CHAPTER 2

MEASURES OF CENTERAL TENDENCY

AND Measure of variation

Objectives of the chapter

By the end of this chapter; students should be able to:-

 Understand the use of the measure of central tendency.

 Calculate the different measures of central tendency.
 Understand and calculate the measures of variation.

Introduction
- When we want to make comparison between groups of numbers it is good to have a
single value that is considered to be a good representative of each group. This single
value is called the average of the group. Averages are also called measures of central
tendency.
- An average which is representative is called typical average and an average which is not
representative and has only a theoretical value is called a descriptive average.
A typical average should posses the following:
 It should be rigidly defined.
 It should be based on all observation under investigation.
 It should be as little as affected by extreme observations.
 It should be capable of further algebraic treatment.
 It should be as little as affected by fluctuations of sampling.
 It should be ease to calculate and simple to understand.
Objectives of measures of central tendency:
 To comprehend the data easily.
 To facilitate comparison.
 To make further statistical analysis.

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The Summation Notation:
- Let X1, X2 ,X3 …XN be a number of measurements where N is the total number of
observation and Xi is ith observation.
- Very often in statistics an algebraic expression of the form X1+X2+X3+...+XN is used in
a formula to compute a statistic. It is tedious to write an expression like this very often,
so mathematicians have developed a shorthand notation to represent a sum of scores,
called the summation notation.
- The symbol ∑ xi is a mathematical shorthand for X1+X2+X3+...+XN

The expression is read, "the sum of X sub i from i equals 1 to N." It means "add up all the
numbers."
Example: Suppose the following were scores made on the first homework assignment for five
students in the class: 5, 7, 7, 6, and 8. In this example set of five numbers, where N=5, the
summation could be written:

The "i=1" in the bottom of the summation notation tells where to begin the sequence of
summation. If the expression were written with "i=3", the summation would start with the third
number in the set. For example:

In the example set of numbers, this would give the following result:

The "N" in the upper part of the summation notation tells where to end the sequence of
summation. If there were only three scores then the summation and example would be:

25
Sometimes if the summation notation is used in an expression and the expression must be written
a number of times, as in a proof, then a shorthand notation for the shorthand notation is
employed. When the summation sign "" is used without additional notation, then "i=1" and "N"
are assumed.
For example:

PROPERTIES OF SUMMATION

∑ k nk where k is any constant

2. ∑ kxi = k ∑ xi where k is any constant
3. ∑ (a + bxi) = na +b∑ xi where a and b are any constants
4. ∑ (xi + yi = ∑ xi + ∑ yi

The sum of the product of the two variables could be written:

Example: considering the following data determine

X Y
5 6
7 7
7 8
6 7
8 8
a) ∑ x
b) ∑ y
c) ∑ 10
d) ∑ (xi + yi)
e) ∑ (xi − yi)

26
 f) ∑ xiyi
g) ∑ xi2
h) (∑ xi)(∑ yi)
Solutions:
a) ∑ x= 

b) ∑ y= 

c) ∑ 10

d) ∑ (xi + yi)= 

e) ∑ (xi − yi)

f) ∑ xiyi 

g) ∑ xi2 =

h) (∑ xi)(∑ yi)= 

2.1 Types of measures of central tendency
There are several different measures of central tendency; each has its advantage and
disadvantage.
 The Mean (Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic)
 The Mode
 The Median
 Quantiles (Quartiles, Deciles and Percentiles)
The choice of these averages depends up on which best fit the property under discussion.

27
 A. The Arithmetic Mean
 Is defined as the sum of the magnitude of the items divided by the number of items.
 The mean of X1, X2 ,X3 …Xn is denoted by A.M ,m or X and is given by:

⋯
x=
∑
x=

If x1 occurs f1 times
If x2 occurs f2 times
.
.
if xn occurs fn times
∑
Then the mean will be x  ∑ where k is number of classes and ∑ i=n

Example: Obtain the mean of the following number

2, 7, 8, 2, 7, 3, 7

Solution:

Xi fi Xifi
2 2 4
3 1 3
7 3 21
8 1 8
Total 7 36

∑
x ∑  

Arithmetic Mean for Grouped Data

If data are given in the shape of a continuous frequency distribution, then the mean is obtained as
follows:
∑
x∑ where, Xi =the class mark of the ith class and fi = the frequency

of the ith class

28
Example: calculate the mean for the following age distribution.

Class fi Xi Xifi
6- 10 35 8 280
11- 15 23 13 299
16- 20 15 18 270
21- 25 12 23 276
26- 30 9 28 252
31- 35 6 33 198
Total 100 1575

Solutions:
1. First find the class marks
2. Find the product of frequency and class marks
3. Find mean using the formula.

