Unit-I

Information Technology (IT)

Information Technology (IT) may be defined as the technology that is used to
acquire, store, organize, process, and disseminate processed data which can
be used in specified applications. Information is processed data that improves
our knowledge, enables us to take decisions and initiate actions.
Example 1.1 Let us take a very simple example. A home-maker who buys
vegetables, provisions, milk, etc., everyday would write in a diary the money
spent on each of these. At the end of each day she adds up the data on money
spent for these items. The total obtained is the information which she uses to
adjust expenses to spend within her budget. This is illustrated in the block
diagram of Fig. 1.1.

Data and information are similar concepts, but they are not the same thing.
The main difference between data and information is that data is a raw item
and information is the processed one.
Data
The term data is simply defined as “facts and figures”. Each piece of data is a
little fact that doesn’t mean much on its own. The word data can be used for a
singular fact or a collection of facts. It comes from the Latin word datum,
meaning “something given”.
The word datum is still the technically correct singular form of data, but is
rarely used in common language.
Information
Information is defined simply as “news or knowledge received or given”. It is
the result when you have processed, interpreted, and organized facts. The
word comes from the Latin word īnfōrmātiō. It’s meaning is “formation or
conception.”

Data Science:
Data science is an interdisciplinary field/Multidiciplinary field that uses
scientific methods, processes, algorithms and systems to
extract knowledge and insights from noisy, structured and unstructured data.
Data science is related to data mining, machine learning and big data.

Types of Data
The flexibility of IT is that it is able to process a variety of data types. The
different data types are shown in below figure:

DATA
NUMBER
TEXT IMAGES AUDIO VEDIO
S

Figure 1.2: Types of Data

 Text: For example, a paragraph a book is textual data. It contains
letters, digits, and special symbols.
 Picture or image: For example, our photograph (both black and white
and colour) is image data. Other types of images are a map of India, a
fingerprint, an image by a satellite, and an X-ray of human chest. In the
literature the terms picture and image are used interchangeably.
 Audio or sound: For example, speeches, songs, telephone
conversations, street noise, etc. Their main property is that they are
waveforms whose amplitude vary with time and cause pressure waves
in the air which enter our ears and we hear the sound.
 Video or moving pictures: When a number of pictures (each one slightly
different from the other) are shown one after another at a rate of about
30 to 60 pictures per second, due to persistence of vision, we have an
illusion of movement. The most popular examples of video are movies
such as silent movies starring Charlie Chaplin in the 1930s. Another
example is animation used in computer games. Video is usually
 combined with audio to give a better effect, for example, computer
games with background noises synchronized with the images.
In modern Information Technology, all these types of data are required to be
processed. All these data types are taken together are called “Multimedia”.
Number Data:
The simplest data we use is numbers. Number data is very common in our day
to day life. Price list, Marks list, Censes etc.
Text Data:
Text data processing involves the tasks like word processing. In word
processing normal text is converted into formatted (effective) text. The
formatted text improves readability and understandability.
Another popular Text processing application is preparation of dictionary. The
modern dictionaries are giving synonyms, antonyms and words with common
prefix and suffix.
Web Search is the most widely used text processing application. Every minute
millions of search operations are carried out throughout the world in search
engines like Google.
Image Data:
In Image Processing, We find the tasks like preparation of photo albums,
Identification of finger prints, evaluation of X – rays / Scanned images,
Preparation of house plans etc.
Audio Data:
Audio Data such as music and speech is used by us every day. The audio data
processing examples are Cockpit Voice Recorder, Digital Audio Recording,
Music Synthesis, and Internet Telephone and so on.
Video Data:
Video Data Processing includes the tasks like, putting colour on old black and
white movies. Another example is dubbing a movie with a sound track in a
language that is different from the original language in which the movie was
taken. It is even possible to create movies by using computer generated
characters. For example, a movie “Toy Story” was produced using this
method.
Image Morphing means Morphing of images on a VDU screen is a process by
which successive images smoothly change from one frame to the next giving
an illusion of transformation of one type of image to another. For example, the
image of a young girl gradually becomes old and is then transformed into that
of a lion! This type of transformation of images is often shown in television
advertisements.
Simple Model of a Computer
We deal with Numbers, Text, Images, Audio and Video. Information
Technology is concerned with:
1. Acquisition of data
2. Storage of data
3. Organization of data
4. Processing of data
5. Output of Processed data, i.e. information
6. Dissemination or distribution of information.
If a machine is to be a versatile data processing machine it should:
 be able to acquire or read data of five types i.e. numbers, text, images,
audio and video and also be able to read instructions to process the data
 have the facility to store and organize the data.
 be able to process the data
 have devices to output the processed data.
 be easily connectable to other computers for distribution of information.
The above steps are shown in below figure:

Such a machine has a structure shown in the below diagram.

Input System:
 It has an input system which is used to acquire data from the external
world and convert it into a form that can be stored in its storage system.
 There are a variety of input units ranging from a keyboard and mouse to
specialized data acquisition systems such as video cameras,
microphones, and scanners.
 The collection of input units constitutes the input system.
Memory System:
 The machine has a memory system where the program for processing
data and the data to be processed are stored. The memory system also
consists of a variety of units, the most important one being a fast
Random Access Memory (RAM), which is the primary memory used to
store the instructions and the data to be processed.
 As the amount of data to be stored is usually very large and the stored
data is used for many purposes, the storage system has, besides a RAM,
a variety of units such as hard disks, CDROMs, DVDROMs, flash memory
(also known as pen drives), and magnetic tape drives. The collection of
this storage is called secondary storage units.
 RAM is normally volatile, i.e., when power is switched off, the data
stored in it is lost. Secondary storage systems are non-volatile. They
retain the data stored in them when power is switched off.
Processing System:
 The third important system is the processing system. The processing
system is the heart of the machine and is designed to interpret and
execute the instructions of a program stored in the memory.
  There are a variety of processing systems. The simplest ones are used
to control microwave ovens, washing machines, etc. Faster powerful
processors are used for complex mathematical calculations.
 Some others process audio and video data and are known as Digital
Signal Processors (DSP).
 Many computing systems now have several processing units each one
carrying out the task assigned to it.
Output System
 The next important part of a computer is the output system. The output
system prints or displays the results of data processing.
 Sometimes the results of processing may not be immediately printed.
They may be stored for printing later.
 Sometimes data may be printed or displayed and also stored for future
reference. There are several types of output devices such as video
displays, inkjet printers, loudspeakers, and laser printers.
NIC
 The last important part of all computers nowadays is a Network Interface
Unit (NIU) or Network Interface Card (NIC) to connect it to a
communication system (that may be wireless) and through this to other
computers. Such a connection is essential to inter-connect computers
and widely disseminate data processed by the computer.
Data Processing Using a Computer:

The following are the basic steps involved in Data Processing:

 Analyze the data processing task to be performed. And understand what

is to be performed.

 Having understood the problem to be solved, identify/find the method to

solve the problem

 Write the steps involved in the solution. A Step by Step procedure to

solve the problem is called algorithm

 Express the algorithm in a precise notation called program. A program

is a sequence of steps mentioned as per algorithm with the syntax rules
of the programming language.

