IMPORTANT REMINDER

1. ATTENDANCE
• Attendance is compulsory (100%) as required by university rules and
regulations.

2. EVALUATION AND ASSESSMENT

• Failure and ignorance in order to fulfill the course evaluation and assessment
will cause student AWARDED “grade E” !. ( eg ;submit Assignment 1 & 2)

3. ACADEMIC DISHONESTY
• It should be noted that plagiarism and academic dishonesty is a serious
offense under the provisions of university regulation.

4. Assume mature adults and responsible, put attendance nicely, submit

assignment on time and NEED TO HAVE POSITIVE ATTITUDE TOWARDS
LEARNING. If you have a problem related to the lesson can keep in touch
with me by face to face or via e-mail.
Introduction of
Psychology

Topic 6 : Memory
NHMN
2023
 Lecture Overview

◼ Memory

◼ Four memory model

◼ Forgetting

◼ Using Psychology to Improve

Our Memory
 Memory

◼ Memory - an mental ability to retain and

recall past experiences

◼ Memory is also a constructive process, in

which we actively organize and shape
information as it is processed, stored, and
retrieved.
The Nature of Memory
Four Memory Models
The Nature of Memory
Four Memory Models
The Nature of Memory—
Four Memory Models (Continued)
The Nature of Memory—
Four Memory Models (Continued)
Multiple- store model of memory

Atkinson and Shiffrin, model of memory consisting of 3 stores.

(sensory, short-term memory and long-term memory)

The three stores each use the three processes;

1. Encoding – process of turning a stimulus

2. Storage – move encoded memory into a memory store

3. Retrieval - subsequent access of the store d memory & bring

back
Encoding – we encode info through processing of images (visual),
sounds (acoustic) and meaning (semantic).

Types of encoding

1.Acoustic

2.Visual

3.Semantic

4.Dual ecoding
What types of encoding would be used to memorize this?
What types of encoding would be used to
memorize this?

3x8=?

101 + 231 = ?
Encoding
Getting information
into memory
Storing
Retaining
information
over time

Retrieval
Taking
information Encoding storing retrieval
out of storage
Diagram of Three-Stage Memory Model
The Nature of Memory—
Description of Three Stage

◼ Sensory Memory: brief

❑ Sensory memory has a large capacity

but information only lasts a few seconds.

❑ Selected information is sent on to short-
term memory.
Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory
 Sensory Memory
Two kinds of SM

Iconic memory - the brief memory of something a person has

just saw. Duration – Half of a seconds (eidetic imagery –
ability to access a visual memory over long period).

Echoic memory - the brief memory of something a person has

just heard. Duration – 2 to 4 seconds.
Sperling’s Experiment with
Sensory Memory
◼ When flashed an
arrangement of 12
letters for 1/20 of a
second, most people
can only recall 4 or 5.
But Sperling proved
all 12 letters were
available in sensory
memory if they can be
attended to quickly.
 Short-Term Memory
• Duration of STM - lasts from about 12 to 30 seconds
without rehearsal. (5 – 9 items)

• Maintenance rehearsal - practice of saying some information

to be remembered over and over in one’s head in order to
maintain it in short-term memory

• Chunking – grouping information into unit

• STM is susceptible to interference

(e.g., if counting is interrupted,
have to start over).
Short-term memory - Chunking
Short term memory as a ‘Working Memory’
Most current researches prefer to think STM as a three-part working
memory

1. Visuo spatial sketchpad – visual workplace that allows us to

temporarily hold and manipulate visual images and spatial

2. Phonological Rehearsal Loop – related to speech, word & numbers

3. Central executive – integrates from phonological & visuo spatial

The Nature of Memory—
Three Stage Memory Model
(Continued)
◼ Long-term memory
(LTM): relatively
permanent
memory storage
with a virtually
limitless capacity.
Types of Long-Term Memories
Improving Long-Term Memory
(LTM)
◼ LTM can be improved with:
❑ Organization

❑ Elaborative rehearsal

❑ Retrieval cues

◼ Recognition

◼ Recall
An Example of Using Hierarchies as an
Organizational Tool
An Example of Recognition Vs. Recall

◼ Research shows that people are much better at

recognizing the photos of previous high school
classmates than they are at recalling their names.
Others way to improve retrieval is to create the original
learning conditions.

Three principle

1. Context and retrieval

2. Mood congruence

3. State-dependent retrieval
 Forgetting

◼ Ebbinghaus found:

❑ forgetting occurs
most rapidly
immediately after
learning.
❑ relearning takes
less time than initial
learning.
Why Do We Forget? Five Key Theories

◼ Decay
◼ Interference
◼ Motivated
Forgetting
◼ Encoding Failure
◼ Retrieval Failure
Five Theories of Forgetting

1. Decay Theory:
memory degrades with time

2. Interference Theory:
one memory competes (or interferes) with another
❑ Proactive interference (old information interferes with
new)
❑ Retroactive interference (new information interferes
with old)
 First learn Then learn
Proactive interference
(French is forgotten) French

Spanish

Retroactive interference
(Spanish is forgotten)
1. Proactive interference
forgetting in which old info interferes with new info (example; Spanish
language interferes with remembering French language).
2. Retroactive interference
Forgetting in which new info interferes with old info (example; French
language interferes with remembering Spanish language).
Five Theories of Forgetting (Continued)
3. Motivated Forgetting: we are motivated
to forget unpleasant, painful, threatening,
or embarrassing memories.
4. Encoding Failure: information in STM is
not encoded in LTM
5. Retrieval Failure: A memory stored in LTM
is never really forgotten, it is just
momentarily inaccessible due to
interference, faulty cues, or emotional
states; (tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon).
Overcoming Problems with Forgetting

◼ Serial Position Effect: material at the

beginning and end of the list is remembered
better than material in the middle.

