TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

• Definition of Traffic Signals: (IRC 93-1985)

It is set of automatically operated coloured lights, typically red, amber, and green, for
controlling traffic at road junctions, pedestrian crossings, and other locations.

• History of Traffic Signals:

▪ The first traffic signal was invented by J P Knight, a railway signalling engineer. It
was installed outside the Houses of Parliament in 1868 and looked like any railway
signal of the time, with waving semaphore arms and red-green lamps, operated by
gas, for night use.
▪Red-green systems were installed in Cleveland in 1912, by an American policeman,
Lester Wire.
▪Three-colour signals, operated manually from a tower in the middle of the street by
William Potts in Detroit which was installed in New York in 1920.
▪In the 1960’s, with the invention of computers, traffic lights started to become
computerized.
▪Now a days the countdown timer system is used which was introduced in the
1990’s.
 TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

• Advantages of Traffic Signals:

➢ Traffic control signals provide for an orderly movement of traffic.
➢ They help in reducing the frequency of an accident of right angles crossing.
➢ They intercept heavy traffic to allow other traffic to cross road intersection safety.
➢ They provide authority to the drivers to move with confidence.
➢ They control the speed of vehicles on main as well as on secondary roads.
➢ They direct traffic on different routes without excessive congestion.
➢ The provide economy over manual control at the intersection.

• Disadvantages of Traffic Signals:

➢ Traffic control signals may result in a re-entrant (Rear end) collision of vehicles.
➢ They may cause a delay in the quick movement of traffic.
➢ Driver try to avoid the signalised road and creates shortcuts.
➢ Due to Failure of signal system during peak period creates conjunction of traffic at
junction.
➢ The unwarranted signal installation may encourage the disobedience of signal
indications
 TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

• Types of Traffic Signals:

1. Traffic Control Signals: These are provided with three colored light glows facing each
direction of traffic flow. Red light indicates STOP Yellow amber light indicates the
clearance time for the vehicles which have entered the intersection area by the end of
green signal Green light indicates GO

2. Pedestrian Signals: When the vehicular traffic remains stopped by red or

stop signal on the traffic signals of the road intersection, these signals give the

right of way of pedestrians to cross a road during the walk period.

3. Special types of Signals Or Flashing Beacons: These signals are used to warn the
traffic. When there is a red flashing signal, the drivers of vehicles must stop before
entering the nearest cross walk at the intersection or at a stop line where marked.
Flashing of yellow signals are used to direct the drivers of the vehicular traffic to
proceed with caution.
 TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

• Types of Traffic Control Signals :

1. Fixed time Traffic signals:

The electronic control circuits provide a repetitive cycle and split (cycle division
among the conflicting movements) timing. The timing is repeated over and over
regardless of the presence or absence of traffic demand. When operating as
part of a system, adjacent intersections operate on the same cycle length and
have fixed offsets (relationship of beginning of main street green displays).
There may be multiple patterns of cycle lengths, offsets and splits.

2. Manually Operated Traffic signals:

In these types of signals, the traffic police watches the traffic demand from a
suitable point during the peak hours at the intersection and varies the timings of
these phases and cycle accordingly.
 TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

3. TRAFFIC ACTUATED SIGNALS: In these signals the timings of the phase and
cycle are changed according to traffic demand.

• In semi-actuated signals, the normal green phase of a traffic stream may be

extended up to a certain period of time for allowing the vehicles to clear off the
intersection. For this purpose the Detectors are placed in minor approach roads.
The Major road traffic is stopped when the actuation is observed on Minor road
by the detectors.

• In fully-actuated signals, computers assign the right of way for the traffic
movement on turn basis of traffic flow demand. These signals are suitable on
the intersections where both side traffic is heavy so there is necessity of placing
detectors on sides of roads
TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

 TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

• Location of Traffic Signals:

1. The location should be such that all road user moving in one direction
can see the traffic signal with minimum visibility. This distance depend on
the Speed of approaching vehicle to signal.
2. The Primary signal should be located at 0.9 m
from the STOP line.
3. The second Primary signal can be provided
if there is circular Island at intersection.
4. The second Primary signal is located diagonally
to the first primary signal on thee back of primary
signal intended for the opposing traffic.
5. The height of the signals should be such that
When erected the centre of the AMBER signal
should not be less than 2.4 m nor more than
4.0 m above the carriageway level.
 TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

Terminologies
• At grade Intersection: All roads are crossing at same level

• Grade Separated intersections: All roads are nor crossing at same level
• Crossing Conflict: The crossing of vehicle at right angle to each other
• Merging and Diverging Conflicts: The crossing of vehicle along same
alignment direction.
• Total Conflicts during right, Left and straight movement from four directions
are 4 x 3 =12. Reducing the conflict is the necessity of Signals
• Level of Controlling the Conflicts:
• Level 1 – Providing the Basic Signs
• Level 2 – Direct assignment of Right of way using STOP or YIELD sign
• Level 3 – Traffic Signals
• Level 4 – Grade Separated Intersections
TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

Terminologies
 TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

Terminologies
• Cycle – It is the one complete rotation through which all the indications like RED, AMBER
and GREEN are provided
• Cycle Length – The time required to complete a full sequence of traffic movements.
• Signal Phase – The portion of a signal cycle that serves a combination of traffic movements.
• Phase Sequence – The order of appearance of signal phases during a signal cycle.
• Signal System – Two or more traffic control signals operating in signal coordination.
• Signal Timing – The amount of time allocated for the display of a signal indication.
• Split – A portion of the cycle length allocated to each phase that may occur.
• Interval – A portion of a signal cycle where signal indications do not change.
• Offset – The time duration between the initiation of the progressed movement (phase)
common to any two signals at the two intersections. It is generally measured at the
downstream intersection relative to the upstream intersection.
TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

 TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

• Green Band – The amount of green time available to a group of vehicles in a progressive
signal system.
• Yellow Interval – This interval follows the green interval and is a warning for motorists to
slow down before the red interval is displayed.
• Red Interval – A very short period in a signal phase where traffic is stopped in all directions
and all signals display a “RED BALL” or “RED ARROW”.
• Walk Time – The time provided for a pedestrian, crossing in a crosswalk, to safely cross the
roadway. A “WALK” and “DON”T WALK” signal is displayed to direct pedestrians to cross the
roadway.
• Crosswalk – Any portion of a roadway distinctly designated for pedestrian crossing by lines
or other markings on the surface.
• Actuated Operation – Type of traffic signal control operation in which some or all signal
phases are actuated from vehicle detectors.
• Semi-actuated Operation – A type of traffic control signal in which at least one, but not
all, signal phases function on the basis of actuation.
 TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

• Saturation headway (h) : It is the constant headway achieved

• Saturation Flow rate (s) : It is the flow rate w. r. t. saturation headway =3600/ h
or s = 525 * w , where w = Width of approach road in m
• Start up Lost time (L1): It is the time taken by first few vehicles to start at the signal
• Clearance Loss time (L2): It is the time taken by last vehicle clear the intersection before
other side signal becomes GREEN.
• Total Lost Time (L) = L1 + L2
• Effective Green time (gi) = Amount of time vehicles moving at an intersection in one set
of movement.
•Effective Green time (gi) = Gi + Yi – tL
• Where Gi – Actual Green time in sec
•Yi –Sum of Yellow and all Red intervals for movement. = yi + ari
• Green ratio = Effective Green time to cycle length = g / C
• Capacity of an intersection lane (ci) = Saturation flow (si) x Green ratio (g / C)
 TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

•Problems of Calculating Capacity of an intersection lane:

GIVEN DATA –
1. Cycle length ( C) = 60 Sec
2. Green Time ( G) = 27 sec
3. Yellow plus all Red Time (Y)= 3 Sec
4. Saturation Headway = 2.4 Sec
5. Start up Lost time= L1 = 2 Sec
6. Clearance Loss Time = L2 = 1 Sec

Solution –

Saturation Flow = 3600 /2.4 = Vehicles / Hr/ Intersection

Effective green time (g) = G + Y –tL = 27 + 3 – (2+1) = 27 Sec

Capacity of an Intersection lane (C) = s x (g / C) = 1500 x (27 / 60) = 675 Vehicles

 TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

• Problems of Calculating Optimum Cycle Length using WEBSTER

Method:

•Using this method the minimum intersection delay is obtained,

• Optimum cycle length (C0)= (1.5 L + 5) / (1 – Ymax)

L= Total Lost time in Sec

Ymax = Critical flow rate – It is the ratio of Approach Flow (q) to Saturation
Flow (s) = q / S

Effective Green time for each Phase = g = yi / Y x (C0 – L)

yi – Flow rate in specific direction

 TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

Prob. - Average normal flow of traffic on cross roads A and B during design
period are 400 and 250 PCU per hour, the saturation flow values on these
roads are estimated as 1250 and 1000 PCU per hour respectively. The all
Red time required for pedestrians is 12 sec. Design two phase Signal by
WEBSTER’s Method
Sol. – ya = qa /Sa = 400 / 1250 = 0.32
yb = qb / Sb = 250 / 1000 = 0.25
So, Ymax = Ya + yb = 0.32 + 0.25 = 0.57
L = 2*n + R (where n = No of Phase and R is All red time)
= 2 * 2 + 12 = 16 Sec
• Optimum Cycle Time (C0) = (1.5 L + 5) / (1 – Ymax)
(C0) = (1.5 * 16 +5) / (1- 0.57) = 67.5 Sec.
• Effective Green time for A phase = Ga = (ya / Y)x (C0 – L)
= Ga = (0.32 / 0.57) x (67.5 -16) = 29 Sec
• Effective Green time for B phase = Gb = (yb / Y)x (C0 – L)
= Gb = (0.25 / 0.57) x (67.5 -16) = 22.5 Sec
TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

 TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

Therefore,Y = y(max) (N-S) + y(max) (E-W)

Y = 0.33 + 0.25 = 0.58

L= 2 *n + R (As the signal is TWO PHASE So, n=2 and

=2*2+4 R is All Red time = Amber time + Starting delay
L = 8 Second = 2 + 2 = 4 Second)

0.58
TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

 TRAFFIC STUDIES

Topic –Traffic Signals

IRC Method:

• Pedestrian GREEN time is calculated for MAJOR and MINOR roads

according to the walking speed as 1.2 m/s. and the initial walking time of 7
sec.

• The green time required for Vehicular traffic on MAJOR road is increased
in proportion to the two approach roads.

• The cycle time is calculated by considering AMBER time of 2 sec

• The minimum GREEN time required for vehicular traffic on any of the
approaches is limited to 16 sec.

• The Optimum Signal time is calculated by using WESTER’s formula.