 Feed the program into the computer and store it.

 Get ready with the data to be entered into the computer and order the
computer to execute the program.

 Now, while executing the program, the computer asks for the data to be
processed. Once data is provided, we get the information/ results from
the computer in the form of output.

Example: Count the vowels in the given text.

The task to be performed:

Count the number of vowels in the given text.

Method

Read the text character by character. If the character is a vowel, that is,
it is ‘a’, ‘e’, ‘i’, ‘o’, ‘u’ or ‘A’, ‘E’, ‘I’, ‘O’, ‘U’ count it as a vowel. When the
end of the text is reached, output count as the number of vowels.

Algorithm

1. Create a counter to count the number of vowels and store 0 in it.

count-vowels = 0

2. Call vowel-set = { a,e,i,o,u, A,E,I,O,U}

Repeat Step 3 to Step 5 until the end of input text is reached. Go to Step
6 when no more characters are left in the text.

3. Read a character from the string of characters (or text) waiting at the
input unit. Store it in a location in memory labeled input-character.

4. If the content of input-character is in vowel-set then Add 1 to count-

vowels and continue else continue.

5. Move to next character. Remark : We now go back to Step 3

6. Output count-vowels. Remark: This step is reached when end of input

text is reached

7. Stop

The above algorithm works for the text of any length. For easy understanding
the algorithms are expressed in the form of flowcharts. Beginners can easily
understand the Flow charts. The symbols used in the flow charts are defined
by the International standards organization.
 Flow chart for counting of vowels in the given text

ALGORITHM:

The word “algorithm” relates to the name of the mathematician Al-

khowarizmi, which means a procedure or a technique. Software Engineer
commonly uses an algorithm for planning and solving the problems. An
algorithm is a sequence of steps to solve a particular problem or algorithm is
an ordered set of unambiguous steps that produces a result and terminates in
a finite time

Algorithm has the following characteristics

• Input: An algorithm may or may not require input

• Output: Each algorithm is expected to produce at least one result

• Definiteness: Each instruction must be clear and unambiguous.

• Finiteness: If the instructions of an algorithm are executed, the

algorithm should terminate after finite number of steps

The algorithm and flowchart include following three types of control

structures.
 1. Sequence: In the sequence structure, statements are placed one after
the other and the execution takes place starting from up to down.

2. Branching (Selection): In branch control, there is a condition and

according to a condition, a decision of either TRUE or FALSE is achieved.
In the case of TRUE, one of the two branches is explored; but in the case
of FALSE condition, the other alternative is taken. Generally, the ‘IF-
THEN’ is used to represent branch control.

3. Loop (Repetition): The Loop or Repetition allows a statement(s) to be

executed repeatedly based on certain loop condition e.g. WHILE, FOR
loops.

Advantages of algorithm

• It is a step-wise representation of a solution to a given problem,

which makes it easy to understand.

• An algorithm uses a definite procedure.

• It is not dependent on any programming language, so it is easy to

understand for anyone even without programming knowledge.

• Every step in an algorithm has its own logical sequence so it is

easy to debug.

FLOWCHART:

The first design of flowchart goes back to 1945 which was designed by
John Von Neumann. Unlike an algorithm, Flowchart uses different symbols
to design a solution to a problem. It is another commonly used
programming tool. By looking at a Flowchart one can understand the
operations and sequence of operations performed in a system. Flowchart
is often considered as a blueprint of a design used for solving a specific
problem.
Advantages of flowchart:

 Flowchart is an excellent way of communicating the logic of a

program.
 Easy and efficient to analyze problem using flowchart.
 During program development cycle, the flowchart plays the role of
a blueprint, which makes program development process easier.
 After successful development of a program, it needs continuous
timely maintenance during the course of its operation. The
flowchart makes program or system maintenance easier.
 It is easy to convert the flowchart into any programming language
code.
 Flowchart is diagrammatic /Graphical representation of sequence of steps
to solve a problem. To draw a flowchart following standard symbols are
use
Symbol Symbol function
Name

Used to represent
start and end of
Oval
flowchart

Parallelogr Used for input and

am output operation

Processing: Used for

arithmetic
Rectangle
operations and
data-manipulations

Decision making.
Used to represent
Diamond
the operation in
which there are
two/three
alternatives, true
and false etc

Flow line Used to

indicate the flow of
Arrows
logic by connecting
symbols

Circle Page Connector

Desktop Computer

A desktop computer is a personal computer designed for regular use at a

single location on or near a desk due to its size and power requirements.
Tower (Case)

The tower or case of a desktop computer is the cabinet that houses the
computer itself. Sometimes computer cases are horizontal to enable the user to
fit them on a shelf more easily. However, vertical towers are the typical
configuration for most desktops. Tower cases are usually made out of metal and
plastic. Some people keep the tower on an actual desktop, but it can also sit on
a bookshelf or even on the floor.

Motherboard

The motherboard might also be called the main board. The motherboard is the
primary circuit board of a computer. The motherboard supplies power to the
central processing unit and every other hardware component installed on a
computer. Through the motherboard, these components work together to
perform processes.

Processor

The processor of a computer is often called the CPU, or the central processing
unit. Think of the processor as the brains of the unit. This is the internal part of
the computer responsible for computing and calculating information. The
processor may be an integral part of the computer, but it is quite small in size.
The CPU fits snugly into its corresponding socket on the motherboard.

Memory (RAM)
RAM is an acronym that stands for “random access memory.” RAM may also be
called short-term memory. RAM enables a computer to execute processes.
Therefore, the more RAM a computer has, the more processes it can complete
at one time and the faster it can complete them. Any information contained in
the RAM disappears when the computer is turned off.

Hard Drive

The hard drive of a computer is the place where the system stores all programs
installed on the computer and all data entered into it. To use software, you must
install it on the computer’s hard drive. Once it’s there, the hard drive will
retrieve all information needed to run the program. Hard drives vary in capacity
and the speed at which they retrieve information.

Video Card

A video card might also be called a graphics card. The video card on a computer
makes it possible for images to display on the screen. The video card plugs into
the motherboard. Once installed, it generates images for display. Video cards
come with different specifications and capabilities. An inexpensive video card
may not produce high-quality graphics on a computer, while a more expensive
video card should make it possible to view images at a higher level. Anyone who
uses a computer to work with photographs or for gaming will need a high-
quality video card.

Optical Drive

Most desktop computers come equipped with at least one optical drive. The
optical drive of a computer is responsible for reading the contents on DVDs and
CDs. Optical drives perform this function with a special device that spins very
fast. Some optical drives spin faster than others: Slower-speed optical drives are
less expensive than higher-speed drives, though they do not work as well.

Monitor

The monitor consists of a screen that makes it possible to see data or programs
being executed on a computer. The resolution of a monitor refers to the clarity
and sharpness of the images it displays. Monitors of larger size and higher
resolution have higher prices. Some of the newer monitors even have touch-
screen technology, enabling the user to touch the screen to make selections.

Mouse
A mouse is a hand-held device that enables the user to move the cursor around
the computer screen. By moving the mouse on a flat surface, the pointer on the
screen can be moved. A mouse may have two or more buttons, which you use
to select and activate options on the computer screen. A single click of the left
button selects an item, while a double-click can open a file or a program.
Pressing and holding the left button enables you to select and move items on
the computer screen.

