Review of

EXistential
Psychology &
Psychiatry

Vol. XIX, no. 1 1984-85

DREAM AND EXISTENCE

EDITOR'S FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Keith Hoeller

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19
Forrest Williams

DREAM, IMAGINATION, AND EXISTENCE . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Michel Foucault (Translated by Forrest Williams)

DREAM AND EXISTENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Ludwig Binswanger (Translated by Jacob Needleman)

CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Preparation of this book was aided by a grant from the Publications
Program of the National Endowmentfor the Humanities, an independent
federal agency.

© Copyright 1986 by Keith Hoeller

 Editor's Foreword
KEITH HOELLER

I belong to that generation who as students had before their eyes, and
were limited by, a horizon consisting of Marxism, phenomenology, and
existentialism . . . at the time I was working on my book about the history
of madness [Madness & Civilization]. I was divided between existential
psychology and phenomenology, and my research was an attempt to
discover the extent these could be defined in historical terms. 1

Michel Foucault
September, 1984

While the names of Michel Foucault and Ludwig Binswanger are

familiar to the readers of the Review of Existential Psychology & Psychi-
atry, the linking of their names together as co-authors of a single volume
is likely to come as a surprise-not only to you-but to many others as
well. Naturally, the Binswanger pole of the conjunction needs little expla-
nation. Binswanger was of course a pioneer Swiss psychiatrist in existential
analysis (Daseinsanalyse), colleague of Sigmund Freud and Martin
Heidegger, and author of the first work in existential psychiatry to be
written under the influence of Heidegger's Being and Time: (1927):2
"Dream and Existence" (1930).3
But with Michel Foucault it is another matter. It is true of course
that the first of his books to appear in English, Madness and Civilization,4
was published in R. D. Laing's series, Studies in Existentialism and
Phenomenology, with an Introduction by David Cooper, inventor of the
term "anti-psychiatry." Foucault's book originally appeared in 1961, an
important year for existential psychiatry and other alternatives to traditional
psychiatric approaches. Both Thomas Szasz' The Myth of Mental Illness~
and Laing's Self and Others6 were published in 1961. In this same year,
the Review of Existential Psychology & Psychiatry published its first
volume, which included essays by Viktor Frankl, Paul Tillich, Rollo May,
Adrian Van Kaam, F. 1. Buytendijk, Leslie Farber, and Carl Rogers.
Given this fertile intellectual climate, it is not at all surprising that Laing
and Cooper should find a kindred spirit in Foucault and his "history of
madness," as is evidenced by the following passage from Cooper's Intro-
duction:

Recent psychiatric-or perhaps anti-psychiatric-research into the origins

of the major form of madness in our age, schizophrenia, has moved round
to the position that people do not in fact go mad, but are driven mad by
others who are driven into the position of driving them mad by a peculiar
convergence of social pressures. The social pressures, hinted at by
Foucault, are mediated to certain selected individuals by their families-
themselves selected by processes that are intelligible-through various
mystifying and confusing maneuvers.'

7
8 Keith Hoeller

Certainly, what Foucault's book has in common with the thought of

Laing and Cooper, or for that matter, even with Szasz' approach, is that
so-called "mental illness" is not understood as an isolated, intrapsychic
entity existing merely within the individual patient. Rather, in order to
write the history of madness, one must put the patient back into a world
again and write the history of madmen and society, patients and doctors.
In other words, what all these critics of psychiatry have in common is the
Heideggerean notion that human beings are always constituted by the
concept of "being-in-the-world," and that "madness" is a societal event
which occurs between people who may in fact have conflicting values and
goals. As Foucault makes clear in his Preface to Madness and Civilization,
it is his purpose to return to the original schism between madness and society:

None of the concepts of psychopathology, even and especially in the

implicit process of retrospections, can play an organizing role. What is
constitutive is the action that divides madness, and not the science elabo-
rated once this division is made and calm restored ... As for a common
language, there is no such thing; or rather, there is no such thing any
longer; the constitution of madness as a mental illness, at the end of the
eighteenth century, affords the evidence of a broken dialogue, posits the
separation as already effected, and thrusts into oblivion all those stam-
mered, imperfect words without fixed syntax in which the exchange
between madness and reason was made. The language of psychiatry,
which is a monologue of reason about madness, has been established
only on the basis of such a silence. I have not tried to write the history
of that language, but rather the archaeology of that silence.'

Precisely what Foucault is concerned with is what he will later call,

"a historical knowledge of struggles. "9 In a 1977 interview, he says,

When I was studying during the early 1950's, one of the great problems
that arose was that of the political status of science and the ideological
functions which it could serve .... These [problems) can all be summed
up in two words: power and knowledge. I believe I wrote Madness &
Civilization to some extent within the horizon of these questions. 10

These questions of power and knowledge, and the political status of psy-
chiatry as a science, are all questions which Foucault shares in common
with the existential psychiatrists and with Szasz. However, Madness and
Civilization, Foucault's doctoral thesis, does not explicitly invoke existen-
tialism and phenomenology, and certainly does not abound with references
to Kierkegaard, Husserl, Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty, and Sartre. One finds
only passing reference to the German poet, Friedrich Holderlin, about
whom Heidegger has written so much, and to Nietzsche. This is in spite
of the fact that, as Foucault himself has admitted in the interview cited
at the beginning of this Foreword, he was steeped in the tradition of
existentialism and phenomenology. II This is even more surprising when
 EDITOR'S FOREWORD 9

one realizes that there is a stage in Foucault's intellectual development,

indeed, the very first stage, in which existential and phenomenological
psychiatry are explicitly invoked to characterize his work. This stage in
the development of his thought has remained relatively unknown. While
the studies by Sheridan 12 and Dreyfus and Rabinow 13 notably refer to this
early stage in their Introductions, like most works on Foucault, they begin
their commentaries in earnest with Madness and Civilization.
This stage is characterized by Foucault's first two published works:
"Dream, Imagination, and Existence" and Mental Illness and Psychology. 14
80th of these works appeared in 1954, and both can be characterized as
studies in existential psychiatry. Foucault's first book, for example, Mental
Illness and Psychology, claims "phenomenological psychology" as the
method for understanding "mental illness," and quotes Jaspers, Min-
kowski, Heidegger, and Binswanger. In the culminating chapter of the
first part of the book, which, echoing Binswanger's essay "Dream and
Existence," is entitled "Mental Illness and Existence," Foucault writes:

The understanding of the sick consciousness and the reconstitution of its

pathological world, these are the two tasks of a phenomenology of mental
illness. "

This book, which was originally published in 1954, and which was
Nuhstantially revised for a second edition in 1962, concludes with a second
part. In this second part, published in 1962, Foucault explicitly states the
results of Madness and Civilization, and indeed the words express a con-
clusion in agreement with Szasz' work, The Myth of Mental Illness: 16

The preceding analyses have fixed the coordinates by which psychologies

can situate the pathological fact. But although they showed the forms of
appearance of the illness, they have been unable to show its conditions
of appearance. It would be a mistake to believe that organic evolution,
psychological history, or the situation of man in the world may reveal
these conditions .... But the roots of the pathological deviation, as such,
are to be found elsewhere .... mental illness has its reality and its value
qua illness only within a culture that recognizes it as such .... The analyses
of our psychologists and sociologists, which tum the patient into a deviant
and which seek the origin of the morbid in the abnormal, are, therefore,
above all a projection of culture themes. 17

In other words, "mental illness" is not in fact an "illness" like any other;
rather, it is a relation between self and other:

When a doctor thinks he is diagnosing madness as a phenomenon of

nature, it is the existence of this threshold that enables him to make such
a judgment. ... But there is nothing to compel a diagnosis of "mental"
illness .... 1 have purposefully not referred to the physiological and
to Keith Hoeller

anatomicopathological problems concerning mental illness ... neither

psychology nor therapeutics can become those absolute viewpoints from
which the psychology of mental illness can be reduced or suppressed. I'

The titles of the two parts of the 1962 version of Menta/Illness and
Psychology bear out the evolution in Foucault's viewpoint from 1954 to
1961. The first part (1954), in which phenomenological psychology is
put to work, is entitled "The Psychological Dimensions of Mental Illness,"
while the second part (1962) is called "Madness and Culture." The move-
ment is one from a concentration on the world of the individual subject,
on the history of the individual, to a focus on the subject's relation to
society and the relation between madness and civilization historically. In
other words, one cannot study the individual's history alone and reach
any valid conclusions. One must situate the individual historically and
societally:

In fact, it is only in history that one can discover the sole concrete a
priori from which mental illness draws, with the empty opening up of
its possibility, its necessary figures. 19

Thus the need for an historical account of madness such as Madness and
Civilization.
In the 1984 interview in which Foucault indicates his being tom
between existential psychology and phenomenology while writing Mad-
ness and Civilization, he says "my research was an attempt to discover
the extent these could be defined in historical terms. "20 He goes on to
immediately say, "That's when I discovered that the subject would have
to be defined in other terms than Marxism or phenomenology. "21 All of
this would seem to indicate that in Foucault's discovery of the importance
of history, he felt that phenomenology concentrated on the individual
subject and could not lead him over to a historical determination of the
role of madness, which would explain why Madness and Civilization does
not explicitly invoke phenomenology or the phenomenologists. That
Foucault holds this view of phenomenology is further confirmed by a
1977 interview on 'Truth and Power," where he says:

But this historical contextualization needed to be something more than

the simple reIativisation of the phenomenological subject. I don't believe
the problem can be solved by historicizing the subject as posited by the
phenomenologists, fabricating a subject that evolves through the course
of history. One has to dispense with the constituent subject, to get rid of
the subject itself, that's to say, to arrive at an analysis which can account
for the constitution of the subject within a historical framework. And this
is what I would call genealogy, that is, a form of history which can
account for the constitution of knowledges, discourses, domains of
objects, etc., without having to make reference to a subject which is
 EDITOR'S FOREWORD 11

either transcendental in relation to the field of events or runs in its empty

sameness throughout the course of history. 22

This quotation gives rise to an obvious question: When Foucault links

phenomenology to the subject, in particular to a constituent, transcend-
ental, almost ahistorical subject, precisely whose phenomenology does he
have in mind? It is clear that it could not be Heidegger's version of
phenomenology, since it was the central task of Being and Time to dispense
with the "subject" and to ground Dasein in a historical world. I also do
not think it would apply to Boss' conception of Daseinsanalysis, which
follows Heidegger rather closely. And clearly Laing and Cooper had no
difficulty in recognizing the importance of the historical aspect of madness
in society. I would submit that the above quotation sounds like Foucault
still retained a rather HusserIian notion of phenomenology and
phenomenological psychology, which did not get beyond Husserl's
phenomenological reduction. Let me just sight one passage from HusserI's
Phenomenological Psychology:

And the phenomenological epoche "switches" this off in its entirety-

therefore also personal mentality in its existence in the natural world. It
reduces all that to its phenomenality and takes its own position not in the
world, but in the subjectivity .... The disclosure of pure subjectivity: the
actual execution of the indications begun in the lecture would include the
entire doctrine of constitution, but resting on that and gradually becoming
detached from it, a universal doctrine of the structures of individual
subjectity and intersubjectivity. 23