Class Frequency
6- 10 35
11- 15 23
16- 20 15
21- 25 12
26- 30 9
31- 35 6

∑6 1575
x ∑i 6 1 xi i 100 
i 1 i

- If the values in a series or mid values of a class are large enough, coding of values is a
good device to simplify the calculations.
- For raw data suppose we have used the following coding system.
d i X i A
X i d i A

29
 ∑ ∑ ( )
x= =

∑
x=A+

x =A+ ̅
Where A is an assumed mean and d is the mean of the coded data.
- If the data are expressed in terms of ungrouped frequency distribution

d i X i A
 X i d i A
∑ ( )
x 
∑
x 

xd
- In both cases the true mean is the assumed mean plus the average of the deviations from
the assumed mean.
- Suppose the data is given in the shape of continuous frequency distribution with a
constant class size of w then the following coding is appropriate.

di =

xi = wdi + A
∑ ∑ ( )
 x= =
∑
x=A+
x = A + wd

Where: Xi is the original class mark for the ith class.

di is the transformed class mark for the ith class.
A is an assumed mean usually the mean of the class marks.
(i =1, 2… k)

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Example:
1. Suppose the deviations of the observations from an assumed mean of 7 are:
1, -1, -2, -2, 0, -3, -2, 2, 0, -3.
a) Find the true mean
b) Find the original observation.
Solutions:
A) 7 , ∑ di = -10
a) d = -10/10 = -1
x = A + d = 7-1 = 6
The true mean is 6.
b) Using Xi=A+di we obtain the following original observations:
8, 6, 5, 5, 7, 4, 5, 9, 7, 4.

Special properties of Arithmetic mean

1. The sum of the deviations of a set of items from their mean is always zero.
=0
2. The sum of the squared deviations of a set of items from their mean is the minimum. i.e
∑(xi − x) 2 < ∑(xi − A) 2, A≠x
3. If x1 is the mean of n1 observations
If ̅ 2 is the mean of n2 observations
.
.
If X k is the mean of nk observations
Then the mean of all the observation in all groups often called the combined mean is given by:
….
 

Example: In a class there are 30 females and 70 males. If females averaged 

60 in an examination and boys averaged 72, find the mean for the entire class.

Solutions:

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Females Males
x1 =60 X 2 =72
n1=30 n2 =70
∗ ∑ ∗
X c   ∑

( ∗ ) ( ∗ )
Xc = = = 68.40
4. If a wrong figure has been used when calculating the mean the correct mean can be obtained
without repeating the whole process using:
( )
Correct Mean Wrong Mean

Where n is total number of observations.

Example: An average weight of 10 students was calculated to be 65.Latter it was discovered
that one weight was misread as 40 instead of 80 k.g. Calculate the correct average weight.
Solutions:
( )
Correct Mean Wrong Mean +
( )
Correct Mean g

5. The effect of transforming original series on the mean.

a) If a constant k is added/ subtracted to/from every observation then the new mean will
be the old mean± k respectively.
b) If every observations are multiplied by a constant k then the new mean will be k*old
mean.
Example:
1. The mean of n Tetracycline Capsules X1, X2, …,Xn are known to be 12 gm. New set of
capsules of another drug are obtained by the linear transformation Yi = 2Xi – 0.5 ( i = 1, 2, …, n
), then what will be the mean of the new set of capsules?
Solutions:
New Mean 2 * Old Mean 0.5 2 *12 0.523.5
2. The mean of a set of numbers is 500.
a) If 10 is added to each of the numbers in the set, then what will be the mean of the new
set?

