1

Module 3 – Data Collection and Organization

Contents
1. Data collection methods
2. Collection of primary data
3. Secondary data
4. Data organization
5. Methods of data grouping
6. Diagrammatic representation of data
7. Graphic representation of data.

Methods of Data Collection

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research
design/
plan chalked out.
There are two types of data: primary and secondary.

The primary data are those which are collected fresh and for the first time, and thus happen to
be original in character.

The secondary data are those which have already been collected by someone else and which
have already been passed through the statistical process.

The researcher would have to decide which sort of data he would be using for his study and
accordingly he will have to select the method of data collection.

Collection of Primary Data

We collect primary data through observation or through direct communication with
respondents in one form or another or through personal interviews.

The observation method is the most commonly used method in studies relating to behavioural
sciences.

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 2

Here, Observation serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and

recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.

For instance, in a study relating to consumer behaviour, the investigator instead of asking the
brand of wrist watch used by the respondent, may himself look at the watch.

Advantages:
1. Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.
2. Information observed relates to what is currently happening; it is not complicated by
either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.
3. Independent of respondents’ willingness to respond.
4. suitable in studies which deal with respondents who are not capable of giving verbal
reports

Limitations:
1. Expensive method
2. Information provided is limited.
3. Unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task
4. Some people are rarely accessible to direct observation, creating an obstacle for
effective data collection.

The following aspects should be considered during data collection by Observation:

1. What should be observed?
2. How the observations should be recorded?
3. How the accuracy of observation can be ensured?

An Observation is called Structured Observation if it is characterised by

1. careful definition of the units to be observed
2. proper style of recording the observed information
3. standardised conditions of observation
4. selection of pertinent data of observation
Otherwise, the observation is called unstructured observation.

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 3

Structured observation is considered appropriate in descriptive studies.

Unstructured observation is considered appropriate in exploratory studies.

If the observer observes by making himself a member of the group he is observing so that he
can experience what the members of the group experience, the observation is called as the
participant observation.

When the observer observes without any attempt on his part to experience what the
participants feel, the observation called as non-participant observation.

When the observer is observing in such a manner that his presence may be unknown to the
people he is observing, such an observation is described as disguised observation.

The merits of the participant type of observation:

(i) The researcher is enabled to record the natural behaviour of the group.
(ii) The researcher can even gather information which could not easily be obtained if
he observes in a disinterested fashion.
(iii) The researcher can even verify the truth of statements made by informants in the
context of a questionnaire or a schedule.

Demerits of participant type of observation:

(i) the observer may lose the objectivity if he participates emotionally
(ii) the problem of observation-control is not solved
(iii) it may narrow-down the researcher’s range of experience.

If the observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving

experimental procedure, it is termed as controlled observation.

In controlled observation:
1. we use mechanical (or precision) instruments as aids to accuracy and standardisation.
2. has a tendency to supply formalised data upon which generalisations can be built with
some degree of assurance.
Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 4

3. The interpretation is subjective.

Controlled observation takes place in various experiments that are carried out in a laboratory
or under controlled conditions.

If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled
observation.

In non-controlled observation:
1. no attempt is made to use precision instruments.
2. The major aim is to get a spontaneous picture of life and persons.
3. It has a tendency to supply naturalness and completeness of behaviour, allowing
sufficient time for observing.

Uncontrolled observation is resorted to in case of exploratory researches.

Primary data may be obtained by applying any of the following methods:
1. Direct Personal Interviews.
2. Telephone Interviews.
3. Information from Correspondents.
4. Mailed Questionnaire Methods.
5. Schedule Sent Through Enumerators.

Interview Method
The interview method of collecting data can be used through personal interviews and, if
possible, through telephone interviews.

(a) Personal interviews: It requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions
generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons.
This sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation or it may be indirect
oral investigation.
He has to be on the spot and has to meet people from whom data have to be collected.
Most of the commissions and committees appointed by government to carry on investigations
make use of this method.
Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 5

The method of collecting information through personal interviews is usually carried out in a
structured way.
Such interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly
standardised techniques of recording.