To be sure, even for HusserI there was to be a transition to intersubjectivity

and from a psychological to a transcendental-phenomenological reduction:
"the fundamental science then becomes transcendental phenomenology,
It psychology of the highest sense, a new sense which includes all critique
of reason and all genuine philosophical problems. "24 How successful Hus-
serl was at making this transition is still being debated.
One thing is clear, however: phenomenological psychology, as con-
ceived by HusserI, brackets out all the things that Foucault wants to
include, such as power and history. While it is true that Foucault knew
Husserl's thought well, how is it nevertheless possible that, after having
!Itudied Binswanger so thoroughly, he could still retain a HusserIian notion
of phenomenological psychology? After all, Binswanger was the first to
attempt to found a psychology on Heidegger's philosophy.
I think the answer lies in the philosophically ambivalent nature of
the Binswangerian enterprise. In a masterful essay entitled, "Ludwig
Binswanger and the Sublimation of the Self," the literary critic Paul de
Man argues that Binswanger is confronted with a problem when he attempts
to apply ontological insights to a particular ontic case:
12 Keith Hoeller

A certain degree of confusion arises when this knowledge is interpreted

as a means to act upon the destiny that the knowledge reveals. This is
the moment at which the ontological inquiry is abandoned for empirical
concerns that are bound to lead it astray."

De Man goes on to say that Binswanger is most at home with the description
of individual clinical cases, and even his more general attempts to outline
such ontological dimensions as "falling" remain less substantial than, for
example, Heidegger's discussions. This shows itself especially in cases
involving artists and the role of the imagination:

[Binswanger] sees the imagination as an act of the individual will that

remains determined, in its deepest intent, by a transcendental moment
that lies beyond our own volition; in this, he stays within the main tradition
of the leading theories of the imagination. But he fails to pursue the
philosophical consequences of his insight and falls back upon a normative
precept favoring a harmonious relationship between extension and depth
as a necessary condition for a well-balanced personality. In the last
analysis, as a good psychiatrist, what interests Binswanger most is the
achievement of balance, not the truth of the fall. 2.

De Man goes on to caution that this should not necessarily be taken

as a criticism, but rather as an indication of a general problem with the
ontic-ontological relationship. De Man cites the following passage from
Foucault's The Order o/Things, in order to point out that Foucault himself
was quite conscious of this dilemma:

Phenomenology, although it originated first of all in a climate of anti-

psychologism ... has never been able to free itself from its tempting and
threatening proximity to the empirical study of man. Therefore, although
it starts out as a reduction to the cogito, it has always been led to ask
questions, to ask the ontological question. We can see the phenomenolog-
ical project dissolve under our very eyes into a description of actual
experience that is empirical in spite of itself, and into an ontology of
what lies beyond thought and thus bypasses the assumed primacy of the
cogitO.27

De Man himself answers the question as to precisely whose idea of

phenomenology Foucault may be thinking of here:

This could very well have been written with Binswanger in mind, but it
does not apply to either Husser! or Heidegger, both of whom include this
very danger among the constituents of their philosophical insight. Foucault
himself owes his awareness of the problem to his grounding in
phenomenology.28

De Man concludes his essay by remarking that the relation of the

 EDITOR'S FOREWORD 13

ontic to the ontological remains a problem for contemporary literary criti-

cism as well, which has "a tendency to forsake the barren world of ontolog-
ical reduction for the wealth of lived experience. "29
Although Binswanger was the first to directly apply Heidegger's
thought to the practice of existential psychiatry, his faithfulness to Heideg-
ger's enterprise has been called into question even by Heidegger himself.
Spiegelberg puts it this way:

For Binswanger, Heidegger had simply added another dimension to Hus-

sed's phenomenology, in fact one which now enabled him to develop
his own anthropology as the basis for what he was to call Daseinsanalyse.
Binswanger himself admitted later that his interpretation and utilization
of Heidegger's enterprise for a new anthropology was based on a misun-
derstanding but, in fact, a "productive," misunderstanding ... of Heideg-
ger's Daseinsanalytik, the attempt to use the ontological structure of
human existence as the privileged access to an interpretation of the
meaning of Being as such.'D

The result has been a "phenomenological anthropology" that, while influ-

enced by Heidegger remains perhaps more indebted to Husserl, and ulti-
mately remains an entirely Binswangerian project.
As should now be clear, it is this Binswangerian version of psychiatry
that the early Foucault of 1954 equates with phenomenological psychology
in general. And it is this notion of phenomenological psychology that
Foucault felt compelled to go beyond. Between 1954, when "Dream,
Imagination, and Existence" was first published, and 1961, when Madness
and Civilization appeared, there was clearly a turn in Foucault's thought.
It marked a turn from the concrete, subjective world ofthe individual-and
the preconditions for such a world-to a broader historical and political
analysis of such preconditions.

*
On its own terms, Binswanger's essay "Dream and Existence" is a
groundbreaking work in existential psychiatry. Published three years after
Heidegger's Being and Time, its very first paragraph raises three concepts
central to Heidegger's major work: existence, world, and Dasein. The
focus on existence clearly places the piece within the existential tradition
from Kierkegaard onward. The quote from Kierkegaard at the beginning
of the essay makes this explicit: "Above all, we must keep in mind what
it means to be a human being.")' The quotation is from the important
section in the Concluding Unscientific Postscript: "The Subjective Truth,
Inwardness; Truth is Subjectivity." Arguing against a Hegelian view of
truth as objective and rational, Kierkegaard relates knowledge back to the
existing individual:
14 Keith Hoeller

All knowledge relates to existence, or only such knowledge as has an

essential relationship to existence is essential knowledge ... knowledge has
a relationship to the knower, who is essentially an existing individual. 32

It was Kierkegaard' s task to remind us that as human beings we exist:

"My principal thought was that in our age, because of the great increase
of knowledge, we had forgotten what it means to exist, and what inwardness
signifies .... "33 He argues for a "subjective reflection," using an "indirect
method," which is based upon experience. He traces this method back to
Socrates:

In the principle that subjectivity, inwardness, is the truth, there is com-

prehended the Socratic wisdom, whose everlasting merit was to have
become aware of the essential significance of existence, of the fact that
the knower is an existing individual. 34

Kierkegaard's subjective reflection leads to inwardness, which "culminates

in passion. "35
Heidegger's Being and Time is obviously indebted to Kierkegaard.
Heidegger's question is the meaning of Being. The basic presupposition
is that rather than having a fixed essence, human beings first exist and
then decide their destinies. The ultimate knowledge comes through the
anxiety of facing the fact that we will die, and this insight is gained only
by the individual and only through a mood (Befindlichkeit) called dread
(Angst).
In order for Heidegger to inquire into the meaning of Being, he must
first lay bare the existence of the questioner, in this case Dasein, the name
Heidegger gives to human beings and their particular way of existing, in
order to avoid the usual philosophical problems of talking in terms of a
subject as opposed to an object. Using the phenomenological method,
which like Kierkegaard's method is descriptive, experiential, and indirect,
Heidegger discovers that the basic state of Dasein is "Being-in-the-world."
And that this Being-in-the-world is characterized by a relationship of
"care."
Following Kierkegaard and Heidegger, Binswanger's "Dream and
Existence"36 seeks to lay bare the existing individual by concentrating on
the dream as a definite mode of human being:

The individual's images, his feelings, his mood belong to him alone, he
lives completely in his own world; and being completely alone means,
psychologically speaking, dreaming."

Thus, to get at the truth of the individual, means surpassing Hegel, "As
 EDITOR'S FOREWORD 15

psychotherapists, however, we must go beyond Hegel, for we are not

dealing with objective truth, with the congruence between thinking and
Being, but with "subjective truth," as Kierkegaard would say." We are
dealing with the "passion of inwardness .... "38
Because we first exist, and only later decide who we are and who
we will become, it is not a matter, even in dreaming, of Freudian instincts
which in some form determine us, since "no one has yet succeeded and
no one will ever succeed in deriving the human spirit from instincts."
Rather,

An individual turns from mere self-identity to becoming a self or "the"

individual, and the dreamer awakens in that unfathomable moment when
he decides not only to seek to know "what hit him," but seeks also to
strive into and take hold of the dynamics in these events, "himself'-the
moment, that is, when he resolves to bring continuity or consequence
into a life that rises and falls, falls and rises. Only then does he make
something. That which he makes .. .is history."

*
The Review of Existential Psychology & Psychiatry is extremely
proud to be able to present the first English translation of Michel Foucault's
very first published work, "Dream, Imagination, and Existence," together
with the English translation of Ludwig Binswanger's pioneer essay in
existential psychiatry, "Dream and Existence." It is our hope that the
publication of this work, which has long been out of print and virtually
unobtainable even in France, will help to shed new light on the formative
years of Foucault's thought. It also serves as the occasion for focusing
once more on Binswanger's pathbreaking analyses.
In bringing this special publication to fruition, the Review acknowl-
edges its gratitude to many people. First, we would like to thank Michel
Foucault himself for graciously granting permission for us to publish this
English translation of his work, and allowing us to make this period of
his work available to the English-speaking public. Second, we extend our
thanks to Margot Backas and the Publications Program of the National
Endowment for the Humanities for assistance in the form of a grant to
aid in publication of this special issue. We also thank Jacob Needleman
for kindly allowing us to print his translation of Binswanger's essay. And
we heartily thank Forrest Williams forrendering Foucault's difficult French
into excellent English, and providing an illuminating Preface as well.
16 Keith Hoeller

NOTES

Michel Foucault, Death and the Labyrinth: The World of Raymond Roussel, trans.
Charles Ruas (Garden City: Doubleday & Co., 1986), p. 174.
2 Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans. John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson
(New York: Harper & Row, 1962).
3 Ludwig Binswanger, "Dream and Existence," trans. Jacob Needleman, Review ofExis-
tential Psychology & Psychiatry, Vol. XIX, no. I (1984-85). Also in Being-in-the-
World: Selected Papers of Ludwig Binswanger, ed. and trans. Jacob Needleman (Lon-
don: Souvenir Press, 1975).
4 Foucault, Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason, trans.
Richard Howard (New York: Random House, 1965).
5 Thomas Szasz, The Myth of Mental Illness: Foundations of a Theory of Personal
Conduct (New York: Harper & Row, 1961).
6 R. D. Laing, Self and Others (New York: Random House, 1961).
7 David Cooper, "Introduction" to Madness and Civilization (London: Tavistock, 1961),
p. viii.
8 Foucault, Madness and Civilization, pp. ix-xi.
9 Foucault, "Two Lectures," in Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings
1972-77, ed. Colin Gordon (New York: Random House, 1980), p. 83.
10 Foucault, "Truth and Power," in Power/Knowledge, p. 109.
II See also Hubert L. Dreyfus and Paul Rabinow, Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism
and Hermeneutics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), pp. xvii-xxvii.
12 Alan Sheridan, Michel Foucault: The Will to Truth (New York: Tavistock, 1980).
I3 Dreyfus and Rabinow, Michel Foucault.
14 Foucault, "Dream, Imagination, and Existence," trans. Forrest Williams, Review of
Existential Psychology & Psychiatry, Vol. XIX, no. I (1984-85); Mental Illness and
Psychology, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Harper & Row, 1976; reprinted by
University of California Press, 1987, forthcoming).
15 Foucault, Mental Illness and Psychology, p. 46.
16 Szasz, The Myth of Mental Illness.
17 Foucault, Mental Illness and Psychology, pp. 60 and 63.
18 Ibid., pp. 78-79 and 86.
19 Ibid., pp. 84-85.
20 Foucault, Death and the Labyrinth, p. 174.
21 Ibid.,pp. 174-75.
22 Foucault, Power/Knowledge, p. 117.
23 Edmund Husser!, Phenomenological Psychology, trans. John Scanlon (The Hague:
Martinus Nijhoff, 1977), pp. 178-79.
24 Ibid., p. 170.
25 Paul de Man, Blindness and Insight (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
1983 2), p. 48.
26 Ibid., pp. 48 and 49.
27 Ibid., p. 49; Foucault, The Order of Things (New York: Random House, 1970), pp.
325-26. The translation cited is by de Man.
28 Ibid., p. 49.
29 Ibid.
30 Herbert Spiegelberg, Phenomenology in Psychology and Psychiatry (Evanston: North-
western University Press, 1972), p. 204.
 EDITOR'S FOREWORD 17