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 b) If each of the numbers in the set are multiplied by -5, then what will be the mean of the
new set?
Solutions:
a).New Mean Old Mean 10 500 10 510
b).New Mean5 * Old Mean5 * 5002500
Weighted mean
- When a proper importance is desired to be given to different data a weighted mean is
appropriate.
- Weights are assigned to each item in proportion to its relative importance.
- Let X1, X2, …Xn be the value of items of a series and W1, W2, …Wn ; their
corresponding weights , then the weighted mean denoted X w is defined as:
∑ ∗
x̅ = ∑

Example:
A student obtained the following percentage in an examination: English 60, Biology 75,
Mathematics 63, Physics 59, and chemistry 55.Find the students weighted arithmetic mean if
weights 1, 2, 1, 3, 3 respectively are allotted to the subjects.
Solutions:
∑ ∗ ( ∗ ) ( ∗ ) ( ∗ ) ( ∗ ) ( ∗ )
x̅ = ∑
= = = 61.5

Merits and Demerits of Arithmetic Mean

Merits:
 It is rigidly defined.
 It is based on all observation.
 It is suitable for further mathematical treatment.
 It is stable average, i.e. it is not affected by fluctuations of sampling to some extent.
 It is easy to calculate and simple to understand.
Demerits:
 It is affected by extreme observations.
 It cannot be used in the case of open end classes.
 It cannot be determined by the method of inspection.

33
  It cannot be used when dealing with qualitative characteristics, such as intelligence,
honesty, beauty.
 It can be a number which does not exist in a serious.
 Sometimes it leads to wrong conclusion if the details of the data from which it is obtained
are not available.
 It gives high weight to high extreme values and less weight to low extreme values.
The Geometric Mean
- The geometric mean of a set of n observation is the nth root of their product.
- The geometric mean of X1, X2 ,X3 …Xn is denoted by G.M and given by:
G.M= √x1 ∗ x2 ∗ … ∗ xn
- Taking the logarithms of both sides

Log(G.M) = log( √x1 ∗ x2 ∗ … ∗ xn) = log(x1*x2*…*xn)n

Log(G.M) = 1/n* log(x1*x2*…*xn)
= 1/n*(log x1+ log x2+…+log Xn)

= ∗∑ log xi

- The logarithm of the G.M of a set of observation is the arithmetic mean of their
logarithm
G.M = anti log ( ∗ ∑ log xi)

Example: Find the G.M of the numbers 2, 4, 8.

Solutions:
G.M= √x1 ∗ x2 ∗ … ∗ xn = √2 ∗ 4 ∗ 8 = √64 = 4
Remark: The Geometric Mean is useful and appropriate for finding averages of ratios.
The harmonic mean
The harmonic mean of X1, X2 , X3 …Xn is denoted by H.M and given by:
H.M = , this also known as simple harmonic mean.
∑

In a case of frequency distribution:

H.M = , where ∑fi=n, i.e total number of observation.

∑

If observations X1, X2, …, Xn have weights W1, W2, …Wn respectively, then their harmonic

34
mean is given by
∑
H.M = , This is called Weighted Harmonic Mean.
∑

Remark: The Harmonic Mean is useful and appropriate in finding average speeds and average
rates.
Example: A cyclist pedals from his house to his college at speed of 10 km/hr and back from the
college to his house at 15 km/hr. Find the average speed.
Solution: Here the distance is constant
The simple H.M is appropriate for this problem.
X1= 10 km/hr X2= 15 km/hr

H.M = = = 12 km/hr
∑

B. Mode
- Mode is a value which occurs most frequently in a set of values
- The mode may not exist and even if it does exist, it may not be unique.
- In case of discrete distribution the value having the maximum frequency is the model value.
Examples:
1. Find the mode of 5, 3, 5, 8, 9
Mode =5
2. Find the mode of 8, 9, 9, 7, 8, 2, and 5.
It is a bimodal Data: 8 and 9
3. Find the mode of 4, 12, 3, 6, and 7.
No mode for this data.
- The mode of a set of numbers X1, X2, …Xn is usually denoted by X.
Mode for Grouped data
If data are given in the shape of continuous frequency distribution, the mode is defined as:

∆
X = L0 + w(∆ )
∆

35
Where:
Xthe mod e of the distribution
w the size of the mod al class
1 f mo f1
 2 f mo f 2
f mo frequency of the mod al class
f1 frequency of the class preceding the mod al class
f 2 frequency of the class following the mod al class
Note: The modal class is a class with the highest frequency.
Example: Following is the distribution of the size of certain farms selected at random from a
district. Calculate the mode of the distribution.