The major advantages of personal interviews are:

(i) More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; the
interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population.
(iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions
is always there, specially in case of unstructured interviews.
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various
questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
(vi) Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the missing
returns; non-response generally remains very low.
(vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions. This is
not possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group discussions may also be
held.
(viii) The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most
spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used.
(ix) The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of the
person interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.
(x) The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s personal
characteristics and environment which is often of great value in interpreting results.

Drawbacks of Personal interview method are:

(i) It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread geographical
sample is taken.
(ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent;
there also remains the headache of supervision and control of interviewers.

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 6

(iii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in high
income groups may not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the data
may prove inadequate.
(iv) This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially when the sample is large and
recalls upon the respondents are necessary.
(v) The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes
even to the extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview
interesting.
(vi) Under the interview method the organisation required for selecting, training and
supervising the field-staff is more complex with formidable problems.
(vii) Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.
(viii) Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would facilitate
free and frank responses.

(b) Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in contacting

respondents on telephone itself.

It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys,
particularly in developed regions.

The chief merits of such a system are:

1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is relatively
low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; the non-response
is generally very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one
reason or the other.
9. No field staff is required.
Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 7

10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.

The demerits of Telephone interviews are:

1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview period is not likely to
exceed five minutes in most cases.
2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.
3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost considerations.
4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required to
various questions.
5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
6. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to handle.

Collection of data through questionnaires

This method of data collection is adopted by private individuals, research workers, private
and public organisations and even by governments.
In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a
request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire.
A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a
form or set of forms.
The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the
questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire
itself.
The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
5 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and
reliable.

The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:

1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often
indeterminate.
Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 8

2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.

3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once
questionnaires have been despatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to
certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

Researcher should note the following with regard to these three main aspects of a
questionnaire:
1. General form: It can either be structured or unstructured questionnaire.
2. Question sequence: A proper sequence of questions reduces considerably the chances of
individual questions being misunderstood. The question-sequence must be clear and
smoothly-moving, meaning thereby that the relation of one question to another should be
readily apparent to the respondent, with questions that are easiest to answer being put in the
beginning.
3. Question formulation and wording: Question should also be impartial in order not to give a
biased picture of the true state of affairs.

Collection of data through schedules

This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire,
with little difference that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled
in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.
These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from
the proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for
the same in the proforma.

Differences between questionnaires and schedules

1. The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as specified

in a covering letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the sender.

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 9

The schedule is generally filled out by the research worker or the enumerator, who can
interpret questions when necessary.

2. To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since we have to
spend money only in preparing the questionnaire and in mailing the same to respondents.
Here no field staff required.
To collect data through schedules is relatively more expensive
since considerable amount of money has to be spent in appointing enumerators and in
importing training to them.
Money is also spent in preparing schedules.
3. Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people do not respond and
many return the questionnaire without answering all questions.
As against this, non-response is generally very low in case of schedules because these are
filled by enumerators who are able to get answers to all questions. But there remains the
danger of interviewer bias and cheating.

4. In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of schedule the
identity of respondent is known.

5. The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since many respondents do not return
the questionnaire in time despite several reminders, but in case of schedules the information
is collected well in time as they are filled in by enumerators.

6. Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method as

questionnaires are sent to respondents by post who also in turn return the same by post.
But in case of schedules direct personal contact is established with respondents.

7. Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate and cooperative, but
in case of schedules the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to
be illiterate.

8. Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible under the questionnaire
method, but in respect of schedules there usually remains the difficulty in sending
Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 10

enumerators over a relatively wider area.

9. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more under the
questionnaire method, particularly when people are unable to understand questions properly.
But in case of schedules, the information collected is generally complete and accurate as
enumerators can remove the difficulties, if any, faced by respondents in correctly
understanding the questions.
As a result, the information collected through schedules is relatively more accurate
than that obtained through questionnaires.