31 SC1Iren Kierkegaard, Concluding Unscientific Postscript, trans. David F. Swenson and

Walter Lowrie (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1941), p. 177. See also Spiegel-
berg, Phenomenology in Psychology and Psychiatry, p. 194. I am indebted to Professor
Spiegelberg for locating the source of this quotation.
32 Kierkegaard, Ibid., p. 176 and 177.
33 Ibid .• p. 223.
34 Ibid., p. 183.
35 Ibid., p. 177.
36 Binswanger, "Dream and Existence," Review of Existential Psychology & Psychiatry,
Vol. XIX, no. I (1984-85).
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid.
39 Ibid.
 Translator's Preface
FORREST WILLIAMS

The title "Dream, Imagination and Existence" has been added, but
not arbitrarily, to this translation of the late Michel Foucault's "Introduc-
tion," published in 1954, to Ludwig Binswanger's essay, "Dream and
Existence" (Traum und Existenz; Le reve et l' existence). The nature of
the essay as a whole, as well as the added title, were to have been subjects
of discussion with Michel Foucault in Paris in July, 1984, at which time,
as he had graciously expressed it in a letter a few months earlier, we were
to "continuer cette conversation" begun the previous year during a visit
to the University of Colorado. His sudden death on June 25, 1984, when
he was only fifty-seven, occurred in a particularly prolific period of a
brilliant intellectual career. His works were (and are) in bookstores
everywhere in France and abroad. His newest writings were being trans-
lated as quickly as possible in a number of languages, generating the
highest expectations for the remaining portions of his large-scale History
of Sexuality.
The title assigned here attempts to specify the main themes of this
early essay. And essay by Michel Foucault, not simply introduction to
Ludwig Binswanger, it was. Almost twice the length of the work in clinical
psychology it preceded, it stood as an independent piece of thought.
Indeed, it specifically disclaimed being a mere explication (ad usum
delphinum, as Foucault put it) of "Dream and Existence."
One of two pieces by the 28-year-old French thinker to appear in
1954, it was most likely the earlier of the pair, preceding his first book,
Mental Illness and Psychology (New York: Harper and Row, 1976;
Maladie Mentale et Psychologie, 1954), and therefore was probably his
first extended piece of writing to be published. For so young an author,
Foucault had already engaged in an imposing amount of philosophical
study: figuring in the discussion are Edmund Husserl, Sigmund Freud,
Martin Heidegger, Gaston Bachelard, Jean-Paul Sartre, and of course
Ludwig Binswanger, as well as a variety of observations about dreams
expressed in literature, drama, religion, and philosophies of other times.
In the process of "introducing" the reader to Binswanger's Heideggerean
transformation of Freudian psychoanalysis, Foucault went beyond the
particular clinical concepts of Binswanger toward a more general analysis
of human being, that is, of human being-in-the-world, without thereby
(he insisted) "slipping into a philosophy." He did not wish either to restate
Binswanger's psychology or to restate the philosophy of Being and Time
(Sein und Zeit) presupposed by both Binswanger and himself. Neither
psychotherapeutic theory nor transcendental phenomenology, Foucault's
effort might be thought of as an intermediate essay in the direction of
"existential anthropology," more specific than Heidegger's question of
Being (Seinsfrage), more general then Binswanger's clinical reflections.

19
20 Forrest Williams

The identifying term of the German tradition of thought to which

Foucault's essay belongs is, as is well known, the conspicuously unger-
manic locution, "Existenz." Unfortunately, the word does not translate at
all well into English (or into the romance languages). "Existence" and its
cognates appear so frequently in our speech and writing that they lack the
surprising air of "Existenz" when it appears in German texts. As we know,
almost anything may be associated with the English word "existence":
horses, centaurs, a cure for cancer, life on Mars, electrons, prime numbers,
cabbages, bald French kings, and so on, ad infinitum. "Existenz," by
contrast, was introduced and consciously employed by certain German
thinkers in part because of its comparative rarity in their language. (For
example, Goethe put the word "existieren" in the mouth of Mephistopheles
for its esoteric sound.) Thus, in the German writings of Exis-
tenzphilosophie, the term "Existenz" stands out, and serves to call explicit
attention solely to the sort of being peculiar to the human being. In
Foucault's text, therefore, the meaning is the Heideggerean one of the
being of human being as transcendence toward the world. Such being is
in contrast not only to the being of things, numbers, etc., but to the
self-enclosed subject, characteristic of modern epistemology, which
inwardly represents to itself a real world to which it is only externally
related. In this translation, therefore, the alien term "Existenz" is used on
occasion as a reminder of the special meaning of "existence" in the text.
Presuming, then, that his reader was already acquainted with the
ontological notion of Existenz as a specific way of existing which tran-
scends toward, or discloses, the world, and prompted by Binswanger's
essay, "Dream and Existence," Foucault undertook what, as he declared
at the outset, could only seem like an intellectual gamble: to seek funda-
mental features of human existence (Existenz), not in perception, but in
the dream. For what, indeed, could seem less enlightening concerning
existence, if it be a transcendence toward and presence to the world, than
the apparent privacy, obscurity, and delusion of dreams? Psychologists,
writers, and artists, particularly since Freud had interpreted dreams as
symptoms or effects of unconscious intentions, have been fascinated by
this strange phenomenon. And many philosophers, to be sure, have been
intellectually fascinated by Freud's ideas. But the dream itself, as a
phenomenon, has hardly been taken seriously in its own right in modem
philosophy. On the contrary, philosophers have largely neglected their
dreams. The celebrated discussion of dreaming by Descartes at the begin-
ning of modem philosophy illustrates concisely this customary dismissal
of the phenomenon of the dream. The 17th-century philosopher's aim was
to advance his prior program of developing a theory of rational evidence
and to supply a correct evaluation of the role of perception in the new
science and in waking life. Descartes' attitude has been the standard one:
the proper place of the dream in serious philosophical thought is as a foil
 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE 21