Size of farms No. of farms

5-15 8
15-25 12
25-35 17
35-45 29
45-55 31
55-65 5
65-75 3

Solutions:
45 55 is the mod al class, since it is a class with the highest frequency.
L mo 45
w 10
 1 f mo f1 2
 2 f mo f 2 26
f mo 31
f1 29
f 2 5
∆
X = L0 + w(∆ ) = 45 + 10( ) = 45.71
∆

36
Merits and Demerits of Mode
Merits:
 It is not affected by extreme observations.
 Easy to calculate and simple to understand.
 It can be calculated for distribution with open end class
Demerits:
 It is not rigidly defined.
 It is not based on all observations
 It is not suitable for further mathematical treatment.
 It is not stable average, i.e. it is affected by fluctuations of sampling to some extent.
 Often its value is not unique.
Note: being the point of maximum density, mode is especially useful in finding the most popular
size in studies relating to marketing, trade, business, and industry. It is the appropriate average to
be used to find the ideal size.

C. The Median
- In a distribution, median is the value of the variable which divides it in to two equal
halves.
- In an ordered series of data median is an observation lying exactly in the middle of the
series. It is the middle most value in the sense that the number of values less than the
median is equal to the number of values greater than it.
- If X1, X2, …Xn be the observations, then the numbers arranged in ascending order will
be X[1], X[2], …X[n], where X[i] is ith smallest value.
 X[1]< X[2]< …<X[n]
- Median is denoted by x and read as x tile.
Median for ungrouped data

x= , if n is odd

{ + } , if n is even.

37
Example: Find the median of the following numbers.
a. 6, 5, 2, 8, 9, 4.
b. 2, 1, 8, 3, 5.
Solutions:
a) First order the data: 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9
Here n=6
x = { + }

= ½(5+6)= 5.5 is the median value.

b) Order the data :1, 2, 3, 5, 8
Here n=5
x = (n+1)/2
=(5+1)/2
=3 is the median value.
Median for grouped data
If data are given in the shape of continuous frequency distribution, the median is defined as:
x = Lmed + { − c}

Where:
Lmed lower class boundary of the median class.
w the size of the median class
n total number of observations.
c the cumulative frequency (less than type) preceding the median class.
f med the frequency of the median class.
Remark:
The median class is the class with the smallest cumulative frequency (less than type) greater than
or equal to .

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Example: Find the median of the following distribution.

class frequency

40-44 7
45-49 10
50-54 22
55-59 15
60-64 12
65-69 6
70-74 3

Solutions:
1. First find the less than cumulative frequency.
2. Identify the median class.
3. Find median using formula.

class Frequency Less than

cum.
40-44 7 7
45-49 10 17
50-54 22 39
55-59 15 54
60-64 12 66
65-69 6 72
70-74 3 75

= = 37.5

39 is the first cumulative frequency to be greater than or equal to 37.5

 50 54 is the median class.
Lmed = 49.5
W=5
n = 75 , c = 17 , fmed= 22

39
 x = Lmed + { − c}

= 49.5 + { − 17}

= 54.16
Merits and Demerits of Median
Merits:
 Median is a positional average and hence not influenced by extreme observations.
 Can be calculated in the case of open end intervals.
 Median can be located even if the data are incomplete.
Demerits:
 It is not a good representative of data if the number of items is small.
 It is not amenable to further algebraic treatment.
 It is susceptible to sampling fluctuations.
D. Quantiles
When a distribution is arranged in order of magnitude of items, the median is the value of the
middle term. Their measures that depend up on their positions in distribution quartiles, deciles,
and percentiles are collectively called quantiles.
j. Quartiles:
- Quartiles are measures that divide the frequency distribution in to four equal parts.
- The value of the variables corresponding to these divisions are denoted Q1, Q2, and Q3
often called the first, the second and the third quartile respectively.
- Q1 is a value which has 25% items which are less than or equal to it.
- Similarly Q2 has 50%items with value less than or equal to it and Q3 has 75% items
whose values are less than or equal to it.

- To find Qi (i=1, 2, 3) we count of the classes beginning from the lowest class.

- For grouped data: we have the following formula:

Qi= LQi + { − cQi} ,i=1, 2 and 3.

40
Where,
LQi = lower class boundary for quartile class.
wthe size of the quartile class
N total number of observations.
c the cumulative frequency(less than type) preceding the quartile class.
fQi = frequency of the quartile class
Remark:
The quartile class (class containing Qi ) is the class with the smallest cumulative frequency (less

than type) greater than or equal to .

ii. Deciles:
- Deciles are measures that divide the frequency distribution in to ten equal parts.
- The values of the variables corresponding to these divisions are denoted D1, D2,.. D9
often called the first, the second,…, the ninth decile respectively.