Keyboard

The keyboard plugs into the desktop computer. Entering text into the computer
is primarily achieved with the keyboard.

The keys on your keyboard can be divided into several groups based on
function:

 Typing (alphanumeric) keys. These keys include the same letter,

number, punctuation, and symbol keys found on a traditional typewriter.

 Control keys. These keys are used alone or in combination with other
keys to perform certain actions. The most frequently used control keys
are Ctrl, Alt, the Windows logo key , and Esc.

 Function keys. The function keys are used to perform specific tasks.
They are labelled as F1, F2, F3, and so on, up to F12. The functionality of
these keys differs from program to program.

 Navigation keys. These keys are used for moving around in documents
or webpages and editing text. They include the arrow keys, Home, End,
Page Up, Page Down, Delete, and Insert.

Numeric keypad. The numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers quickly.
The keys are grouped together in a block like a conventional calculator or
adding machine.

Numeric Data Representation

Data representation refers to the form in which data is stored, processed and
transmitted. Digital devices store data using the binary number system.

BITS AND BYTES

You can combine several bits (0s and 1s). If you combine 8 bits together, it is
called a ‘‘byte’’. A byte can represent any number between 0 (represented in
bits as 00000000) and 255 (represented in bits as 11111111).

DECIMAL NUMBERING SYSTEM (BASE 10)

The numbering system we use is called the decimal system because the prefix
‘deci’ means 10, and there are 10 numbers in the decimal system: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.

BINARY NUMBERING SYSTEM (BASE 2)

The prefix bi- means two (as in bicycle, biplane, or bilingual), so the binary
numbering system is a numbering system in which there are only two unique
values: 0 and 1.

CONVERTING FROM BINARY TO DECIMAL

Example: (10110.001)2
(10110.001)2=(1×24)+(0×23)+(1×22)+(1×21)+(0×20)+
(0×2-1)+(0×2-2)+(1×2-3)
(10110.001)2=(1×16)+(0×8)+(1×4)+(1×2)+(0×1)+
(0×1⁄2)+(0×1⁄4)+(1×1⁄8)
(10110.001)2=16+0+4+2+0+0+0+0.125
(10110.001)2=(22.125 )10
Decimal to Binary Conversion
Example 1: (152.25)10
Step 1:
Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 2.
 Operatio Quotie Remainde
n nt r

152/2 76 0 (LSB)

76/2 38 0

38/2 19 0

19/2 9 1

9/2 4 1

4/2 2 0

2/2 1 0

1/2 0 1(MSB)

(152)10=(10011000)2
Step 2:

Operatio Result carry

n
Now, perform the multiplication of 0.25
and successive 0.25×2 0.50 0 fraction with base 2.
(0.25)10=(.01)2
0.50×2 0 1

Representation of Characters in
Computer:

Representation of alphanumeric characters in bits 0 and 1 is done by character

codes. There are three widely used character codes:

 Binary Coded Decimal(BCD)

 American standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
 Unicode

Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

Binary-Coded Decimal, BCD is also known as packet decimal and is numbers 0
through 9 converted to four-digit binary. Below is a list of the decimal numbers
0 through 9 and the binary conversion.

Decimal BCD
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001

Using this conversion, the number 25, for example, would have a BCD number
of 0010 0101 or 00100101. However, in binary, 25 is represented as 11001.

BCD was used in some of the early digital computers, and the IBM System/360
series systems.

American standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)

ASCII codes represent text in computers, communications equipment, and other

devices that work with text. ASCII, pronounced “ask-ee” is the acronym
for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. ASCII
is computer code for the interchange of information between terminals.

An “ASCII file” is a data or text file that contains only characters coded from the
standard ASCII character set. Characters 0 through 127 comprise the Standard
ASCII Set and characters 128 to 255 are considered to be in the Extended ASCII
Set. These codes, however, may not be the same in all computers.

ASCII Text to Binary Conversion Example:

Conversion Wow!to binary using ASCII codes.

Step 1: Notice that the first letter is upper case and there is an
exclamation mark.
In the ASCII table, the capital letter W is assigned to the decimal
number 87,
o is assigned to 111,
w to 119 and the exclamation mark is to 33.
Step 2: Convert the decimal numbers 87, 11, 77 and 33 to binary.

For W:
87 = 64 + 16 + 4 + 2 + 1
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1

For o:
111 = 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 2 +1
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1

For w:
119 = 64 + 32 + 16 + 4 + 2 + 1
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1

For !:
33 = 32 + 1
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

Step 3: Therefore, the word Wow! is converted to binary as follows:

01010111 01101111 01110111 00100001

Unicode

It is a 16 bit code, proposed by international committee. With this code all the
symbols of all languages are represented. We can represent 65536 symbols
with Unicode. So far 58000+ symbols are indentified in the world

Error Detection Codes:

We know that the bits 0 and 1 corresponding to two different range of analog
voltages. So, during transmission of binary data from one system to the other,
the noise may also be added. Due to this, there may be errors in the received
data at other system.

That means a bit 0 may change to 1 or a bit 1 may change to 0. We can’t avoid
the interference of noise. But, we can get back the original data first by
detecting whether any errors is present and then correcting those errors. For
this purpose, we can use Error detection codes

Error detection codes − are used to detect the errors present in the received
data bitstream. These codes contain some bits, which are included/appended to
the original bit stream. These codes detect the error, if it is occurred during
transmission of the original data bitstream

Example − Parity code

Parity Code

It is easy to include append one parity bit either to the left of MSB or to the right
of LSB of original bit stream. There are two types of parity codes, namely even
parity code and odd parity code based on the type of parity being chosen.

Even Parity Code

The value of even parity bit should be zero, if even number of ones present in
the binary code. Otherwise, it should be one. So that, even number of ones
present in even parity code. Even parity code contains the data bits and even
parity bit.

The following table shows the even parity codes corresponding to each 3-bit
binary code. Here, the even parity bit is included to the right of LSB of binary
code.

Binary Code Even Parity bit Even Parity Code

000 0 0000

001 1 0011

010 1 0101

011 0 0110

100 1 1001

101 0 1010

110 0 1100

111 1 1111
Here, the number of bits present in the even parity codes is 4. So, the possible
even number of ones in these even parity codes are 0, 2 & 4.
If the other system receives one of these even parity codes, then there is no
error in the received data. The bits other than even parity bit are same as that
of binary code.

If the other system receives other than even parity codes, then there will be an
errors in the received data. In this case, we can’t predict the original binary
code because we don’t know the bit positions of error.

Therefore, even parity bit is useful only for detection of error in the received
parity code. But, it is not sufficient to correct the error.

Odd Parity Code

The value of odd parity bit should be zero, if odd number of ones present in the
binary code. Otherwise, it should be one. So that, odd number of ones present
in odd parity code. Odd parity code contains the data bits and odd parity bit.

The following table shows the odd parity codes corresponding to each 3-bit
binary code. Here, the odd parity bit is included to the right of LSB of binary
code.