for epistemological inquiry into the nature of perception.

There have been major philosophical exceptions, of course, of which
Nietzsche, the most important single influence on Foucault's intellectual
career, was an outstanding example. Still, for the most part, the received
philosophical view has been that dreams are merely the tatters of integral
human experience, with no evidential value in and of themselves, and
with little enough to offer directly to the clarification of epistemological
or ontological questions. Whereas waking experiences, and even waking
illusions, are cherished as valuable resources for philosophical examina-
tion, the dream shrinks to a near-zero-point of human experience, far less
useful to epistemology than the moral deficiency of a Nero has been to
moral philosophy. In our times, dreams do not even need to be explicitly
dismissed by philosophers, since they now may simply be abandoned to
the discipline of psychoanalysis, where they may become intellectually
interesting as symptoms or signs of something that happened in the past.
This philosophical neglect is understandable enough, no doubt. As
we have already seen, Foucault openly acknowledged the difficulty, for
a theory of existence (Existenz), of seeking in the dream, that seemingly
most enclosed and cryptic of experiences, clarification of the ontological
dimensions of human beings understood as transcendences toward the
world. In his words: why tum to "a mode in which (human existence) is
least engaged in the world," in which "the network of meanings seems
to condense, where the evidence clouds over, and where the forms of
presence to the world are most blurred?"
Yet one could adduce some reasons, even within the major epis-
temological program of modem philosophy, for taking dreams seriously.
Modem theory of knowledge has not been preoccupied solely with percep-
tion and reason, but almost as much with imagination. In Kant's Critical
philosophy, the schematism of the imagination may well be the funda-
mental epistemic function in human experience. If Foucault was right in
his discussion, the customary neglect of the dream may well have invali-
dated our understanding of the nature of the imagination. For Foucault
reversed the usual thesis that the dream is merely one variety of imagination
and--on the usual account-a particularly aberrant form at that. Instead
he proposed the uncommon thesis that "The dream is not a modality of
the imagination, the dream is the first condition of its possibility." Thus,
an adequate theory of the imagination-and hence, an adequate epis-
temology-presupposed for Foucault nothing less than an adequate grasp
of the phenomenon of the dream. Far from the dream being a variation
on the imagination, imagining is rooted in the dream. And more: the very
character of existence is to be discerned in the oneiric. Yet this is not, he
tried to show, a mere restatement of the importance of dreams asserted
by Freud, for it involves a far more complex conception of meaning than
can be found in psychoanalytic theory.
22 Forrest Williams

In effect, Foucault was carrying back to "Triiumlichkeit," to oneiric

experience, Heidegger's Daseinsanalytik of everyday experience, of
"Alltiiglichkeit." Just as there was for Heidegger a levelled-out structure
of "Anyone" (das Man) which provides important clues to the transcend-
ental structure of Dasein, so Foucault, following Binswanger's
psychoanalytic investigations, reflects on the dream as itself a kind of
proto-intending of the world. A peculiarly intended world, certainly, but
nevertheless not a mere absence of worldhood, not a mere "rhapsody of
images" and associations. Thus, for Foucault, the notion of a "dream
world" is to be taken quite seriously. Animated by an intentional structure,
it aims, as does perceptual experience, at a meaningful whole---even if a
mutilated, truncated one, even if self-transcendence toward worldhood is
here a "false start," as it were. Modem epistemology has not been wrong,
therefore, to think of the dream as a kind of failed perception; but it has
not been right, either, in measuring the human significance of the dream
exclusively as a general failure of something else, as non-perception, as
lack. The quasi-world of the dream is an already specific, and hence
ontologically instructive failure, much as zoological sports are instructive.
Save that the dream is not an oddity, but a regular feature of our existence.
It is a quasi-world, containing neglected infonnation about ourselves, not
only for clinical psychologists interested in deciphering our individual
neuroses and psychoses, but for our reflective understanding ofthe origina-
tive movement or project by which we transcend ourselves as Dasein or
beings-in-the-world. Thus, the dream served Foucault in this essay some-
what as the brain-injured "Schneider" served Merleau-Ponty in the
Phenomenology of Perception (a work by which Foucault was much influ-
enced at that time). Sometimes, as we know, the discarded sketches of
an artist are most revealing precisely because of the evident frustration of
their generative aims.
The dream world for Foucault was that paradox (in the Heraclitean
phrase he cited several times) of an idios kosmos, a "world of its own."
As idios, it is solely mine, unlike the world tout court, which is ours.
Yet as kosmos, the dream is not a merely subjective phenomenon: it
already has the lineaments, the prefigurations, of transcendence and world-
hood. It is not pure immanence. Foucault thus directs upon the phenomenon
of dreams the same kind of assault on the subject-object dichotomy that
had been mounted on perception by Heidegger and Merleau-Ponty on the
basis of their readings of Husserl' s radical undennining of the representa-
tional theory of perception. If to perceive things is not to represent them
more or less veridic ally in some inner place, then to dream cannot be a
merely degraded and uninfonnative version of such representations. To
perceive is itself a way of being-in-the-world, and to dream is already on
the way to such being-in-the-world. In the order of inquiry, the dream,
not the perception, comes first. Case histories of clinical psychology at
 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE 23

