BLIC SCHOOL,

PU MH
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SESSION: 2024-25
PHYSICS PROJECT FILE

Topic: Semiconductor Devices

SUBMITTED By: SUBMITTED To:

Kartik Mrs. XYZ
XII

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 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Kartik of Class XII (Roll No.
______) of Army Public School, Mhow, has
successfully completed the Physics Project titled
"Semiconductor Devices" under the guidance and
supervision of Mrs. XYZ during the academic year
20XX-XX.
The progress and performance of the student in
completing the project have been exemplary and
consistent throughout the year. This project fulfills the
requirements set by the Central Board of Secondary
Education (CBSE) for the Physics curriculum.
We extend our best wishes for their future academic
endeavors.
Date: ________

Signatures:
Subject Teacher External Invigilator

……………………………. ………………………………….

School Stamp

………………………..

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 DECLARATION
I, Kartik, a student of Class XII, hereby declare that
the project titled Semiconductor Devices has been
completed by me during the academic session 20XX-
XX.
I confirm that this project was undertaken under the
guidance and supervision of my Physics teacher,
Mrs. XYZ, and that all the information and data utilized
in the project have been duly recognized and credited
to their respective sources.
I assure that this work is original and has not been
submitted elsewhere for any academic or professional
purpose.
Date: ________

Signature School Stamp

………………… ……………………….

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I, Kartik, a student of Class XII, take this opportunity
to express my heartfelt gratitude to all those who have
contributed to the successful completion of my Physics
Project for the academic session 20XX-XX.
First and foremost, I extend my deepest gratitude to
my Physics teacher, Mrs. XYZ, for her invaluable
guidance, unwavering support, and scholarly advice
throughout this project. Her encouragement and
expertise have been a constant source of inspiration.
I would also like to thank all my respected teachers,
the school library staff, and the office staff for their
assistance and support in providing necessary
resources and infrastructure. My heartfelt thanks also
go to the staff of the Physics Department for their help
and advice during the course of this project.
Finally, I acknowledge with gratitude the various
reference materials and resources provided by the
school, which were essential for the successful
completion of this project.

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INDEX:
o Introduction
o Discovery
o Energy Band Diagram
o Intrinsic & Extrinsic
Semiconductors
o N-Type & P-Type Semiconductors
o P-N Junction & It’s Formation
o Forward Biasing of P-N Junction
o Reverse Biasing of P-N Junction
o Uses of P-N Junction
o Limitations of P-N Junction
o Importance & Applications of
Semiconductors
o Bibliography

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• Introduction
Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials whose electrical conductivity lies between
that of conductors and insulators. These materials are critical to modern
electronics due to their unique properties, which can be tailored through
processes such as doping.
Examples of Semiconductors and Their Band Gap Energy
1. Silicon: Band gap energy = 1.1 eV
2. Germanium: Band gap energy = 0.7 eV
3. Cadmium: Band gap energy varies depending on its specific
compound but is used in various semiconductor applications.

Characteristics of Semiconductors
• Semiconductors are either crystalline or amorphous solids,
distinguished by their unique electrical properties.

• They exhibit a higher resistance than typical conductive materials

but significantly lower resistance than insulators.

• Unlike metals, the resistance of semiconductors decreases with

an increase in temperature. This phenomenon occurs because, at
higher temperatures, more electrons gain sufficient energy to jump
from the valence band to the conduction band.

Silicon – The Most Widely Used Semiconductor

Among all semiconductors, silicon is the most commonly used due to its
abundance, stable chemical structure, and ease of fabrication into devices
such as diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits. Silicon's band gap
energy (1.1 eV) makes it ideal for use in electronic applications where
precise control of conductivity is essential.

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• Discovery
Discovery of Semiconductor Properties
Historical Context
• The first recorded observation of semiconductor behavior was made
by Michael Faraday in 1833 during his experiments with silver
sulfide (Ag₂S).
• This marked a pivotal moment in understanding materials that
conduct electricity differently from metals and insulators.