Binary Code Odd Parity bit Odd Parity Code

000 1 0001

001 0 0010

010 0 0100

011 1 0111

100 0 1000

101 1 1011

110 1 1101

111 0 1110
Here, the number of bits present in the odd parity codes is 4. So, the possible
odd number of ones in these odd parity codes are 1 & 3.

If the other system receives one of these odd parity codes, then there is no
error in the received data. The bits other than odd parity bit are same as that of
binary code.

If the other system receives other than odd parity codes, then there is an
errors in the received data. In this case, we can’t predict the original binary
code because we don’t know the bit positions of error.

Therefore, odd parity bit is useful only for detection of error in the received
parity code. But, it is not sufficient to correct the error.
Input Units:

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a
computer −

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to
input data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional
typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for performing
additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with
104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

S.N Keys & Description

o

Typing Keys
1
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which
generally give the same layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad
2 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it
consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration
used by most adding machines and calculators.

3 Function Keys
 The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are
arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a
unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.

Control keys
4 These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four
directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert,
Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

5
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter,
Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control
device having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses
the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when
the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is
present between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of
the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages

 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on
a monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper
ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in
all four directions.
The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in
Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed
menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell
and an optical system placed in a small tube.
When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen
button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location
and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop
computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by
moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a
mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is
used when some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to
the hard disk of the computer for further manipulation.
Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a
digital form that can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before
they are printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form.
Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of
numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the
computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.
Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and
pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine
works of drawing and image manipulation applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital
form.
The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a
multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of
cheques to be processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque
number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains
particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The
main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.
OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a
machine readable code, and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form
of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods,
numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded
in a stationary scanner.
Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric
value, which is then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected
to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark
made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be
selected and marked.
It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having
multiple choice questions.
UNIT – II

Types of Storage and their characteristics/

Write about Computer memory

Storage Devices

 A storage device is used in the computers to store the data.

 It provides one of the core functions of the modern computer

Types of Storage

There are four type of storage:

• Primary Storage
• Secondary Storage
• Tertiary Storage
• Off-line Storage

Primary Storage
 It is known as main memory.
 Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing
unit via a memory bus.
 The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them
as required.
• Example: – RAM – ROM – Cache
RAM
It is called Random Access Memory because any of the data in RAM can
be accessed just as fast as any of the other data.
There are two types of RAM
DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
 SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
Static RAM:
 Faster
 More expensive
 More power consumption
 does not need to be refreshed.
Dynamic RAM:
 Slower
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
 needs to be refreshed thousands of times per second
ROM
This memory is used as the computer begins to boot up. Small programs
called firmware are often stored in ROM chips on hardware devices (like a
BIOS chip), and they contain instructions the computer can use in
performing some of the most basic operations required to operate
hardware devices. ROM memory cannot be easily or quickly overwritten
or modified
Cache
Cache is a high-speed access area that can be either a reserved section
of main memory or a storage device. Most computers today come with L3
cache or L2 cache, while older computers included only L1 cache.
Secondary Storage
It is not directly accessible by the CPU. • Computer usually uses its
input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfers the
desired data using intermediate area in primary storage.
Example:Hard disk
Hard Disk
The hard disk drive is the main, and usually largest, data storage device
in a computer. It can store anywhere from 160 gigabytes to 2 terabytes.
Hard disk speed is the speed at which content can be read and written on
a hard disk. A hard disk unit comes with a set rotation speed varying from
4500 to 7200 rpm. Disk access time is measured in milliseconds.

Tertiary Storage
 Typically it involves a robotic mechanism which will mount (insert) and
dismount removable mass storage media into a storage device. It is a
comprehensive computer storage system that is usually very slow, so it is
usually used to archive data that is not accessed frequently. •This is
primarily useful for extraordinarily large data stores, accessed without
human operators.
Examples: – Magnetic Tape – Optical Disc

Magnetic Tape
A magnetically coated strip of plastic on which data can be encoded.
Tapes for computers are similar to tapes used to store music. Tape is
much less expensive than other storage mediums but commonly a much
slower solution that is commonly used for backup.
Optical Disc
Optical disc is any storage media that holds content in digital format and
is read using a laser assembly is considered optical media. The most
common types of optical media are –
 Blu-ray (BD)
 Compact Disc (CD)
 Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)

Off-line Storage
Also known as disconnected storage. It is a computer data storage on a
medium or a device that is not under the control of a processing unit. It
must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer
can access it again.
Examples: – Floppy Disk – Zip diskette – USB Flash drive – Memory card
Storage Cell:
The Storage cell is the fundamental building block of computer memory. The
memory cell is an electronic circuit that stores one bit of binary information and
it must be set to store a logic 1 (high voltage level) and reset to store a logic 0
(low voltage level).
Properties of Ideal Storage Cell:

Physical Devices Used as Storage Cells:

A number of different physical devices are used to build storage cell in
computer system. Few of them are listed below:
Capacitor Storage Cell:
An electronic component that stores an electric charge and releases it when
required. The Capacitor Storage cell is used in DRAM construction. The capacitor
loses its content after some interval of time if it is not refreshed.

Flip flop Storage Cell

A flip-flop is a device which stores a single bit (binary digit) of data; one of its
two states represents a "one" and the other represents a "zero". Such data
storage can be used for storage of state, and such a circuit is described as
sequential logic in electronics.

Magnetic Storage Cell:

A Physical device is used as a storage cell in a magnetic field. The method is
shown below:
Polycarbonate Cell:
Seven Segment Display Decoder
An Example Display for 5

Semiconductor Memory (RAM and ROM)

Memory is the most essential element of a computing system because without it

computer can’t perform simple tasks. Computer memory is of two basic type –
Primary memory / Volatile memory and Secondary memory / non-volatile
memory. Random Access Memory (RAM) is volatile memory and Read Only
Memory (ROM) is non-volatile memory.
1. Random Access Memory (RAM) –
It is also called as read write memory or the main memory or the primary
memory.
The programs and data that the CPU requires during execution of a program are
stored in this memory.
It is a volatile memory as the data loses when the power is turned off.
RAM is further classified into two types- SRAM (Static Random Access
Memory) and DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory).

2. Read Only Memory (ROM) –

Stores crucial information essential to operate the system, like the program
essential to boot the computer.
It is not volatile.
Always retains its data.
Used in embedded systems or where the programming needs no change.
Used in calculators and peripheral devices.
ROM is further classified into 4 types- ROM, PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.
Types of Read Only Memory (ROM) –
PROM (Programmable read-only memory) – It can be programmed by user.
Once programmed, the data and instructions in it cannot be changed.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable read only memory) – It can be reprogrammed.
To erase data from it, expose it to ultra violet light. To reprogram it, erase all
the previous data.
EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read only memory) – The data
can be erased by applying electric field, no need of ultra violet light. We can
erase only portions of the chip.