10. The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the questionnaire itself,
but in the case of schedules much depends upon the honesty and competence of enumerators.

11. In order to attract the attention of respondents, the physical appearance of questionnaire
must be quite attractive, but this may not be so in case of schedules as they are to be filled
in by enumerators and not by respondents.

12. Along with schedules, observation method can also be used but such a thing is not
possible while collecting data through questionnaires.

Collection of secondary data

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have
already been collected and analysed by someone else.
When the researcher utilises secondary data, then he has to look into various sources from
where he can obtain them.
Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data.
Usually published data are available in:
(a) various publications of the central, state are local governments;
(b) various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their
subsidiary organisations;
(c) technical and trade journals;
(d) books, magazines and newspapers;

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 11

(e) reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry,
banks, stock exchanges, etc.;
(f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields;
(g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published
information.

The sources of unpublished data are :

Diaries
Letters
unpublished biographies
autobiographies
from scholars and research workers, trade associations, labour bureaus and other public/
private individuals and organisations.

Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data. He must make a minute scrutiny
because it is just possible that the secondary data may be unsuitable or may be inadequate in
the context of the problem which the researcher wants to study.

In this connection Dr. A.L. Bowley very aptly observes that it is never safe to take published
statistics at their face value without knowing their meaning and limitations and it is always
necessary to criticise arguments that can be based on them.

By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary data, must see that they possess
following characteristics:

1. Reliability of data: The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said
data:
(a) Who collected the data?
(b) What were the sources of data?
(c) Were they collected by using proper methods ?
(d) At what time were they collected?
(e) Was there any bias of the compiler?
(t) What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved ?
Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 12

2. Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be
found suitable in another enquiry.
Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should not be used by the
researcher.
In this context, the researcher must very carefully scrutinise the definition of various terms
and units of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the primary source
originally.
Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must also be studied.
If the researcher finds differences in these, the data will remain unsuitable for the present
enquiry and should not be used.

3. Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the
purpose of the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used
by the researcher.
The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may be either
narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.
The already available data should be used by the researcher only when he finds them reliable,
suitable and adequate.
But he should not blindly discard the use of such data if they are readily available from
authentic sources and are also suitable and adequate for in that case it will not be economical
to spend time and energy in field surveys for collecting information.

Data Organization
A systematically organized data is very important for future analysis. When you work with
data every day, its organization is obvious to you, but it may be hard to understand to others
who know nothing about the project.
A good logical system of data organization helps to share and exchange data. When deciding
how to organize your data, think about the nature of data. It is also possible to organize
chronologically, especially when you work with both real-time and historical data.

The data organization methods include:

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 13

1. Alphabetical organization
This is probably the first option that many people consider.
It is easy and fast to organize the data alphabetically.
However, data organization is not just for the purpose of storage of the information, but its
retrieval is important as well.
Organizing information by alphabetical order works excellently only if people know some
specific terms or topics that they are looking for. In such a case, accessing some particular
content will be more like ‘Taking a walk in the park’. Since you know that the topic you
are searching for begins with letter ‘T’, you will not have to waste time going through the
contents beginning with the other letters.
This method of data organization will be more or less useless if the individual does not know
the topic that they are looking for.

2. Location
Data can be organized by showing a visual depiction of some physical space.
Maps are the most common ways to organize information based on location.
Consider maps like those of some college campus or the shopping mall directories.
They give you a mental image of where a particular shop or lecture hall is located in relation
to another.
Organizing data based on location helps to show the relationships between the various types
of content that are relevant to each other.

3. Time (Chronological order)

If you want to find information in a chronological order, then organizing the information
based on the time it was created is the best method to use.
This method is fantastic because it can show you how things happen over a fixed period of
time.