Material Under Study

• Faraday studied "sulphurette of silver" (silver sulfide), which
exhibited a unique response to heat.
• While metals exhibit increased electrical resistance with higher
temperatures, silver sulfide demonstrated the opposite effect,
becoming more conductive as it was heated.

Key Observations
• Metals: As temperature increases, electron scattering by lattice
vibrations reduces conductivity, causing resistance to rise.
• Silver Sulfide: Heating provided energy to electrons, increasing their
mobility and allowing them to participate in conduction, reducing
resistance.

Faraday's Documentation
• In his publication Experimental Researches in Electricity, Faraday
described this behavior as "an extraordinary case."
• He noted that the material's "conducting power rose rapidly with the
heat" and decreased when the material cooled.

Scientific Implications
• This discovery established the fundamental principle of
semiconductors: their electrical properties can be altered by
temperature, doping, or other environmental factors.
• It paved the way for modern semiconductor devices like diodes,
transistors, and integrated circuits, which are integral to today's
technology

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Impact on Modern Technology
• Faraday's findings remain a cornerstone in the understanding of
semiconductor physics.
• Applications derived from his work include thermistors
(temperature-sensitive resistors), solar cells, and LEDs.

Conclusion
Michael Faraday's 1833 experiments with silver sulfide represent the first
clear documentation of semiconductor properties. His work revealed the
potential for materials with intermediate conductivity to revolutionize
electronic technologies, forming the foundation for decades of
advancement in this field.

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• Energy Band Diagram

Valence Band
• The valence band is occupied by valence electrons, which are
involved in covalent bonding between atoms.
• This band is either completely or partially filled with electrons and
represents the highest energy level that electrons can occupy under
normal conditions.

Conduction Band
• The conduction band is the next higher energy level, where
conduction electrons exist.
• Electrons in this band are free to move and conduct electricity.
• This band is completely or partially empty under normal conditions.

Forbidden Band (Band Gap)

• The forbidden band, or energy gap, separates the valence band
from the conduction band.
• No electrons exist in this energy gap under normal circumstances.
• The size of this gap determines the material's electrical properties:
o Conductors: No significant band gap (overlapping bands).
o Semiconductors: Moderate band gap (e.g., 1.1 eV for silicon,
0.7 eV for germanium).
o Insulators: Large band gap, preventing electron movement to
the conduction band.

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• INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTORS
Intrinsic Semiconductors
• An intrinsic semiconductor is a material in its pure form, free
from any impurities.
• The number of charge carriers (holes and electrons) is determined
solely by the material's intrinsic properties.
• In these materials, the number of electrons equals the number of
holes.
• Common examples include germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si).

Properties of Intrinsic Semiconductors

• Chemical Purity: Completely pure and undoped.
• Conductivity: Poor at room temperature but improves with
increased temperature as thermal energy excites electrons into the
conduction band.

Extrinsic Semiconductors
• An extrinsic semiconductor is an intrinsic semiconductor doped
with a small quantity of impurity to enhance conductivity.
• The conductivity depends on both temperature and the amount
of impurity added.
• At extremely low temperatures (close to 0 Kelvin), extrinsic
semiconductors can conduct electricity due to the contribution of
dopants.

Types of Extrinsic Semiconductors

• N-Type Semiconductors: Formed by adding pentavalent
impurities (e.g., phosphorus). Electrons are the majority charge
carriers.
• P-Type Semiconductors: Formed by adding trivalent impurities
(e.g., boron). Holes are the majority charge carriers.

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TABLE: Comparison
Property Intrinsic Extrinsic
Semiconductor Semiconductor
Purity Pure material Impurities added
Conductivity Low High
Charge Carriers Equal holes and Depends on doping
electrons type
Conductivity at 0 K Non-conductive Conductive

Fig: Intrinsic

Fig: Extrinsic

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• N-type & P-type Semiconductor
N-Type Semiconductors
• Definition: Semiconductors doped with pentavalent impurity atoms
(e.g., Phosphorus, Antimony, Arsenic, or Bismuth) to increase
conductivity.

