diversity implies differences. A diverse habitat is composed of many
different species. Having a wide diversity of life is beneficial to a ­habitat,

21
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Title: Nigeria
Its peoples and its problems

Author: E. D. Morel

Release date: October 13, 2023 [eBook #71863]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Smith, Elder & Co, 1912

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at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NIGERIA ***

 NIGERIA
ITS PEOPLES AND ITS PROBLEMS

A BORGU CANOE-MAN.
 (Copyright.) (Photo by Mr. E. Firmin.) Frontispiece.

NIGERIA
ITS PEOPLES AND ITS PROBLEMS

BY
E. D. MOREL
EDITOR OF “THE AFRICAN MAIL”
AUTHOR OF “AFFAIRS OF WEST AFRICA,” “THE BRITISH CASE IN FRENCH
CONGO,”
“KING LEOPOLD’S RULE IN AFRICA,” “RED RUBBER,” “GREAT BRITAIN
AND THE CONGO,” “THE FUTURE OF THE CONGO,” ETC.

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS

LONDON
SMITH, ELDER & CO., 15, WATERLOO PLACE
1911
All rights reserved

TO THE MEMORY
OF
MARY KINGSLEY
WHO POINTED THE WAY
 PREFACE
I have to express, in the first place, my indebtedness to the Editor
and Management of the Times and of the Manchester Guardian for
permission to reproduce the articles and maps which appeared in
the columns of those newspapers, and to all those who have so
generously helped me to overcome an accident to my camera by
placing their own admirable photographic work at my disposal.
In the second place, I desire to record my sincere appreciation for
the courtesy I received from the Colonial Office in connection with a
recent visit to Nigeria; and to Sir Walter and Lady Egerton, Sir Henry
Hesketh Bell, Mr. Charles Temple (Acting-Governor of Northern
Nigeria) and their Staffs for the kindness and hospitality extended to
me while there.
Also to the Management and Staff of the Southern and Northern
Nigeria railways; in particular to the Director of the Public Works
Department of the Northern Protectorate, Mr. John Eaglesome and
to Mrs. Eaglesome, and to Mr. Firmin, the Resident Engineer of the
Southern Nigeria line at Jebba.
My travels in the country were facilitated in every way possible,
and the kindness everywhere shown me in both Protectorates far
transcended any claim which ordinary courtesy to a stranger might
have suggested.
To the British merchants established in Nigeria I am under similar
obligations, more particularly to Messrs. John Holt & Co., Ltd., who
were good enough to place their steamers at my disposal. To
Messrs. Elder Dempster & Co. I am similarly indebted.
My special thanks are due to my friends Mr. and Mrs. William A.
Cadbury and Mr. John Holt and his sons, for much personal
kindness in connection with my journey. I am indebted to Mr. Trigge,
of the Niger Company, Mr. W. H. Himbury, of the British Cotton
Growing Association, and many others who have responded with
unwearied patience to my importunate questionings.
I have also to express my sense of obligation to the Native
Community of Lagos—Christian, Mohammedan and Pagan—for the
cordial public reception they accorded to me in that place; and for
the address with which they were good enough to present me. Also
to the leading Native gentlemen of Freetown for the kind hospitality
they extended to me during my short stay at the capital of Sierra
Leone, and to the Mohammedan Chiefs representing many different
tribes of the hinterland, who there foregathered, under Dr. Blyden’s
roof, to bid me welcome, and for the addresses they presented to
me.
West Africa is a land of controversy. There is not, I think, any
question of public interest concerned with it that does not give rise to
acute differences of opinion into which some influence—the climate,
perhaps—and the fact that the country is going through a difficult
transition stage, seems not infrequently to infuse a measure of
bitterness. I fear it is unavoidable that some of the opinions
expressed in this volume, if they give pleasure in certain quarters,
will give displeasure in others. I can only ask those who may be
affected in the latter sense to believe that the writer has really had no
other object in view than that of setting forth the facts as he saw
them, and to draw from those facts the inferences which
commended themselves to a judgment no doubt full of imperfections,
but able, at any rate, to claim sincerity as its guiding motive.
E. D. Morel.
August, 1911.
 INTRODUCTION
My chief object in presenting to the public in book form a collection
of articles recently published in the Times[1] as revised, together with
additional matter, has been that of increasing—if haply this should be
the effect—public interest in the greatest and most interesting of our