4. Hierarchy
Hierarchies are beneficial when you want to show how one piece of information is related to
another one in the order of importance or their ranks.
They are used in organizational charts when you want to show who should report to whom in
a human resource department.
Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 14

They can also be used to show scale, for instance things like biggest to smallest or lightest to
heaviest.
You can organize the data in ascending or descending order although many people choose to
work with descending order.

5. Category
Categories are very useful for a variety of purposes, for example describing different types of
data that are being generated by an institution.
The problem with this method is that it is so broad compared to the other methods.
You can organize the data in just about any way imaginable- by color, gender, price, shape,
model etc. The options are infinite.

Data Grouping

We can group quantitative data into three different kinds of groups.

1. Single value grouping
2. Using qualitative characteristics
3. Using some commonly used numerical values

Single value grouping

In single value grouping each class has one distinct value. We can organize quantitative data
into a frequency distribution like the qualitative data was organized.

Grouped data are data formed by aggregating individual observations of a variable into
groups, so that a frequency distribution of these groups serves as a convenient means of
summarizing or analyzing the data.
The idea of grouped data can be illustrated by considering the following raw dataset:

Table 1: Time taken (in seconds) by a

group of students to
answer a simple math question

20 25 24 33 13

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 15

26 8 19 31 11

16 21 17 11 34

14 15 21 18 17

The above data can be grouped in order to construct a frequency distribution in any of several
ways. One method is to use intervals as a basis.

The smallest value in the above data is 8 and the largest is 34. The interval from 8 to 34 is
broken up into smaller subintervals (called class intervals).
For each class interval, the amount of data items falling in this interval is counted. This
number is called the frequency of that class interval.

The results are tabulated as a frequency table as follows:

Table 2: Frequency distribution of the time taken (in seconds) by the group of students
to answer a simple math question

2. Using qualitative characteristics

Another method of grouping the data is to use some qualitative characteristics instead of
numerical intervals.
For example, suppose in the above example, there are three types of students:
1) Below normal, if the response time is 5 to 14 seconds,
2) normal if it is between 15 and 24 seconds, and
3) above normal if it is 25 seconds or more, then the grouped data looks like:
Table 3: Frequency distribution of the
three types of students

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 16

Frequency

Below normal 5

Normal 10

Above normal 5

3.Using some commonly used numerical values

Some commonly used numerical values are in fact "names" we assign to the categories.
For example, let us look at the age distribution of the students in a class. The students may be
10 years old, 11 years old or 12 years old.
These are the age groups, 10, 11, and 12.
Note that the students in age group 10 are from 10 years and 0 days, to 10 years and 364 days
old, and their average age is 10.5 years old if we look at age in a continuous scale. The
grouped data looks like:
Table 4: Age distribution of a class of
students

Age Frequency

10 10

11 20

12 10
Mean of grouped data

An estimate, , of the mean of the population from which the data are drawn can be
calculated from the grouped data as:

In this formula, x refers to the midpoint of the class intervals, and f is the class frequency.
Note that the result of this will be different from the sample mean of the ungrouped data. The
mean for the grouped data in the above example, can be calculated as follows:
Class Intervals Frequency ( f ) Midpoint fx

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 17

(x)

5 and above, below 10 1 7.5 7.5

10 ≤ t < 15 4 12.5 50

15 ≤ t < 20 6 17.5 105

20 ≤ t < 25 4 22.5 90

25 ≤ t < 30 2 27.5 55

30 ≤ t < 35 3 32.5 97.5

TOTAL 20 405

Thus, the mean of the grouped data is

The mean for the grouped data in example 4 above can be calculated as follows:
Midpoint
Age Group Frequency ( f ) fx
(x)

10 10 10.5 105

11 20 11.5 230

12 10 12.5 125

TOTAL 40 460
Thus, the mean of the grouped data is

Diagrammatic Representation of Data

An attractive representation of statistical data is provided by charts, diagrams and pictures.

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 18

Diagrammatic representation can be used for both the educated section and uneducated
section of the society. Furthermore, any hidden trend present in the given data can be noticed
only in this mode of representation.