• Mechanism:
o Each impurity atom has five valence electrons, four of
which form covalent bonds with neighboring atoms.
o The fifth electron remains free, acting as a charge carrier.

• Charge Carriers:
o Majority: Electrons.
o Minority: Holes.

• Examples: Phosphorus (P), Antimony (Sb), Arsenic (As), Bismuth

(Bi).

P-Type Semiconductors
• Definition: Semiconductors doped with trivalent impurity atoms
(e.g., Gallium, Indium, Aluminum, or Boron) to create positive
charge carriers (holes).

• Mechanism:
o Trivalent atoms have three valence electrons, which form
covalent bonds with neighboring atoms, leaving one bond
incomplete.
o This incomplete bond forms a hole, which acts as a positive
charge carrier.
o The dopant atoms are referred to as acceptor atoms.

• Charge Carriers:
o Majority: Holes.
o Minority: Electrons.

• Examples: Gallium (Ga), Indium (In), Aluminum (Al), Boron (B).

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 TABLE: Comparison N-Type vs P-Type
Property N-Type P-Type
Semiconductor Semiconductor
Dopant Type Pentavalent (e.g., P, Sb) Trivalent (e.g., B, Ga)
Majority Carrier Electrons Holes
Minority Carrier Holes Electrons
Current Flow Primarily due to free Primarily due to holes
electrons

Fig: N-Type

Fig: P-Type

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• P-N Junction Diode &
It’s Formation
1. Definition
A P-N junction diode is created by combining two different types of
semiconductor materials—P-type (positive) and N-type (negative)—
within a single crystal structure. The P-type region contains excess
holes (positive charge carriers), while the N-type region contains
excess electrons (negative charge carriers).

2. Formation Process
o Diffusion of Charge Carriers:
▪ Electrons from the N-side diffuse into the P-side, filling
holes and leaving behind positively charged donor ions.
▪ Holes from the P-side diffuse into the N-side, combining
with electrons and leaving behind negatively charged
acceptor ions.
▪ This creates a region near the junction called the
depletion layer, devoid of free charge carriers.

o Potential Barrier Development:

▪ The accumulation of opposite charges on either side of
the junction generates an electric field.
▪ This field opposes further diffusion, resulting in a
potential barrier that prevents additional movement of
majority charge carriers.

o Equilibrium State:
▪ At equilibrium, the diffusion current (caused by carrier
movement across the junction) equals the drift current
(caused by the electric field).

3. Depletion Layer
• This is a thin region around the junction where mobile
charge carriers are absent, leaving only immobile ions.
• Its width depends on the doping level: higher doping
creates a thinner depletion region.

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 4. Key Characteristics
• Electric Field: Directed from the N-side to the P-side.
• Potential Barrier: Prevents free electrons in the N-region
from crossing into the P-region without external energy.

5. Significance
• The P-N junction acts as a foundation for electronic devices
like diodes, transistors, and rectifiers. It allows current to
flow in one direction while blocking it in the reverse,
making it essential for controlling electrical signals in
circuits.

Fig: P-N Junction Diode

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• Forward & Reverse
Biasing of P-N Junction:
Forward Biasing
1. Definition:
• A P-N junction diode is forward biased when the P-side is
connected to the positive terminal of an external voltage
source and the N-side is connected to the negative terminal.
• This reduces the width of the depletion region and lowers the
potential barrier.

2. Mechanism:
• The applied voltage pushes majority carriers (holes in the P-
region and electrons in the N-region) toward the junction.
• The movement reduces the depletion region's resistance,
allowing current to flow freely.