once become interesting, not for their pathology alone (however important
that may be), but for their wider revelation of the pre-perceptual structure
of human intentionality and presence to the world. Foucault's essay thus
boldly undercuts the basis of Being and Time and Phenomenology of
Perception. Already the dream "in and by its transcendence ... discloses
the original movement by which existence, in its irreducible solitude,
projects itself toward a world which constitutes itself as the setting of its
history." The dynamic vectors of existence are already discernible in the
dream.
And likewise, the inherent temporality of human existence. Indeed,
one might say that Freudian dream analysis, by concentrating on earlier,
repressed wishes said to be causing dreams, denied the temporality of the
patient as existence. Literary, philosophical, and mystical accounts, even
superstitious beliefs, frequently recognized that the dream is at once an
effect of the past (for example, some past deed), an occurrence in the
present, and an anticipation (e.g., an omen) of the future. Mythological
views and prophecies aside, there was at least in those traditional concep-
tions of the dream an acknowledgment of its temporality and-by impli-
cation-of the temporality of the being of the dreamer.
As an example of the Freudian neglect of the future orientation of
the dream (which is to say, its Freudian detemporalization), Foucault
points to a dream of "Dora," in which Freud had failed to recognize soon
enough the patient's decision, still unknown to herself, to terminate the
psychoanalysis.
One might formulate the issue as follows: Because the classic scien-
tific spirit which animated Freud's thinking characteristically separates
past, present, and future, the psychoanalytic patient's existence is rendered
only abstractly temporal, like an object in the natural sciences. Standing
only in external relations to each other, as mere logical distinctions in a
formal pattern of succession which is abstracted from the concrete
phenomenon of becoming, the so-called "pasts," "presents," and "futures"
of the natural sciences are virtually timeless. This is an entirely appropriate
philosophical (in Heideggerean terms: still ontic) framework for the par-
ticular theoretical purposes of the algorithmic sciences. Only in this time-
less framework does it make sense to speak of causal laws-ideally,
equations with empirical constants. But once conceived in this manner,
as separable, these Pickwickian "pasts," "presents," and "futures" fragment
the phenomenon of time. The so-called "future," for example, is no longer
what is approaching the present, and the present is no longer falling back
into a past. The "future" is already in place, though not yet visible to us,
like the furniture in an adjoining room which we have not yet entered.
Thus, the "grammar" of that "future" which a causal law predicts (more
or less successfully) contains no future tense as such, but only the future
perfect. The "present" event whose "past" causes can be stated, or the
24 Forrest Williams

"future" event which can be predicted-it makes no difference whether

one moves backward or forward from the given, since time is incidental-
is, relative to the so called "past," not an event which is itself genuinely
passing. Strictly speaking, from the standpoint of causal explanation, all
events are in truth events which shall have been. Causal theory does
exploit temporal distinctions, obviously, but only after first divesting them
of their temporality. The objects of the natural sciences are thus atemporal
constructs, and so are Freud's psychoanalytic cases, for all the emphasis-
indeed, precisely because of the psychoanalytic emphasis--on the patient's
past. In human existence (Existenz) , however-and here Foucault followed
Heidegger to the letter-temporality is our inescapable way of being, and
therefore requires another way of speaking about human beings and about
their dreams. To understand the dream as an (incipient) way of being-in-
the-world is the only way to respect the temporality of the being of the
dreamer and thus to approach and analyze the dream in its necessarily
temporal integrity: in (to use Heidegger's language) its threefold "ecstatic"
character. To be-in-the-world, to exist, and to be temporal, are inseparable
ontological features of Dasein. The logical construct of "time" which is
indispensable to the natural sciences, and to which Freudian theory appears
to subscribe, fits human beings only to the degree that they may be
appropriately viewed as objects. In some respects and for some purposes,
they definitely may be. But certainly not as dreamers.
If Foucault was right, then, the quasi-world of the dream is not just
some effect that results from an earlier time, nor some particular event
that just happens during sleep, like indigestion or sexual arousal, any
more than being present to the world in perception is some particular,
contingent event within our waking life, like stumbling on a rock or
misunderstanding a question. Like the perceptual world with its instru-
mental agencies, invitations to knowledge, and social intercourse, the
dream, with its bizarre images, is a quasi-world, a fundamental mode of
our being-in-the-world, and hence an "experience" with its own kind of
elusive totality and meaningful structure. Its significance and its structure
cannot be understood by reference only to the past, especially to a past
which is externally related to the dream.
The Freudian will reply, of course, that unconscious intentions, the
"latent meanings" of the dream, are precisely what render the connection
with the earlier events more than merely external. The Freudian conception
of language and meaning, however, proves on Foucault's analysis to be
no less defective than its conception of temporality. In a fascinating jux-
taposition of two great thinkers, Foucault brought together his study of
Husserl's Logical Investigations and Freud's Interpretation of Dreams. A
delicious irony emerging from his comparison of these two celebrated
works is his demonstration that Freud the empirical scientist took far too
abstract a view of meaning, and Husserl the logician provided the far
 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE 25