However, compared to tabulation, this is less accurate. So if there is a priority for accuracy,
we have to recommend tabulation.

We are going to consider the following types of diagrammatic representation :

1. Bar diagram
2. Component Bar Charts
3. Comparative Bar Charts or Multiple Bar Charts
4. Pie chart
5. Pictogram Chart

Bar diagram
There are two types of bar diagrams namely, Horizontal Bar diagram and Vertical
bar diagram.
While horizontal bar diagram is used for qualitative data or data varying over space, the
vertical bar diagram is associated with quantitative data or time series data.

Bars i.e. rectangles of equal width and usually of varying lengths are drawn
either horizontally or vertically.

Bar diagrams for comparing different components of a variable and also the relating of the
components to the whole. For this situation, we may also use Pie chart or Pie diagram or
circle diagram.

Example :
The total number of runs scored by a few players in one-day match is given.

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 19

Solution :

Component bar charts

Example: the quantity of guests from different nationalities in a hotel, broken down into the
different age groups.

To diagrammatically represent this you can split each bar into three different sections, where
the length of each section represents the number of guests in that age group.

The resulting bar chart would then be a component bar chart, as shown in Figure. Notice
that a key (or ‘legend’) has been added to the graph to explain the shading for the different
age categories.

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 20

When you read a component bar chart, you need to find the height of the relevant section to
determine the quantity that it represents.
For instance, the top of the section representing British adults is opposite the 10 on the
vertical scale. The bottom of that section is opposite the 4. Thus, the number of British adults
is the difference between the top and the bottom of the section, which is 6.

Comparative bar charts or Multiple bar charts

A comparative bar chart places bars representing sections from the same category adjacent to
each other. This allows for a quick visual comparison of the data.
For example, another way of categorising the data that you have been working with so far
would be to split each nationality into the number of females and males. The resulting
comparative bar chart would be as shown in Figure.

It is easy to see why this is called a comparative bar chart, as it is straightforward to compare
the data – for example it is easy tell that many more visitors from Britain were female.

Pie chart
In a pie chart, the various observations or components are represented by the sectors of a
circle and the whole circle represents the sum of the value of all the components.

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 21

Clearly, the total angle of 360° at the center of the circle is divided according to the values of
the components .

The central angle of a component is = [ Value of the component / Total value] x 360°

Sometimes, the values of the components are expressed in percentages. In such cases,
The central angle of a component is = [ Percentage value of the component / 100 ] x 360°

Pie chart - Example

The number of hours spent by a school student on various activities on a working day, is
given below. Construct a pie chart using the angle measurement.

Draw a pie chart to represent the above information.

Solution :
The central angle of a component is = [ Value of the component / Total value] x 360°
We may calculate the central angles for various components as follows :

From the above table, clearly, we obtain the required pie chart as shown below.

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 22

Pictogram Chart
Also known as Pictograph Chart, Pictorial Chart, Pictorial Unit Chart, Picture Graph.

Pictogram Charts use icons to give a more engaging overall view of small sets of discrete
data.
Typically, the icons represent the data’s subject or category, for example, data on population
would use icons of people. Each icon can represent one unit or any number of units (e.g. each
icon represents 10).

Data sets are compared side-by-side in either columns or rows of icons, to compare each
category to one another.
The use of icons can sometimes help overcome differences in language, culture and
education. Icons can also give a more representational view of the data.
So for example, if your data is of 5 cars, you show 5 icons of cars in the chart.
Two things to avoid when using Pictogram Charts are:
Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 23

Using them for large data sets, this makes values on the chart hard to count.
Displaying partial icons, as this can add confusion to what they represent.

Graphical Representation of Data

Graphical Representation is a way of analyzing numerical data.