3. Characteristics:
• Initially, current is negligible until the applied voltage exceeds
the threshold voltage (0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for
germanium).
• Beyond this threshold, current increases rapidly with a small
increase in voltage.

4. Behavior:
• The junction offers low resistance, allowing a significant
current flow in the forward direction.

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Reverse Biasing
1. Definition:
• A diode is reverse biased when the P-side is connected to the
negative terminal of the voltage source and the N-side to the
positive terminal.
• This increases the width of the depletion region, preventing
current flow.

2. Mechanism:
• Majority carriers are pulled away from the junction, widening the
depletion region and increasing the potential barrier.
• Only a small reverse saturation current (in microamperes)
flows due to minority carriers.

3. Characteristics:
• The diode behaves as an insulator, allowing almost no current.
• If the reverse voltage exceeds a critical value (breakdown
voltage), a large current flows, potentially damaging the diode.
This is caused by avalanche breakdown or Zener breakdown

4. Behavior:
• The reverse current remains negligible under normal operating
conditions but increases significantly if the breakdown voltage is
reached.

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Summary for Forward & Reverse
Biasing
• Forward Bias: Low resistance, significant current flow
after threshold voltage.
• Reverse Bias: High resistance, negligible current unless
breakdown voltage is exceeded.

Fig: Forward Bias

Fig: Reverse Bias

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• Uses of P-N Junction:
1. Rectification
o Definition: Rectification is the process of converting alternating
current (AC) into direct current (DC), which is crucial for power
supplies.

o Half-Wave Rectifier:
▪ Uses a single P-N junction diode.
▪ Allows current during one half of the AC cycle, blocking it in
the other.
▪ Produces a pulsating DC output with low efficiency.

o Full-Wave Rectifier:
▪ Utilizes two or four P-N junction diodes.
▪ Conducts during both halves of the AC cycle, yielding higher
efficiency and a smoother DC output.

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2. Zener Diode
• A Zener diode operates in the reverse bias mode at a specific
voltage known as the Zener voltage.
• Used in voltage regulation to provide a stable output voltage.
• Two breakdown mechanisms occur: Zener breakdown (low
voltages) and avalanche breakdown (high voltages).

3. Photodiodes
• Definition: Light-sensitive diodes that generate current when
exposed to photons.
• Operate in reverse bias, converting light energy into electrical
energy.
• Applications include light intensity measurement, data
transmission (e.g., in remote controls), and as solar cells in
energy generation systems.

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4. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
• LEDs emit light when electrons recombine with holes in a forward-
biased P-N junction.
• Color of the emitted light depends on the bandgap energy of the
semiconductor material.
• Widely used in displays, indicators, and energy-efficient lighting
solutions.

5. Solar Cells
• Definition: Specialized P-N junctions that convert sunlight into
electricity using the photovoltaic effect.
• Differ from photodiodes by having a larger junction area to
capture more light, maximizing power output.
• Key component in renewable energy technologies like solar
panels.

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• Limitations of P-N Junction:
1. Temperature Sensitivity
• The electrical characteristics of a P-N junction diode are highly
dependent on temperature. As temperature increases, the
mobility of charge carriers changes, potentially degrading the
diode's performance. For example, the forward voltage drop
decreases by approximately 2 mV/°C for silicon diodes.

2. Breakdown Voltage
• P-N junctions have a specific breakdown voltage. Exceeding this
voltage can result in a sudden increase in reverse current,
damaging the diode. This can happen due to avalanche
breakdown (impact ionization) or Zener breakdown (tunneling
effects) depending on the doping levels.

3. Reverse Bias Leakage Current

• Even in reverse bias conditions, a small leakage current flows
due to minority carriers. This reverse saturation current is
generally small but can be problematic in precision circuits,
especially under high temperatures where leakage increases.

4. Cost of Manufacturing
• The fabrication of high-quality P-N junctions, particularly in
silicon-based devices, involves complex and costly processes
such as doping and wafer preparation. These contribute to the
overall manufacturing expense.