tropical African Protectorates. It has been my endeavour throughout
not to overload the story with detail, but to paint, or try to paint, a
picture of Nigeria as it is to-day; to portray the life of its people, the
difficulties and tasks of its British governors, and the Imperial
responsibilities the nation has contracted in assuming control over
this vast region.
Parts II., III., and IV. consist of an attempt at a serious study of
these things.
Part I. consists of a mere series of pen and ink sketches, so to
speak; impressions jotted down in varying moods. The value, if,
indeed, they have any value at all, of these disjointed ramblings lies
in the glimpse they may afford of native character and the nature of
the country, thus helping, perhaps, to bring Nigeria a little nearer to
us.
I ought, perhaps, to apologize for not having incorporated a history
of the British occupation of Nigeria. But, apart from the circumstance
that Captain Orr, now Colonial Secretary for Cyprus, and for many
years Resident in Northern Nigeria, is, I understand, about to publish
a volume on that subject written with the inside knowledge which he
so peculiarly possesses: the thing has already been done by others.
It seemed to me that if any public utility at all were to be attached
to my own modest effort, it could more fittingly be sought in the
direction of handling, from an independent outsider’s point of view,
problems of actuality in their setting of existing circumstances and
conditions; and in emphasizing a fact sometimes apt to be forgotten.
I mean that in these Dependencies the Native is the important
person to be considered, quite as much from the Imperial as from
any other standpoint, interpreting Imperialism as personally I
interpret it, to signify a good deal more than painting the map red
and indulging in tall talk about “possessions” and about “inferior
races.” In Nigeria, the Nigerian is not, as some persons appear to
regard him, merely an incidental factor but the paramount factor.
Nigeria is not a Colony; it is a Dependency.
The West African native has two classes of enemies, one positive,
the other unconscious. The ranks of both are not only recruited from
members of the white race: they are to be found among members of
the West African’s own household. The first class corresponds to the
school of European thought concerning tropical Africa, whose
adherents object to the West African being a land-owner, and whose
doctrine it is that in the economic development of the country the
profits should be the exclusive appanage of the white race, the
native’s rôle being that of labourer and wage-earner for all time.
In the fulfilment of the rôle thus assigned to him, some of the
adherents of this school, those with the longest sight, would be quite
prepared to treat the individual native well; others would cheerfully
impose their will by brutal violence. That is a temperamental affair
which does not touch the essence of the deeper issue.
To this class of enemies belong some of the educated or half-
educated Europeanized natives whom our educational and religious
system divorces from their race, and who, having no outlet and
bereft of national or racial pride, betray the interests of their country
into the hands of its foes.
The second class is to be met with among the ranks of those who,
by striking at slavery and abuse, have rendered enormous benefit to
the West African, but who were also unwittingly responsible for
fastening upon his neck a heavy yoke, and who, not only with no
motive of self-interest, but, on the contrary, with the most generous
desire to minister to his welfare, are to-day in danger of ministering
to his undoing. It is not easy to affix any particular label to those
influences which, in the political field, contributed so powerfully in
handing over the Congo to Leopold II. (afterwards strenuously co-
operating in freeing its peoples from his grasp) and in placing two
million West Africans in Liberia under the pettily tyrannous
incompetence of a handful of American Blacks. They are partly
educational, partly philanthropic, partly religious. The basis of
sentiment animating them appears to be that a kindness is being
done to the West African by the bestowal upon him of European
culture, law, religion and dress, and that, having thus unmade him as
an African, those responsible are in duty bound to support the
product of their own creation in its automatic and inevitable revolt
against authority, whether represented by the Native Ruler or by the
European Administrator. In the form it at present takes, and in the
circumstances too often accompanying it, this is not a kindness but a
cruel wrong.
Let me try to make my meaning perfectly clear in regard to this