It exhibits the relation between data, ideas, information and concepts in a diagram.
It is easy to understand and it is one of the most important learning strategies.
In Mathematics, a graph is a chart with statistical data that are represented in the form of
curves or lines drawn across the coordinate point plotted on its surface.
It helps to study the relationship between two variables where it helps to measure the change
of amount of variable with respect to another variable within a given interval of time.
It helps to study the series distribution and frequency distribution for a given problem.
General Rules for Graphical Representation of Data
There are certain rules to effectively present the data and information in the graphical
representation. They are:
 Suitable Title: Make sure that the appropriate title is given to the graph which
indicates the subject of the presentation.
 Measurement Unit: Mention the measurement unit in the graph
 Proper Scale: To represent the data in an accurate manner, choose a proper scale.
 Index: Index the appropriate colours, shades, lines, design in the graphs for better
understanding

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 24

 Data Sources: Include the source of information wherever it is necessary at the bottom
of the graph.
 Keep it Simple: Construct a graph in an easy way that everyone can understand.
 Neat: Choose the correct size, lettering, colours etc in such a way that the graph
should be a visual aid for the presentation of information.

Merits of Using Graphs

 The graph is easily understood by everyone without any prior knowledge.
 It saves time
 It allows to relate and compare the data for different time periods
 It is used in statistics to determine the mean, median and mode for different data, as
well as in interpolation and extrapolation of data.
 The graph presents data in a manner which is easier to understand.
 It allows us to present statistical data in an attractive manner as compared to tables.
Users can understand the main features, trends, and fluctuations of the data at a glance.
 A graph saves time.
 It allows the viewer to compare data relating to two different time-periods or regions.
 The viewer does not require prior knowledge of mathematics or statistics to understand
a graph.
 We can use a graph to locate the mode, median, and mean values of the data.
 It is useful in forecasting, interpolation, and extrapolation of data.
Limitations of a Graph
 A graph lacks complete accuracy of facts.
 It depicts only a few selected characteristics of the data.
 We cannot use a graph in support of a statement.
 A graph is not a substitute for tables.
 Usually, laymen find it difficult to understand and interpret a graph.
 Typically, a graph shows the unreasonable tendency of the data and the actual values are
not clear.
Types of Graphs
Graphs are of two types:
1. Time Series graphs
2. Frequency Distribution graphs
Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 25

Time Series graphs are Line graphs.

Line graph
Linear graphs are used to display the continuous data and it is useful for predicting the future
events over time.
We use Multiple line chart for representing two or more related time series data expressed in
the same unit and multiple – axis chart in somewhat similar situations, if the variables are
expressed in different units.
When the time series exhibit a wide range of fluctuations, we may think of logarithmic or
ratio chart where "Log y" and not "y" is plotted against "t".

Line graph - Example

The profits in thousands of dollars of an industrial house for 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006,
2007 and 2008 are 5, 8, 9, 6, 12, 15 and 24 respectively. Represent these data using a suitable
diagram.

Solution :
We can represent the profits for 7 consecutive years by drawing either a line diagram as given
below.
Let us consider years on horizontal axis and profits on vertical axis.

Frequency distribution graphs are represented in four methods, namely

1. Histograms
2. Frequency Polygon

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 26

3. Frequency Curve
4. Cumulative Frequency Curves

Histogram
This graph uses bars to represent the frequency of numerical data that are organised into
intervals. Since all the intervals are equal and continuous, all the bars have the same width.
A two dimensional graphical representation of a continuous frequency distribution is called a
histogram.
In histogram, the bars are placed continuously side by side with no gap between adjacent
bars.
That is, in histogram rectangles are erected on the class intervals of the distribution. The areas
of rectangle are proportional to the frequencies.
Histogram - Example
Example 1 :
Draw a histogram for the following table which represent the marks obtained by 100 students
in an examination :

Solution :
The class intervals are all equal with length of 10 marks.
Let us denote these class intervals along the X-axis.
Denote the number of students along the Y-axis, with appropriate scale.
The histogram is given below.