What are computer storage devices (MAGNETIC & OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES)

The storage devices are useful to save or archive digital information according
to the user’s requirements. This data and files are stored in an organized way to
access it more easily. The information or data can be text files, videos,
programs, documents, images, and applications.
Characteristics of Secondary Storage Devices:
 The secondary memory is also called external or permanent memory.
 It is non-volatile memory but also a backup memory for the computer.
 Secondary memory is made up of magnetic and optical devices.
  Secondary memory stores the data permanently. Even if you have
switched off the power, it doesn’t lose the data.
 The processing speed is slower than the primary memory.
 A computer can work without a secondary memory but not without a
primary one.
1. USB Drive
 A USB drive is a small, light, ultra-portable storage device compatible with
Windows, Mac, and Linux.
 The pen drive, also known as a USB memory device, memory stick, USB flash drive, memory
unit, data stick, kitchen drive, thumb drive, USB keychain, USB stick, or a portable data storage
unit.
 The pen drive replaced floppy drives and became one of the most popular
portable data storage devices on the market. It is small, lightweight, practical,
and can be easily carried anywhere instead of an optical drive or a
traditional hard disk drive.
 These types of computer storage devices are used to store documents, photos,
music files, and videos. Its range is from 2 GB to 1 TB.
2.Hard Disk Drive
 The short form of the hard disk drive is HDD. A hard drive is a computer-
accessible storage device based on the made of magnetic recording
technology. They are used in the vast majority to store all types of small
or big files or data of computers, storing backup copies of data, like file
storage, etc., on our digital computer or Laptop.
 A round-shaped disk consists inside the hard disk; the disk rotates inside
the hard disk. The faster the speed of turns, the faster it can store or read
data.
 The speed of the hard disk is measured in terms of RPM, i.e.,
Revolution Per Minute. Most hard disks are of 5400 RPM or 7200 RPM;
obviously, the hard disk of 7200 RPM is much faster than the 5400 RPM.
 There are four types of Hard Disk drives.
1. PATA (Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment)
2. SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)
3. SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
3. Solid State Drive
  SSD stands for “Solid State Drive,” which is a computer storage devices
bit similar to a hard disk drive., but it has storage capacity more than a
hard disk and a more sophisticated device.
 It neither has a motor nor a spinning disk as a hard disk has. It uses the
integrated circuit memory made of semiconductor technology like
RAM, but it is used to store data permanently.
 Hard Disk read/ write the data with the help of a mechanical arm. In
contrast, an SSD does not have a mechanical arm, so an
embedded processor, also known as a Controller, is used to read and write
data. This difference makes SSD faster than HDD.
 The better quality of the controller will be of a good SSD for the
computers. Like flash and USB drives, and memory cards store the data,
SSD stores the data in the same way.
4. Memory Card
 A memory card is also known as a flash memory card or SD
Card (Secure Digital Card), is an external storage medium that allows us
to save and delete information. We use memory cards as secondary
storage for our devices to store data such as photos, videos, files, etc.
 A memory card is considered a small storage medium that is commonly
used for temporary storage. A memory card is a type of storage media
often used to store photos, videos, or other data in electronic devices.
 Devices that typically use memory cards include DSLR cameras,
smartphones, MP3 players, and printers. It is also used for small, portable,
and remote computer storage devices.
 The amount of storage capacity can vary depending on the type of
memory card. However, in general, most memory cards today range in
size from 4 GB (gigabytes) to 256 GB. These numbers will increase in
the future.
5. Optical Devices
 Optical devices are nothing but CD and DVD we were used to watching
videos and many more. Both are storage devices of computer are still
used to store data.
A. CD
 A ‘Compact Disc‘ is an abbreviated form of a CD. It is a flat, round,
optical storage medium used to store data like audio.
  They are made to replace the floppy disks used to store files and
programs from the computer. CDs eventually made floppy disks
obsolete.
 There are two sides of Compact Disc; one side contains the data, while on
the other side, there is a label made for reading data is in the disc. It is an
optical medium that saves our digital data.
 Discs can store up to 700 MB of data, which equates to approximately
80 minutes of audio.
 Mini-discs have also been recorded that can keep about 24 minutes of
audio or software drivers. Initially, CDs offered more data than a
computer’s hard drive, although, in modern technology, hard drives
outperform CDs by a mile.
B. DVD
 A complete form of DVD is “Digital Video Disc” or can “Digital Versatile
Disc.”
 DVDs are similar to CDs and are also optical storage devices. Before this,
videos and films were recorded on a Video CD (VCD), while some DVDs
are used to store software and computer files.
 Also, DVDs can be double-layer and double-sided, which significantly
increases the size of the drive. This allowed users to store data up
to 17.08 GB on a dual-layer, double-sided disc. A single-layer, the single-
sided disc contains approximately 4.7 GB of data.
 DVDs are in greater demand than CDs; they are used to record and store
all data formats (audio, video, images, and photos), images (img, iso).
However, after the DVD’s arrival, the market saw a massive reduction in
CDs’ demand.
6. Floppy Disk
 Floppy Disk is another storage device of a computer. The first floppy was
first created in 1969, this the same year that the Internet was launched.
 These magnetic disks are fragile and flexible enclosed in a square or
rectangular plastic casing. That’s why they are called floppy disks as well
as diskettes.
 The floppy disk stores a small amount of data. Earlier it used to be more
on the computer due to its low storage capacity they have been replaced
by CDs and flash memories that are small, portable.
  In the 70-90s, floppy disks played a much more critical role in computers,
but they lost the competition to CDs because the information capacity and
lifespan of optical discs were higher.
 The floppy disk was the primary portable storage medium for data and
programs before the CDs’ rise in popularity.
7. Magnetic Tape
 Magnetic tape is also a storage device similar to audio cassettes. It is like
the old-time audio case Magnetic Tape was primarily used to store a
large amount of audio data. They were cheap. Even today, it is used to
create a data backup.
 Magnetic tape has been an effective medium to store audio and binary
data storage for many years and is still part of some systems’ storage
devices.
 Magnetic tape is made of a thin and long plastic strip. A magnetic layer is
applied to it, and the data is saved to the layer which is needed to send
the tape to a coil to read, which by a process decodes the data present on
that tape.
 This tape was also used to store computer data. But these devices decline
in popularity after the arrival of hard disk drives in the market.

Hierarchy of computer memory devices (short question)

UNIT II PART II PENDING

 UNIT – III
Computer Network and its Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables

the computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources,
data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is

mainly of three types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN (Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a
small area such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs,
network adapters, and Ethernet cables.
 o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic
area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private
industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone
exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM,
ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.
WAN(Wide Area Network)
o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical
area such as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a
large geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or
satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government,
and education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or
country.
o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to
the customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the
44 offices. This network is made by using the telephone leased line
provided by the telecom company.

Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical

area. Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can
 connect with them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line
through which we can connect with another branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized.
Therefore, we do not need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server.
Therefore, the programmers get the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast.
The web application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to
communicate with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the
software and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this
gives the high bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer
rate which in turn increases the productivity of our company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to

LAN and MAN network as all the technologies are combined together that
creates the security problem.
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the
internet which can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall
needs to be used. Some people can inject the virus in our system so
antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it
involves the purchasing of routers, switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem
is difficult.

Network Topology

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and
logical topology.

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.

Bus Topology
The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are
connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable.

o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or

directly connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a
message over the network. All the stations available in the network will
receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard
networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other
topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the
message is broadcast to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access).

CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data
integrity is maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two
alternative ways of handling the problems that occur when two nodes send the
messages simultaneously.

o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to

detect the collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop
transmitting the data. Therefore, it works on "recovery after the
collision".
 o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used
to avoid the collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy
or not. If busy, then the sender waits until the media becomes idle. This
technique effectively reduces the possibility of the collision. It does not
work on "recovery after the collision".

Ring Topology
o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and
having no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is
passed from one node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing

o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to
computer until it reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination
address matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then
it sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
Star Topology
o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is
connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices
attached to the server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical
star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

Tree topology
o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star
topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are
connected with each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other
nodes are the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data
transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
Mesh topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers

are interconnected with each other through various redundant
connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as
a central point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where
communication failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

Hybrid Topology
o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid
topology.
 o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to
transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed
as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other
will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring
topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch
of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid
topology.

Transmission modes
o The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is
known as transmission mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and
transmission media provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission
mode is also known as a directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

o Simplex mode
o Half-duplex mode
o Full-duplex mode

Simplex mode
 o In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow
in one direction.
o A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the
data but cannot send the data.
o This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications
require the two-way exchange of data. The simplex mode is used in the
business field as in sales that do not require any corresponding reply.
o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the
listeners but never allows them to transmit back.
o Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a
keyboard can only accept the data from the user and monitor can only be
used to display the data on the screen.
o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the
communication channel can be utilized during transmission.

Advantage of Simplex mode:

o In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the
communication channel, so that more data can be transmitted at a time.

Disadvantage of Simplex mode:

o Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication
between devices.

Half-Duplex mode
o an a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can
transmit and receive the data as well.
o Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one
direction at a time.
o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if
any error occurs, then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the
data.
o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie,
one party speaks, and another party listens. After a pause, the other
speaks and first party listens. Speaking simultaneously will create the
distorted sound which cannot be understood.
Advantage of Half-duplex mode:
o In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and
also can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel during
the transmission of data.

Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another
has to wait, this causes the delay in sending the data at the right time.

Full-duplex mode

o In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data

flow in both the directions.
o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
o Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic
moving in one direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the
opposite direction.
o The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between
devices.
o The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone
network. When two people are communicating with each other by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.

Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

o Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.

Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

o If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity
of the communication channel is divided into two parts.

Internet
Internet is defined as an Information super Highway, to access information over
the web. However, It can be defined in many ways as follows:
  Internet is a world-wide global system of interconnected computer
networks.
 Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
 Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
 IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which
identifies a computer location.
 A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to
the IP Address so that user can locate a computer by a name.
 For example, a DNS server will resolve a
name http://www.amazon.in to a particular IP address to uniquely
identify the computer on which this website is hosted.
 Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

Evolution
The concept of Internet was originated in 1969 and has undergone several
technological & Infrastructural changes as discussed below:
 The origin of Internet devised from the concept of Advanced Research
Project Agency Network (ARPANET).
 ARPANET was developed by United States Department of Defense.
 Basic purpose of ARPANET was to provide communication among the
various bodies of government.
 Initially, there were only four nodes, formally called Hosts.
 In 1972, the ARPANET spread over the globe with 23 nodes located at
different countries and thus became known as Internet.
 By the time, with invention of new technologies such as TCP/IP protocols,
DNS, WWW, browsers, scripting languages etc.,Internet provided a
medium to publish and access information over the web.

Advantages
Internet covers almost every aspect of life, one can think of. Here, we will
discuss some of the advantages of Internet:

 Internet allows us to communicate with the people sitting at remote

locations. There are various apps available on the wed that uses Internet
as a medium for communication. One can find various social networking
sites such as:
o Facebook
 o Twitter
o Yahoo
o Google+
o Flickr
o Orkut
 One can surf for any kind of information over the internet. Information
regarding various topics such as Technology, Health & Science, Social
Studies, Geographical Information, Information Technology, Products etc
can be surfed with help of a search engine.
 Apart from communication and source of information, internet also serves
a medium for entertainment. Following are the various modes for
entertainment over internet.
o Online Television
o Online Games
o Songs
o Videos
o Social Networking Apps
 Internet allows us to use many services like:
o Internet Banking
o Matrimonial Services
o Online Shopping
o Online Ticket Booking
o Online Bill Payment
o Data Sharing
o E-mail
 Internet provides concept of electronic commerce, that allows the
business deals to be conducted on electronic systems

Disadvantages
However, Internet has proved to be a powerful source of information in almost
every field, yet there exists many disadvantages discussed below:

 There are always chances to lose personal information such as name,

address, credit card number. Therefore, one should be very careful while
sharing such information. One should use credit cards only through
authenticated sites.
  Another disadvantage is the Spamming.Spamming corresponds to the
unwanted e-mails in bulk. These e-mails serve no purpose and lead to
obstruction of entire system.
 Virus can easily be spread to the computers connected to internet. Such
virus attacks may cause your system to crash or your important data
may get deleted.
 Also a biggest threat on internet is pornography. There are many
pornographic sites that can be found, letting your children to use internet
which indirectly affects the children healthy mental life.
 There are various websites that do not provide the authenticated
information. This leads to misconception among many people.
IP address definition

An IP address is a unique address that identifies a device on the internet or a

local network. IP stands for "Internet Protocol," which is the set of rules
governing the format of data sent via the internet or local network.

In essence, IP addresses are the identifier that allows information to be sent

between devices on a network: they contain location information and make
devices accessible for communication. The internet needs a way to differentiate
between different computers, routers, and websites. IP addresses provide a way
of doing so and form an essential part of how the internet works.

What is an IP?

An IP address is a string of numbers separated by periods. IP addresses are

expressed as a set of four numbers — an example address might be
192.158.1.38. Each number in the set can range from 0 to 255. So, the full IP
addressing range goes from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.

IP addresses are not random. They are mathematically produced and allocated
by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), a division of the Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). ICANN is a non-profit
organization that was established in the United States in 1998 to help maintain
the security of the internet and allow it to be usable by all. Each time anyone
registers a domain on the internet, they go through a domain name registrar,
who pays a small fee to ICANN to register the domain.

Packet Switching
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is
sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent
individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are
given a unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source
address, destination address and sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as
possible.
 o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to
resend the message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment
message will be sent.

Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a
datagram, is considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains
the information about the destination and switch uses this information to
forward the packet to the correct destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Virtual Circuit Switching

o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established
before the messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection
between sender and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a

diagram:
o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1
and 2 are the nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection
between the sender and receiver.
o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the
receiver that the message has been received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the
termination.
Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit approach
Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approach

Node takes routing Node does not take any routing decision.
decisions to forward the
packets.

Congestion cannot occur Congestion can occur when the node is busy,
as all the packets travel and it does not allow other packets to pass
in different directions. through.

It is more flexible as all It is not very flexible.

the packets are treated
as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not

require massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is
minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet
switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This
ensures that the Packet Switching technique provides reliable
communication.
o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require
any established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use
the same communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of
available bandwidth very efficiently.

Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications

that require low delay and high-quality services.
o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and
requires high implementation cost.
 o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission
of lost packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors
are nor recovered.