5. Voltage Limits
• P-N junction diodes have limitations on the maximum forward
and reverse voltages they can handle. Exceeding these can lead
to junction failure or permanent damage.

6. Thermal Runaway
• In forward bias, excessive current flow can cause heating,
leading to increased current and further heating—a phenomenon
called thermal runaway. Without proper circuit design, this can
destroy the diode.

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• Importance & Application
of Semiconductors:
Importance of Semiconductors
Semiconductors are the foundation of modern electronic systems,
enabling technological advancements across various industries. Their
ability to conduct electricity under specific conditions, altered through
doping, makes them essential for controlling electrical signals.
Semiconductors are integral to:
• Communication and Computing: Found in smartphones,
computers, and data centers, semiconductors enable fast data
processing and transmission.
• Healthcare: Used in diagnostic equipment like MRI machines
and wearable health devices.
• Energy Systems: Crucial in solar panels and energy-efficient
devices.
• Everyday Appliances: Present in items like refrigerators, LED
lights, and washing machines, making these devices functional
and energy-efficient.

Applications of Semiconductors
1. Transistors
• Definition: Transistors, built on semiconductor materials, act
as amplifiers and switches in electronic circuits.
• Uses: Found in smartphones, PCs, and solar panels. They are
also essential for miniaturizing devices and enhancing
computational capabilities.

2. Computing
• Semiconductors are the backbone of microprocessors and
memory chips, powering computing devices such as laptops,
servers, and even vehicles.
• These components are integral to both personal devices and
large-scale industrial applications.

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3. Consumer Electronics
• From televisions and gaming consoles to digital cameras,
semiconductors are ubiquitous in entertainment technology.
• They enable advanced functionalities like high-resolution
imaging and faster processing in gaming consoles.

4. Renewable Energy Systems

• Solar Panels: Semiconductor materials like silicon are used to
convert sunlight into electricity via the photovoltaic effect.
• Energy Management: Power inverters and other energy
control systems also rely on semiconductors to optimize
efficiency.

5. Healthcare Equipment
• Diagnostic Devices: Medical imaging systems like CT scans
and wearable devices monitor health using semiconductor
sensors.
• Precision Instruments: These sensors provide real-time
data, enabling life-saving interventions.

6. Automotive and Transportation

• Semiconductors are key in electric vehicles (EVs), regulating
power flow and enabling features like navigation and safety
systems.
• Autonomous vehicles rely on semiconductor chips for advanced
decision-making processes.

7. Aerospace and Defense

• Used in navigation, communication, and radar systems,
semiconductors provide precision and reliability in high-stakes
environments like defense and aviation.

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• Bibliography:
1. Books and Manuals
o NCERT Physics Textbook for Class XII.
o PhysicsLab Manual, S.L. Arora.
2. Web-Based Sources
o AzoNano: https://azonano.com/
o Computer History Museum: https://computerhistory.org/
o Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor
o BYJU’s: https://byjus.com/physics/semiconductor-diode/
o PV Education: https://www.pveducation.org/
o Circuit Globe: https://circuitglobe.com/
o Science Facts: https://www.sciencefacts.net/
o Electrical4U: https://www.electrical4u.com/
o Analog Circuit Design: https://analogcircuitdesign.com/
o Electronics Lesson: https://electronicslesson.com/
o Electrical Volt: https://www.electricalvolt.com/
o Show Me the Green: https://showmethegreen.ca/
o Scribd: https://scribd.com/
o Electrical Workbook: https://electricalworkbook.com/
o Physics Catalyst: https://physicscatalyst.com/
o Corporate Blog (USF): https://corporatetraining.usf.edu/
o PraxiLabs: https://praxilabs.com/
o TechOvedas: https://techovedas.com/
3. Specialized Resources
o Silicon VLSI: https://siliconvlsi.com/
4. Search Engines and Tools
o Bing
o Google
o OpenAI

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