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 27

Frequency polygon
Here are the steps to follow for finding the frequency distribution of a frequency polygon and
it is represented in a graphical way.
 Obtain the frequency distribution and find the midpoints of each class interval.
 Represent the mid points along X-axis and frequencies along Y-axis.
 Plot the points corresponding to the frequency at each mid point.
 Join these points, using lines in order.
 To complete the polygon, join the point at each end immediately to the lower or
higher class marks on the X-axis.

Draw the frequency polygon for the following data

Class 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90

Interval

Frequency 4 6 8 10 12 14 7 5

Solution :
Mark the class interval along x – axis and frequency along y – axis.
Let assume that class interval 0-10 with frequency zero and 90-100 with frequency zero.
Now calculate the midpoint of the class interval.

Class Intervals Midpoints Frequency

0-10 5 0

10-20 15 4

20-30 25 6

30-40 35 8

40-50 45 10

50-60 55 12

60-70 65 14

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 28

70-80 75 7

80-90 85 5

90-100 95 0

Frequency Curve
When you join the verticals of a polygon using a smooth curve, then the resulting figure is a
Frequency Curve. It is a limiting form of a histogram or frequency polygon. The frequency-
curve for a distribution can be obtained by drawing a smooth and free hand curve through the
mid-points of the upper sides of the rectangles forming the histogram. A frequency-curve is a
smooth curve for which the total area is taken to be unity.
As the number of observations increase, we need to accommodate more classes. Therefore, the
width of each class reduces. In such a scenario, the variable tends to become continuous and the
frequency polygon starts taking the shape of a frequency curve.

Cumulative Frequency Curve or Ogive

A cumulative frequency curve or Ogive is the graphical representation of a cumulative
frequency distribution. Since a cumulative frequency is either of a ‘less than’ or a ‘more than’
type, Ogives are of two types too – ‘less than ogive’ and ‘more than ogive’.
Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 29

What is Cumulative Frequency?

The frequency is the number of times an event occurs within a given scenario. Cumulative
frequency is defined as the running total of frequencies. It is the sum of all the previous
frequencies up to the current point. It is easily understandable through a Cumulative Frequency
Table.

Frequency
Marks Cumulative Frequency
(No. of Students)

0–5 2 2

5 – 10 10 12

10 – 15 5 17

15 – 20 5 22

Cumulative Frequency is an important tool in Statistics to tabulate data in an organized manner.

Whenever you wish to find out the popularity of a certain type of data, or the likelihood that a
given event will fall within certain frequency distribution, a cumulative frequency table can be
most useful.
Say, for example, the Census department has collected data and wants to find out all residents in
the city aged below 45. In this given case, a cumulative frequency table will be helpful.
Cumulative Frequency Curve

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 30

A curve that represents the cumulative frequency distribution of grouped data on a graph is
called a Cumulative Frequency Curve or an Ogive. Representing cumulative frequency data on a
graph is the most efficient way to understand the data and derive results.

There are two types of Cumulative Frequency Curves (or Ogives) :

 More than type Cumulative Frequency Curve
 Less than type Cumulative Frequency Curve

More Than Type Cumulative Frequency Curve

Here we use the lower limit of the classes to plot the curve.
How to plot a More than type Ogive:
1. In the graph, put the lower limit on the x-axis
2. Mark the cumulative frequency on the y-axis.
3. Plot the points (x,y) using lower limits (x) and their corresponding Cumulative frequency
(y)
4. Join the points by a smooth freehand curve. It looks like an upside down S.

Less Than Type Cumulative Frequency Curve

Here we use the upper limit of the classes to plot the curve.
How to plot a Less than type Ogive:
1. In the graph, put the upper limit on the x-axis
2. Mark the cumulative frequency on the y-axis.
3. Plot the points (x,y) using upper limits (x) and their corresponding Cumulative frequency
(y)
4. Join the points by a smooth freehand curve. It looks like an elongated S.

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad
 31

Prepared By
Dr.Swapna Raghunath,
Department of ECE,
GNITS, Hyderabad