❑ Primacy effect

❑ Recency effect
Table, Cloud, book, tree, shirt, cat, light, bench, chalk

(primacy effect) middle (recency effect)

(2nd greatest recall) (least recall) (greatest recall)

Note : Try not to be ‘in the middle’ for job

interviews. Going first or last in the interview
process is much likely to make a person’s
interview more memorable.
Overcoming Problems with Forgetting
(Continued)
◼ Spacing of Practice: distributed practice is
found to be superior to massed practice
◼ Distributed learning
◼ a. learning technique in which practice sessions
are interspersed./ with rest periods between
sessions.

◼ b. Massed learning
◼ Crammed together all at once.
©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007
Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Overcoming Problems with Forgetting
(Continued)
◼ Rehearsal: Maintenance Rehearsal – the
process of repeating the contents of short
term memory over and over to maintain it
in STM
◼ Chunking : Organize information into group
Chunking (pengetulan)

NOITACING (9 ITEM)

Cth : NOITACINGYLOCHOPSYC

PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION

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100 1000 10000101 010 11000

 Retrieveal of emotional
memories
• Automatic encoding - tendency of certain kinds of information to
enter long-term memory with little or no effortful encoding.

• Flashbulb memories - type of automatic encoding that occurs

because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations
for the person remembering it.

Sept 11 2001
Where Are Memories Located?

◼ Memory tends to
be localized and
distributed
throughout the
brain--not just in
the cortex.
Memory: Brain Structures
Memory and brain anatomy
Amygdala Emotional memory (anger and
aggression) and consolidation
Basal ganglia and Creation and storage of non declarative
cerebellum memory (motor skills, priming)
Hippocampal Memory recognition, explicit, spatial,
formation episodic memory, consolidation of
declarative memory (general knowledge &
personal experience).
Thalamus Formation of new memories; location of
working memory (STM)
Cortical areas (motor, Encoding of declarative memory, storage
parahippocampal, of episodic and semantic memory, skill
prefrontal cortex and learning, priming
parts of the occipital
and temporal lobes)
 Biology and Memory Loss:
Injury and Disease
◼ Amnesia: (memory
loss from brain injury
or trauma)
• Retrograde amnesia
(old memories lost)
• Anterograde amnesia
(new memories lost)
Memory impairments
Susan: Possible cause; car accident or been in a fight in
Retrograde which she experienced a blow to her head
amnesia Impairment; difficulty to remember previously
learned info. Lost memory for events that occurred
BEFORE accident, but has no trouble remembering
things that have happened since then.
Duration : Usually temporary

Claire : Possible cause; brain surgery, or she may be

Anterograde suffering from chronic alcoholism
Amnesia Impairment: Claire’s ability to form new memories
has been damaged. Since her surgery or the onset
of amnesia, she has not been able to learn anything
new.
Duration : usually permanent
 Memory impairments

Alzheimer’s Possible cause: genetics plays a part, either in

causing the disease or in making a person more
susceptible to environmental triggers for the
disease.
Autopsy results show that the brain develops
tangles composed of cell bodies, and plaques
composed of degenerating axons and dendrites in
the temporal and parietal lobes of brain.
Impairment; Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive
mental deterioration that occurs most commonly in
old age, and is characterized by severe memory
loss.
Duration : Irreversible and fatal
 Using Psychology to Improve
Our Memory
◼ Eight Tips for Memory Improvement:
1. Pay attention and reduce interference.
2. Use rehearsal techniques.
3. Improve your organization.
4. Counteract the serial position effect.
5. Manage your time.
Using Psychology to Improve
Our Memory (Continued)

6. Use the encoding specificity principle.

7. Employ self-monitoring and
overlearning.
8. Use mnemonic devices (e.g., method of
loci, peg-word, substitute word, word
associations).
Mnemonic device
A memory –improvement technique based on encoding items in a
Special way.
Method of Loci Imagine each item to be remembered
(physical places) attached to places inside a building or in
some logical sequential placement.

Peg-word Imagine a set of up to 10 visual images

(holding thing ‘pegged’ to a marker, such as one-bun, two-
together, hanging shoe, three-tree, four-door, five-hive, six-
things on & marking bricks…..ten-pen.
a position. Make up a story
Word association Create verbal associations for items to be
learned.(using first letter)
FTOP (Frontal, temporal, occipital &
Roy. G. Biv parietal)
 Conclusion
Research has shown that people who regularly work crossword
puzzles, take classes, read and stay mentally active are less likely
to develop senile dementia than those who fail to use their
Minds.
Intoduction of
Psychology

End of
Chapter Memory