latter case. I make no attack upon any organization or body. I
criticize the trend of certain influences, and I willingly admit, as all
must do, even those who most dread their effects, that these
influences have their origin in centres imbued with genuine altruism.
Also that of one side of them nothing but good can be said—the
destructive side, the side which is ever prepared to respond to the
call of human suffering. Neither do I suggest that education can, or
should be, arrested. I simply lay down this double proposition. First,
that educational and allied influences, whose combined effect is to
cause the West African to lose his racial identity, must produce
unhappiness and unrest of a kind which is not susceptible of
evolving a compensating constructive side. Secondly, that in no
period of time which can be forecast, will the condition of West
African society permit of the supreme governing power being shared
by both races, although short of the casting vote, so to speak, policy
should everywhere be directed towards consolidating and
strengthening Native authority.
Still less do I make any reflection upon the educated West African
as such. Among these Westernized Natives are men to be regarded
with the utmost respect, for they have achieved the well-nigh
insuperable. They have succeeded, despite all, in remaining African
in heart and sentiment; and in retaining their dignity in the midst of
difficulties which only the most sympathetic alien mind can
appreciate, and, even so, not wholly. To Mary Kingsley alone,
perhaps, was it given to probe right down to the painful complexities
of their position as only a woman, and a gifted woman, specially
endowed, could do. Of such men the great Fanti lawyer, John
Mensah Sarbah, whose recent and premature death is a calamity for
West Africa, was one of the best types. The venerable Dr. E. Wilmot
Blyden, whose race will regard him some day as its misunderstood
prophet, is another. One could name others. Perchance their
numbers are greater than is usually supposed, and are not confined
to men of social distinction and learning. And these men wring their
hands. They see, and they feel, the pernicious results of a well-
meaning but mistaken policy. They appreciate the depth of the
abyss. But they lack the power of combination, and their position is
delicate to a degree which Europeans, who do not realize the
innumerable undercurrents and intrigues of denationalized West
African society are unable to grasp.
Between these two schools of thought, the “damned nigger”
school and the denationalizing school (that, without appreciating it,
plays into the hands of the first), which threaten the West African in
his freedom, his property and his manhood, there is room for a third.
One which, taking note to-day that the West African is a land-owner,
desires that he shall continue to be one under British rule, not with
decreasing but with increasing security of tenure; taking note that to-
day the West African is an agriculturist, a farmer, a herdsman, and,
above all, to the marrow of his bones, a trader, declines to admit that
he should be degraded, whether by direct or indirect means, to the
position of a hireling; taking note that customary law it is which holds
native society together, calls for its increased study and demands
that time shall be allowed for its gradual improvement from within,
deprecating its supersession by European formulæ of law in the
name of “reform,” for which the country is not ripe and whose
application can only dislocate, not raise, West African social life. A
school of thought which, while prepared to fight with every available
weapon against attempts to impose conditions of helotism upon the
West African, earnestly pleads that those controlling the various
influences moulding his destinies from without, shall be inspired to
direct their energies towards making him a better African, not a
hybrid. A school of thought which sees in the preservation of the
West African’s land for him and his descendants; in a system of
education which shall not anglicize; in technical instruction; in
assisting and encouraging agriculture, local industries and scientific
forestry; in introducing labour-saving appliances, and in
strengthening all that is best, materially and spiritually, in aboriginal
institutions, the highest duties of our Imperial rule. A school of
thought whose aim it is to see Nigeria, at least, become in time the
home of highly-trained African peoples, protected in their property
and in their rights by the paramount Power, proud of their institutions,
proud of their race, proud of their own fertile and beautiful land.
E. D. Morel.
August, 1911.
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE

PART I
THOUGHTS ON TREK
I. On what Has been and May be 3

II. On the Great White Road 8

III. On the Carrier 14

IV. On African Modesty and African Courtesy 19

V. On the meaning of “Religious” 24

VI. A Ragoût of Things Seen and Felt 29

VII. The Sallah at Zaria 35

PART II
SOUTHERN NIGERIA
I. Nigeria’s Claim upon Public Attention 45

II. The Niger Delta 49

III. The Forest Belt 56

IV. The Central and Eastern Provinces 62

V. Lagos and its Port—the Future Bombay of

West Africa 71
 VI. The Yorubas and their Country 76

VII. British Policy in Yorubaland 82

PART III
NORTHERN NIGERIA
I. The Natural Highway to the Uplands of the
North 91

II. Northern Nigeria prior to the British

Occupation 98

III. The Indigenous Civilization of the North 103

IV. The Life of the People—The Long-distance

Trader 107

V. The Life of the People—The Agriculturist 111

VI. The Life of the People—The Herdsman and

the Artisan 118

VII. The City of Kano and its Market 123

VIII. A Visit to the Emir of Kano 130

IX. Governing on Native Lines 136

X. The Foundations of Native Society—The

Tenure of Land 140

XI. The Foundations of Native Society—The

Administrative Machinery 145

XII. The Preservation of the National Life 151

XIII. A Page of History and its Moral 155

 XIV. A Scheme of National Education 160

XV. Commercial Development 166

XVI. Mining Development and the Bauchi Plateau 175

XVII. The necessity of Amalgamating the Two

Protectorates 187

XVIII. Railway Policy and Amalgamation 194

XIX. An Unauthorized Scheme of Amalgamation 201

PART IV
ISLAM, COTTON GROWING, AND THE LIQUOR TRAFFIC
I. Christianity and Islam in Southern Nigeria 213

II. The Cotton Industry 222

III. The Cotton Industry—continued 232

IV. The Liquor Traffic in Southern Nigeria 245

Index 263
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
A Borgu Canoe-Man Frontispiece
Photo by Mr. E. Firmin (Copyright)

FACING PAGE

“Through Plain and Valley and Mountain Side” 6

“We have trekked together” 6

A Group of Tuaregs 8

A Bornu Ox 8

“Magnificent Specimens of the Vegetable

Kingdom” 10

Dug-out on the Kaduna manned by Nupes 30

“Silhouetting perchance a Group of Palms” 30

The Hoe-dancers (the Hoe-dance is a Hausa

Agricultural Dance of Great Antiquity) 34

The “Jaffi” or Mounted Salute 36

Photo by Captain Mance.

The Emir of Zaria 38

The Emir of Katsina 38

Ju-ju Island near Jebba 46

Photo by Mr. E. Firmin (Copyright)
Shipping Palm Oil on the Niger at High Water 46

The Tropical Bush 56

One of the Communal Rubber Plantations

(Funtumia elastica) Benin City 66
Photo by Mr. A. H. Unwin.

A Scene in Yorubaland 66
Photo by Mr. A. H. Unwin.

Benin City To-day. Bini Chiefs sitting outside

their New Court House 68
Photo by Sir Walter Egerton.

One of the Sacred Stone Images at Ife, the

Spiritual Centre of Yorubaland 78
Photo by Mr. A. H. Unwin.

One of the Sons of the Shehu of Bornu 78

Entrance to the “Afin” or Residence of the

Alafin of Oyo, showing Typical Yoruba
Thatching 82
Photo by Mr. A. H. Unwin.

View of Lokoja and Native Town from Mount

Pattey looking S.E., the Benue in the
Distance 96

A Nigerian Hunter stalking Game with the

Head of the Ground Hornbill affixed to
his Forehead 108
Photo by Mr. E. Firmin (Copyright)

A Trading Caravan 110

 Photo by Mr. Charles Temple.

Fruit Sellers 112

Water Carriers 112

A Gwarri Girl 116

A Hausa Trading Woman 116

A Fulani Girl 118

Photo by Mr. Charles Temple.

Panning for Iron 120

Photo by Mr. A. H. Unwin.

Dye-Pits 120

A View of a Part of Kano City (Inside the

Wall) 124

One of the Gateways to Kano City, showing

Outer Wall 128

Another of the Entrances to the City 128

Inside Kano City 132

The Emir of Kano on the March 134

Corner of a Native Market 148

Photo by Mr. Freer-Hill.

Another Corner 148

Photo by Mr. Freer-Hill.

Iron Smelters 164

Fulani Cattle 164

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