- To find Di (i=1, 2,..9) we count of the classes beginning from the lowest class.

- For grouped data: we have the following formula

Di=LDi+ { − cDi} i= 1,2,……..,9.

Where :
L Di lower class boundary of the decile class.
w the size of the decile class
N total number of observations.
c the cumulative frequency (less than type) preceding the decile class.
f D i the frequency of the decile class.
Remark:
- The decile class (class containing Di )is the class with the smallest cumulative frequency

(less than type) greater than or equal to

iii. Percentiles:
- Percentiles are measures that divide the frequency distribution in to hundred equal parts.
- The values of the variables corresponding to these divisions are denoted P1, P2,.. P99 often
called the first, the second,…, the ninety-ninth percentile respectively.

41
- To find Pi (i=1, 2,..99) we count of the classes beginning from the lowest class.

- For grouped data: we have the following formula

Pi=LPi + { − cPi} i=1,2,………,99.

Where:
L Pi lower class boundary of the percentile class.
w the size of the percentile class
N total number of observations.
c the cumulative frequency (less than type) preceding the percentile class.
f Pi the frequency of the percentile class.
Remark:
The percentile class (class containing Pi )is the class with the smallest cumulative frequency (less

than type) greater than or equal to

Example: Considering the following distribution

Calculate:
a) All quartiles.
b) The 7th decile.
c) The 90th percentile.

values Frequency
140-150 17
150-160 29
160-170 42
170-180 72
180-190 84
190-200 107
200-210 49
210-220 34
220-230 31
230-240 16
240-250 12

42
Solutions:
 First find the less than cumulative frequency.
 Use the formula to calculate the required quantile.
Values frequency Cum.Freq(less
than type)
140-150 17 17
150-160 29 46
160-170 42 88
170-180 72 160
180-190 84 244
190-200 107 351
200-210 49 400
210-220 34 434
220-230 31 465
230-240 16 481
240-250 12 493

a) Quartiles:
i. determine the class containing the first quartile.
= 123.25

 170 180 is the class containing the first quartile.

LQ1 170 , w10
N 493 , c 88 , f Q1 72
Q1= LQ1+ { − cQ1}

Q1=170 + { − 88}

 174.90
ii. Q2
- determine the class containing the second quartile.


43
 190 200 is the class containing the second quartile.
LQ2 190 , w10
N 493 , c 244 , f Q2107
∗
Q2=LQ2 + { − cQi}
∗
Q2= 190 + { − 244}

 190.23
iii. Q3
- determine the class containing the third quartile.
= 369.75

200210 is the class containing the third quartile.

LQ3 200 , w10
N493 , c351 , f Q3 49

w 3∗n
Q3=LQ3 +fQ3 { − cQ3}
4
10 2∗493
Q3= 200 +49 { − 351}
4

 203 . 83
b) D7
- determine the class containing the 7th decile.
= 345.1

LD7 190, w10

N 493 , c 244 , f D7 107
w 7∗n
 D7 LD 7fD7 { 10 − cD7}
10 7∗493
D7107 { − 244}
10

 199 . 45
c) P90
- determine the class containing the 90th percentile.
= 443 .7

44
  220 230 is the class containing the 90 th percentile .
Lp90 220, w10
N 493 , c 434 , f p90 3107
w 90∗n
 P90 LP90 fp90 { 10
− cp90}
10 90∗493
P903107 { − 434}
10

 223 . 13

2.2. Measures of Dispersion (Variation)

Introduction and objectives of measuring Variation
-The scatter or spread of items of a distribution is known as dispersion or variation. In other
words the degree to which numerical data tend to spread about an average value is called
dispersion or variation of the data.
-Measures of dispersions are statistical measures which provide ways of measuring the extent in
which data are dispersed or spread out.
Objectives of measuring Variation:
 To judge the reliability of measures of central tendency
 To control variability itself.
 To compare two or more groups of numbers in terms of their variability.
 To make further statistical analysis.
Absolute and Relative Measures of Dispersion
The measures of dispersion which are expressed in terms of the original unit of a series are
termed as absolute measures. Such measures are not suitable for comparing the variability of two
distributions which are expressed in different units of measurement and different average size.
Relative measures of dispersions are a ratio or percentage of a measure of absolute dispersion to
an appropriate measure of central tendency and are thus pure numbers independent of the units
of measurement. For comparing the variability of two distributions (even if they are measured in
the same unit), we compute the relative measure of dispersion instead of absolute measures of
dispersion.