DNS

An application layer protocol defines how the application processes running on

different systems, pass the messages to each other.

o DNS stands for Domain Name System.

o DNS is a directory service that provides a mapping between the name of a
host on the network and its numerical address.
o DNS is required for the functioning of the internet.
o Each node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a
sequence of symbols specified by dots.
o DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses. This
allows the users of networks to utilize user-friendly names when looking
for other hosts instead of remembering the IP addresses.
o For example, suppose the FTP site at EduSoft had an IP address of
132.147.165.50, most people would reach this site by specifying
ftp.EduSoft.com. Therefore, the domain name is more reliable than IP
address.

DNS is a TCP/IP protocol used on different platforms. The domain name space is
divided into three different sections: generic domains, country domains, and
inverse domain.

Generic Domains
o It defines the registered hosts according to their generic behavior.
o Each node in a tree defines the domain name, which is an index to the
DNS database.
o It uses three-character labels, and these labels describe the organization
type.

Label Description

aero Airlines and aerospace

companies

biz Businesses or firms

com Commercial Organizations

coop Cooperative business

Organizations

edu Educational institutions

gov Government institutions

info Information service providers

int International Organizations

mil Military groups

museu Museum & other nonprofit

m organizations

name Personal names

net Network Support centers

org Nonprofit Organizations

pro Professional individual

 Organizations

Country Domain
The format of country domain is same as a generic domain, but it uses two-
character country abbreviations (e.g., us for the United States) in place of three
character organizational abbreviations.
Future of Internet technology

HARDWARE & SOFTWARE

Computer Hardware
Several components in a computer working together are called hardware. It
consists of mechanical devices such as CPU, keyboard, mouse, speaker,
monitor, printer, hard disk and so on. All these devices can be touched and felt.
Computer Software
Computer software helps the computer to perform the task using programs. It is
generally a language that a computer understands.
Software is a set of programs that helps the user to interact with the
computer. Computer software and hardware go hand in hand. Without
hardware, the software cannot work and vice versa.
Different Types of Software
In the world of technology, we come across various software that help us to
make our lives easier and help our business grow. Software plays a very
important role in computer technology.
If there was no web browser software, we would not be able to access the
internet on our computer.
 System software – System software acts as a middle layer between the
user and a computer. They communicate with all the hardware
components in the computer and also control the CPU, memory and other
devices. When we switch on the computer the system software is the first
 application that gets initialized and hence it manages the entire computer
system. This system software is loaded in memory and keeps running in
the background. Two main types of system software are the Operating
system and utility software. Utility software is installed with an operating
system. Both software is dependent on each other and does not work
independently. Some of the utility software are compilers, editors and
drivers.
 Programming software – This software is usually used by computer
programmers. Most of the internet applications use Java or PHP as a
programming language. Using programming language all the software
programs and applications are developed and tested.
 Application software – Application software is generally used by the
end-users to perform any task. MS Word or Powerpoint applications are
designed for the user to write a document or prepare presentations. The
apps that we find out mobiles or tablets are all application software.
Software that is used in the banking domain, telephone, airline, railways,
software industries, etc comes under application software.
Some of the different types of hardware are –
 Input devices – With the help of these devices, data is provided to the
computer. They feed the data such as text, image, sound and helps in file
transfers between different devices and the computer.
 Output devices – This is a device that converts information to a human-
readable format. These devices are normally used for display. It extracts
the information from the computer and displays it to the user. The
monitor is the most prominent output device.
 Storage devices – These are the devices that help to store the data and
are further subdivided into primary and secondary memory.RAM (Random
Access Memory) is the primary memory and it retains data only when the
computer is switched on. All the instructions are read and executed from
the memory through the central processing unit and accelerated
processing unit. Secondary memory does not directly communicate with
the microprocessor. This type of memory is non-volatile and is subdivided
into two categories. They are
 Internal device – These devices are always placed on the computer. Eg –
Hard disk
 External device – These are external devices that are connected to the
computer using plug and play. Eg – External hard disk
 Internal components – These are the processing unit of the computer.
They are generally called as brain of the computer. They send signals to
all the other parts of the computer, thus controlling the entire computer
system. This is usually termed as CPU. (Central Processing Unit) CPU
consists of three components
 Memory or storage unit
 Control unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Examples of Computer Hardware and Software
Computer hardware consists of physical components in a computer and
examples are as follows –
 Input devices –Mouse, Keyboard, Touchpad, Scanners, Joystick, Webcam,
etc.
 Output devices – Monitor, Printer, Headphones, Speakers, etc.
 Storage devices – Hard disk, DVD, etc.
 Internal components – Motherboard, CPU, RAM, etc.
Following are the examples of Computer Software
 System software – Microsoft Windows XP, Windows 7, Windows Vista,
compilers, translators, interpreters, etc.
 Programming software – Android, Linux, C++, Java, Unix, etc.
 Application software – Word processors, Database software, Multimedia
software, Graphics software, etc.
OPERATING SYSTEM & ITS FUNCTIONS
An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and
computer hardware. An operating system is a software which performs all the
basic tasks like file management, memory management, process management,
handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk
drives and printers.
Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows
Operating System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.
Definition
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user
and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of
programs.

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management
 Processor Management
  Device Management
 File Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting
 Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users
Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main
Memory. Main memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or
byte has its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU.
For a program to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating
System does the following activities for memory management −
 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom,
what part are not in use.
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory
when and how much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been
terminated.
Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the
processor when and for how much time. This function is called process
scheduling. An Operating System does the following activities for processor
management −
 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible
for this task is known as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.
Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective
drivers. It does the following activities for device management −
 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as
the I/O controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
 Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.
File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and
usage. These directories may contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective
facilities are often known as file system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
  De-allocates the resources.
Other Important Activities
Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System
performs −
 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it
prevents unauthorized access to programs and data.
 Control over system performance − Recording delays between
request for a service and response from the system.
 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various
jobs and users.
 Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages,
and other debugging and error detecting aids.
 Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination
and assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other
software to the various users of the computer systems.
Types of Operating System
Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they
keep evolving with time. In this chapter, we will discuss some of the important
types of operating systems which are most commonly used.
Batch operating system
The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer
directly. Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and
submits it to the computer operator. To speed up processing, jobs with similar
needs are batched together and run as a group. The programmers leave their
programs with the operator and the operator then sorts the programs with
similar requirements into batches.
The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −
 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.
 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is
slower than the CPU.
 Difficult to provide the desired priority.
Time-sharing operating systems
Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various
terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing
or multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time
which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-
sharing.
The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-
Sharing Systems is that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the
objective is to maximize processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the
objective is to minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the
switches occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate
response. For example, in a transaction processing, the processor executes
each user program in a short burst or quantum of computation. That is,
if n users are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the user
submits the command, the response time is in few seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide
each user with a small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed
primarily as batch systems have been modified to time-sharing systems.
Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −
 Provides the advantage of quick response.
 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −
 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.
Distributed operating System
Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time
applications and multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among
the processors accordingly.
The processors communicate with one another through various communication
lines (such as high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred
as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. Processors in a
distributed system may vary in size and function. These processors are referred
as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.
The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −
 With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the
resources available at another.
 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially
continue operating.
 Better service to the customers.
 Reduction of the load on the host computer.
 Reduction of delays in data processing.
Network operating System
A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the
capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other
networking functions. The primary purpose of the network operating system is
to allow shared file and printer access among multiple computers in a network,
typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to other networks.
Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server
2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare,
and BSD.
The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −
 Centralized servers are highly stable.
 Security is server managed.
 Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into
the system.
 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of
systems.
The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −
 High cost of buying and running a server.
 Dependency on a central location for most operations.
 Regular maintenance and updates are required.
Real Time operating System
A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time
interval required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls
the environment. The time taken by the system to respond to an input and
display of required updated information is termed as the response time. So in
this method, the response time is very less as compared to online processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the
operation of a processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used
as a control device in a dedicated application. A real-time operating system
must have well-defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise the system will fail.
For example, Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial
control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.
Hard real-time systems
Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard
real-time systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is
stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual memory is almost never found.
Soft real-time systems
Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority
over other tasks and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time
systems have limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example,
multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea
exploration and planetary rovers, etc.