45
 2.2.1. Types of Measures of Dispersion
Various measures of dispersions are in use. The most commonly used measures of dispersions
are:
1. Range and relative range
2. variance
3. Standard deviation
4. Coefficient of variation and standard score.
The Range (R)
The range is the largest score minus the smallest score. It is a quick and dirty measure of
variability, although when a test is given back to students they very often wish to know the range
of scores. Because the range is greatly affected by extreme scores, it may give a distorted picture
of the scores. The following two distributions have the same range, 13, yet appear to differ
greatly in the amount of variability.
Distribution 1: 32 35 36 36 37 38 40 42 42 43 43 45
Distribution 2: 32 32 33 33 33 34 34 34 34 34 35 45
For this reason, among others, the range is not the most important measure of variability.
R L S , L l arg est observation
S smallest observation
Range for grouped data:
If data are given in the shape of continuous frequency distribution, the range is computed as:
R UCBk LCB1 , UCBk is upper class boundaries of the last class.
LCB1 is lower class boundaries of the first class.
This is sometimes expressed as:

R X k X 1 , X k is class mark of the last class.

X 1 is classmark of the first class.
Merits and Demerits of range
Merits:
 It is rigidly defined.
 It is easy to calculate and simple to understand.

46
Demerits:
 It is not based on all observation.
 It is highly affected by extreme observations.
 It is affected by fluctuation in sampling.
 It is not liable to further algebraic treatment.
 It cannot be computed in the case of open end distribution.
 It is very sensitive to the size of the sample.
Relative Range (RR)
-it is also sometimes called coefficient of range and given by:

RR= = R/(H+L)

Example: Find the relative range of the above two distribution.(exercise!)

2. If the range and relative range of a series are 4 and 0.25 respectively. Then what is the value
of:
a) Smallest observation
b) Largest observation
Solutions :( 2)
R 4 L S 4 _________________(1)
RR 0.25 L S 16 _____________(2)
Solving (1) and (2) at the same time , one can obtain the following value L 10 and S 6
The Variance
Population Variance
If we divide the variation by the number of values in the population, we get something called the
population variance. This variance is the "average squared deviation from the mean".
Population Variance 2N{∑(xi-µ)2}
For the case of frequency distribution it is expressed as:
1
Population Variance 2N ∗ ∑ki 1(xi − µ)2

Sample Variance
One would expect the sample variance to simply be the population variance with the population
mean replaced by the sample mean. However, one of the major uses of statistics is to estimate
the corresponding parameter. This formula has the problem that the estimated value isn't the

47
same as the parameter. To counteract this, the sum of the squares of the deviations is divided by
one less than the sample size.
1
Sample Variance S2n ∗ ∑ni 1(xi − x)
1

For the case of frequency distribution it is expressed as:

1
Sample Variance S2n ∗ ∑ki 1 fi(xi − x)
1

We usually use the following short cut formula.

∑ni 1 xi2 n(x)2
S2 = , for raw data. Xi2
n 1
∑ni 1 fiXi2 n(x)2
S2 for frequency distribution.
n 1

Standard Deviation
There is a problem with variances. Recall that the deviations were squared.
That means that the units were also squared. To get the units back the same as the original data
values, the square root must be taken.
The following steps are used to calculate the sample variance:
a. Find the arithmetic mean.
b. Find the difference between each observation and the mean.
c. Square these differences.
d. Sum the squared differences.
e. Since the data is a sample, divide the number (from step 4 above) by the
number of observations minus one, i.e., n-1 (where n is equal to the number of
observations in the data set).
Population standard deviation√σ
Sample standard deviation√s

Examples: Find the variance and standard deviation of the following sample data
1. 5, 17, 12, 10.
2. The data is given in the form of frequency distribution.

48
Solutions:
1. x = 11
Class frequency
40-44 7
45-49 10
50-54 22
55-59 15
60-64 12
65-69 6
70-74 3

Xi 5 10 12 17 Total
2 36 1 1 36 74
(Xi- X )

∑ni 1(xi x)2

S2 = = 74/3 = 24.67
n 1

S=√s2 =√24.67 = 4.97

2. x = 55
Xi(C.M) 42 47 52 57 62 67 72 Total
2 1183 640 198 60 588 864 867 4400
fi(Xi- X )
∑7i 1 fi(xi x)2
S2 = = 4400/74 = 59.46
n 1

S= √s2= √59.46 = 7.71

Special properties of Standard deviations

∑ni 1(xi x)2 ∑ni 1(xi A)2

1, < , A≠x
n 1 n 1

2. For normal (symmetric distribution the following holds.

 Approximately 68.27% of the data values fall within one standard
deviation of the mean. i.e. within (x  S , x S )
 Approximately 95.45% of the data values fall within two standard
deviations of the mean. i.e. within ( x2S, x  2S )

49
  Approximately 99.73% of the data values fall within three standard
deviations of the mean. i.e. within (x 3S , x 3S )
3, Chebyshev's Theorem
For any data set ,no matter what the pattern of variation, the proportion of the values that
1
fall within k standard deviations of the mean or (  x kS , x  kS ) will be at least 1 - k2 where

k is an number greater than 1 i.e. the proportion of items falling beyond k standard
1
deviations of the mean is at most 2.
k

Example: Suppose a distribution has mean 50 and standard deviation 6.What percent of the
numbers are:
a) Between 38 and 62
b) Between 32 and 68
c) Less than 38 or more than 62.
d) Less than 32 or more than 68.
Solutions:
a) 38 and 62 are at equal distance from the mean,50 and this distance is 12
 ks 12
K = 12/s =12/2 = 2
1
Applying the above theorem at least (1-k2) *100% 75% of the numbers lie between 38 and 62.

b), Similarly done.

1
c) It is just the complement of a) i.e. at most k2 *100% 25% of the numbers lie less than 32 or

more than 62.

d) Similarly done.
- If the standard deviation of X 1, X 2 ,.....X n is S , then the standard deviation of
a) X 1 k , X 2 k , .....X n k will also be S
b) kX1, kX 2 ,.....kX n would be k S
c) a kX 1, a kX 2 ,.....a kX n would be k S
Examples:
1. The mean and standard deviation of n Tetracycline Capsules
X 1, X 2 ,.....X n are known to be 12 gm and 3 gm respectively. New set of capsules of

50
 another drug are obtained by the linear transformation Yi =
2Xi – 0.5 ( i = 1, 2, …, n ) then what will be the standard deviation of the new set of
capsules
2. The mean and the standard deviation of a set of numbers are respectively 500 and 10.
a. If 10 is added to each of the numbers in the set, then what will be the variance and
standard deviation of the new set?
b. If each of the numbers in the set are multiplied by -5, then what will be the variance
and standard deviation of the new set?

Solutions:
1. Using c) above the new standard deviation = k S 2 * 3 6
2. a. They will remain the same.
b. New standard deviation  k S 5 *10 50
Coefficient of Variation (C.V)
 Is defined as the ratio of standard deviation to the mean usually expressed as percents.
C.V = * 100%

 The distribution having less C.V is said to be less variable or more consistent.
Examples:
1. An analysis of the monthly wages paid (in Birr) to workers in two firms A and B belonging to
the same industry gives the following results
Values Firm A Firm B
Mean wage 52.5 47.5
Variance 100 121
In which firm A or B is there greater variability in individual wages?
Solutions:
Calculate coefficient of variation for both firms.
sA
C.VA = xA* 100% = 10/52.5 = 19.05%
sB
C.VB = *100% =11/47.5 = 23.16%
xB

Since C.VA < C.VB, in firm B there is greater variability in individual wages.

51
Standard Scores (Z-scores)
 If X is a measurement from a distribution with mean X and standard deviation S, then its
value in standard units is

x µ
Z= , for population.
σ
x x
Z= , for sample.
s

 Z gives the deviations from the mean in units of standard deviation

 Z gives the number of standard deviation a particular observation lie above or below the
mean.
 It is used to compare two observations coming from different groups.
Examples:
1. Two sections were given introduction to statistics examinations. The following
information was given.
Value section 1 section 2
Mean 78 90
St.devation 6 5

Student A from section 1 scored 90 and student B from section 2 scored 95.Relatively speaking
who performed better?
Solutions:
Calculate the standard score of both students.
xA x1 90 78
ZA = = =2
s1 6
xB x2 95 90
ZB = = =1
s2 5

- Student A performed better relative to his section because the score of student A is two
standard deviation above the mean score of his section; while, the score of student B is
only one standard deviation above the mean score of his section.
2. Two groups of people were trained to perform a certain task and tested to find out which
group is faster to learn the task. For the two groups the following information was given:

52
 Value group 1 group 2
Mean 10.4 min 11.9 min
St.dev 1.2 min 1.3 min
Relatively speaking:
a) Which group is more consistent in its performance?
b) Suppose a person A from group one take 9.2 minutes while person B from Group two take 9.3
minutes, who was faster in performing the task? Why?
Solutions:
a) Use coefficient of variation.

sA 1.2
C.V1 x1 10.4
sA 1.3
C.V2=x2 * 100% 11.9

Since C.V2 < C.V1, group 2 is more consistent.

b) Calculate the standard score of A and B
xA x1 9.2 .
  
s1 1.2
xB 9.3 11.9
  
s2 1.3

 Child B is faster; because the time taken by child B is two standard deviation shorter than
the average time taken by group 2 while, the time taken by child A is only one standard
deviation shorter than the average time taken by group 1.

53
 2.3. Review Exercises
1. By considering the given raw data
12, 13, 17, 12, 13, 14, 16, 12, 15 and 15.
Find: i) mean
ii) mode
iii) median
iv) variance and standard deviation
v) coefficient of variation.
2. The Addis Ababa city municipality police traffic control department has observed
the number of car accidents (per month) to be categorized as shown in the table
below.
No. of care accidents frequency
10-14 5
15-19 6
20-24 3
25-29 4
30-34 2

Then calculate:
a) the average number of accidents
b) The median and mode
c) The variance, standard deviation and coefficient of variation
3. Marks of 75 students are summarized in the following frequency distribution:

Marks No. of students

40-44 7
45-49 10
50-54 22
55-59 f4
60-64 f5
65-69 6
70-74 3

54
 If 20% of the students have marks between 55 and 59
i) Find the missing frequencies f4 and f5.
ii) Find the mean.
4. A teacher attaches 2 to Quiz, 3 to Mid-term and 5 for Final exam. If a student gets
90, 50 and 60 for Quiz, Mid-term and Final-exam respectively, what is his/her
average academic performance?
5. The mean weight of 50 women workers in a factory is 48 kg. The mean weight of
75 men working in the same factory is 58 kg. Find the mean weight of all workers
in the factory.
6. The mean of 200 items was found to be 40. Later on it was discovered that two
items were wrongly read as 92 and 8 instead of 192 and 88 respectively. Find the
correct mean.
7. The mean salary of 100 laborers working in a factory , running in two shifts of 40
and 60 workers respectively is birr 380. The mean salary of the 40 laborers
working in the morning shift is birr 350. Find the mean salary of the 60 laborers
working in the evening shift.
8. Find the geometric mean of A) 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. B) 1, 2, 3, 4, 100. Is there a great
difference between the GM of A and that of B?
9. The price of a commodity increased by 5% from 1989 to 1990, 8% from 1990 to
1991 and by 77% from 1991 to 1992. Find the average price increase.
10. Find the harmonic mean of A) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. B) 1, 2, 3, 4, 100. Is there a great
difference between the HM of A and that of B?
11. A driver traveled 400 km per day for three days at a speed of 60, 50 and 40
kilometers per hour. Find the average speed of the driver.
12. A student reads the first 100 pages of a book at a rate of 5 pages per hour, the next
100 pages at a rate of 8 pages per hour. What is the student’s average reading
speed?
13. In a certain investigation, 460 persons were involved in the study, and based on an
enquiry on their age, it was known that 75% of them were 22or more. The
following frequency distribution shows the age composition of the persons under
study.

55
 Mid-age in years 13 18 23 28 33 38 43 48

Number of persons 24 f1 90 122 f2 56 20 33

a. Find the median and modal life of condensers and interpret them.
b. Find the values of all quartiles.
c. Compute the 5th deciles, 25th percentile, 50th percentile and the 75th
percentile and interpret the results.
14. The mean annual salary of all employees in a company is 2500. The mean salary
of male and female is 2700 and 1700 respectively. Find the percentage of males
and females employed in the company.
15. Given the following FD.
Mid-price of a commodity 15 25 35 45 55

Number of items sold 27 A 28 B 19

a. If 75% of the items were sold in birr 45 or less and most items were sold in
birr 34, find the missing frequencies.
b. If 25% of the items were sold in less than or equal to birr 45 and most items
were sold in birr 34, find the missing frequencies.

56