Types of Programming Languages:

There are basically two types of computer programming languages given below:
1. Low level language
2. High level language
Low Level Languages
The programming languages that are very close to machine code (0s and 1s)
are called low-level programming languages.
The program instructions written in these languages are in binary form.
The examples of low-level languages are:
 machine language
 assembly language
Machine Language
The instructions in binary form, which can be directly understood by the
computer (CPU) without translating them, is called a machine language or
machine code.
Machine language is also known as first generation of programming language.
Machine language is the fundamental language of the computer and the
program instructions in this language is in the binary form (that is 0's and 1's).
This language is different for different computers.
It is not easy to learn the machine language.
Advantage of Machine Language
The only advantage of machine language is that the program of machine
language runs very fast because no translation program is required for the CPU.
Disadvantage of Machine Language
Here are some of the main disadvantages of machine languages:
 Machine Dependent - the internal design of every computer is different
from every other type of computer, machine language also differs from
one computer to another. Hence, after becoming proficient in the machine
language of one type of computer, if a company decides to change to
 another type, then its programmer will have to learn a new machine
language and would have to rewrite all existing program.
 Difficult to Modify - it is difficult to correct or modify this language.
Checking machine instructions to locate errors is very difficult and time
consuming.
 Difficult to Program - a computer executes machine language program
directly and efficiently, it is difficult to program in machine language. A
machine language programming must be knowledgeable about the
hardware structure of the computer.
Assembly Language
It is another low-level programming language because the program instructions
written in this language are close to machine language.
Assembly language is also known as second generation of programming
language.
With assembly language, a programmer writes instructions using symbolic
instruction code instead of binary codes.
Symbolic codes are meaningful abbreviations such as SUB is used for substation
operation, MUL for multiply operation and so on. Therefore this language is also
called the low-level symbolic language.
The set of program instructions written in assembly language are also called as
mnemonic code.
Assembly language provides facilities for controlling the hardware.
Advantage of Assembly Language
Here are some of the main advantages of using assembly language:
 Easy to understand and use - due to the use of mnemonic instead of
numeric op-codes and symbolic names for data location instead of
numeric addresses, it is much easier to understand and use in contrast
with machine language.
 Easier to locate and correct errors - the programmers need not to
keep track of storage location of the data and instruction, fewer errors are
made while writing programs in assembly language and those that are
made, are easier to find and correct.
 Easy to modify - assembly language are easier to understand, it is easier
to locate, correct and modify instruction of an assembly language
program.
 Efficiency of machine language - an assembly language program will
be just as long as the resulting machine language program. Hence,
leaving out the translation time required by the assembler, the actual
execution time for an assembly language program and its equivalent
machine language program.
Disadvantage of Assembly Languages
And here are some of the main disadvantages of using assembly language:
 Machine dependent - each instructions of assembly language program
is translated into exactly one machine language instruction, an assembly
language programs are dependent on machine language.
  Knowledge of hardware required - assembly languages are machine
dependent, an assembly language programmer must have a good
knowledge of characteristics and logical structure of his/her computer to
write a good assembly language computer code.
 Machine level coding - assembly language instruction is substituted for
one machine language instruction. Hence like machine language
programs, write assembly language program is also time consuming and
difficult.
High Level Languages
The programming languages that are close to human languages (example like
English languages) are called the high-level languages.
The examples of high-level languages are:
 Fortran
 COBOL
 Basic
 Pascal
 C
 C++
 Java
The high level languages are similar to English language. The program
instructions are written using English words, for example print, input etc. But
each high level language has its own rule and grammar for writing program
instructions. These rules are called syntax of the language.
The program written in high level language must be translated to machine code
before to run it. Each high level language has its own translator program.
The high level programming languages are further divided into:
 Procedural languages
 Non procedural languages
 Object oriented programming languages
Classification of Programming Languages
We can classify the languages as follows:
 Machine languages, that are interpreted directly in hardware
 Assembly languages, that are thin wrappers over a corresponding
machine language
 High-level languages, that are anything machine-independent
 System languages, that are designed for writing low-level tasks, like
memory and process management
 Scripting languages, that are generally extremely high-level and
powerful
 Domain-specific languages, that are used in highly special-purpose
areas only
 Visual languages, that are non-text based
Machine Languages
Machine language is the direct representation of the code and data run directly
by a computing device. Machine languages feature:
 Registers to store values and intermediate results
 Very low-level machine instructions (add, sub, div, sqrt) which operate on
these registers and/or memory
 Labels and conditional jumps to express control flow
 A lack of memory management support — programmers do that
themselves
The machine instructions are carried out in the hardware of the machine, so
machine code is by definition machine-dependent. Different machines have
different instruction sets. The instructions and their operands are all just bits.
Machine code is usually written in hex. Here’s an example for the Intel 64
architecture
Assembly Languages
An assembly language is an encoding of machine code into something more
readable. It assigns human-readable labels (or names) to storage locations,
jump targets, and subroutine starting addresses, but doesn’t really go too far
beyond that. It’s really isomorphic to its machine language.
High-Level Languages
A high-level language gets away from all the constraints of a particular
machine. HLLs may have features such as:
 Names for almost everything: variables, types, subroutines, constants,
modules
 Complex expressions (e.g. 2 * (y^5) >= 88 &&sqrt(4.8) / 2 % 3 == 9)
 Control structures (conditionals, switches, loops)
 Composite types (arrays, structs)
 Type declarations
 Type checking
 Easy, often implicit, ways to manage global, local and heap storage
 Subroutines with their own private scope
 Abstract data types, modules, packages, classes
 Exceptions
System Languages
System programming languages differ from application programming
languages in that they are more concerned with managing a computer system
rather than solving general problems in health care, game playing, or finance. In
a system langauge, the programmer, not the runtime system, is generally
responsible for:
 Memory management
 Process management
 Data transfer
 Caches
 Device drivers
 Directly interfacing with the operating system
Scripting Languages
Scripting languages are used for wiring together systems and applications at a
very high level. They are almost always extremely expressive (they do a lot with
very little code) and usually dynamic (meaning the compiler does very little,
while the run-time system does almost everything).