more concrete analysis. Foucault had already discerned in 1954 what is

still largely unacknowledged by those Husserlians of the 70's and 80's
who continue to try to assimilate Husserl' s theory of meaning to that of
Frege. Foucault correctly perceived that Husserl was concerned, from the
very beginning, not with "sense" and "reference" alone (Frege's Sinn and
Bedeutung), as these attach formally to combinations of words or concepts,
but with the full intentional phenomenon of expression (Ausdruck): the
question of how meaning animates the symbol. The "Fregean-Husserlian"
scholars properly point out that Husserl's "noema" was "a generalization
of the notion of linguistic meaning." However, they tend to ignore what
Husserl understood by "linguistic meaning," which is not adequately rep-
resented within the Fregean conception of language they often attribute
to Husser!' For Husserl, to mean is always an expressive act. It is therefore
essential for the reader to recognize that the Husserl evoked by Foucault
in 1954 to improve on Freud's conception of the dream as symbol was
not the trimmed-down, formal logician currently popularized in contempo-
rary analytic philosophy, and cut to resemble Frege, but the
phenomenologist of intentional expression. (The latter is the Husserl
evoked nowadays in the writings of J. N. Mohanty, Paul Ricoeur, Dallas
Willard and others.) "The word," as Foucault wrote in his essay, "implies
a world of expression which precedes it, sustains it."
Yet another criticism of Freudian theory to be found in Foucault's
essay has to do with the "I" or subject of the dream. In opposition to
Freud's identification of the dream "I" with a represented subject-either
bearing the dreamer's own features or, by displacement, bearing another's
features-Foucault proposed that the whole dream, and everything in it,
may be regarded as its true "I." This "pan-egoic" view, as it might be
called, echoed a fundamental change in therapeutic dream-analysis which
had in fact been initiated independently and at about the same time by
the Freudian dissenter from psychoanalytic orthodoxy, Frederick S. Perls,
whose revisions of dream theory had originated in studies of Gestalt
psychology. The general implications of this conceptual modification are
only briefly illustrated in Foucault's essay; the detailed implications, for
both dream analysis and for practical techniques of psychotherapy, were
yet to be worked out, in the 50's and 60's, by the late Dr. Perls.
Foucault was also able to propose in his essay a criticism of Sartre's
theory of the imagination, which he regarded as still too dependent upon
a negative definition that contrasted imagination with perception. Thus,
the very accusation that had already been leveled by Sartre against earlier
theories of the image from classical Greece to Bergson, is charged against
Sartre as well. For Foucault, as we have noted, saw the dream, not as a
degenerated variety of imagining, a kind of "rhapsody" of the life of
images, but as the parent of the imagination. This reversal, this appropria-
tion of imagining to dreaming, led Foucault to a surprising account of
26 Forrest Williams

poetic imagery as the gelling of poetic expression, and thus to a conception

of the poetically expressed as transcending the images with which it is
usually identified. In poetic expression, images negotiate transcendence,
but also neutralize each other. The expressive reality of the poem is thus
trans-imaginal. The influence of Gaston Bachelard's remarkable writings
on the key images of earth, air, fire and water is acknowledged by Foucault,
but he was already probing beyond Bachelard's view, as he had gone
beyond Sartre' s view, in his reflections on imagination and poetry.
Finally, in the way of critique, there emerges already in this first,
phenomenologically-oriented essay, with its superb phenomenological
analyses (viz., Foucault's vivid variation on Sartre's "absent Peter"), a
certain dissatisfaction with phenomenology. Foucault saw phenomenology
as indispensable for recapturing the expressive character of intentionality,
for characterizing temporality and its three "ecstasies," for carrying through
a Binswangerian reform of Freudian psychoanalytic theory, and most of
all, for understanding the existential significance of dreams and images;
but he also saw it as insufficient to capture the reality of others-the
challenge, of course, with which Husserl wrestled in the Cartesian Medi-
tations and elsewhere. In view of these reservations in the earliest of his
writings, it is not surprising that we do not find Foucault calling himself
a "phenomenologist" in his subsequent writings, despite his debt to that
tradition of modem philosophy. One might even wonder, looking at the
most recently published works of Michel Foucault, whether they could
have been written by the author of the essay published here. Nevertheless,
there are anticipations-which is not to say, pre-determinations-in the
early essay of some themes of the subsequent thirty years of work. For
example, Foucault's critique in his 1954 essay of certain classical primacies
and oppositions (subject and object, perception and dream) were based
on a belief that there is something philosophically instructive about the
very persistence of these historic polarities. He was already suspicious,
it seems, of the usual primacy assigned to the "normal" case (e.g., percep-
tion, or even imagination) over the "abnormal" case (e.g., dreaming). Is
it too much to say that in his insistence upon their interrelation, and in
this scepticism regarding the "norm," were prefigured his later interest in
a variety of such polarities in modem discourse. Did he not detect in the
usual treatment of the dream a kind of scapegoating of a mode of human
experience, a scapegoating which was to be exposed again and again as
he studied the history of systems of discourse and the strategies of power?
Were not his later analyses of the intimate, diacritical relation between
"reason" and "madness" of the modern classical age perhaps suggested
by his quasi-rehabilitation in 1954 of the dream from the benign neglect
to which modem epistemology had consigned it? (Cf. Madness and Civili-
zation, New York: Pantheon, 1965; H;slo;r(' de lafolie, 1961.)
Certainly, we must cmphasi7.c that thc later Foucault moved away
 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE 27
from his early epistemological, phenomenological, and transcendental
stance to a different mode of inquiry which he named "archaeology."
Then, finding that conception still too much in the transcendental or
justificational spirit of the Enlightenment, he moved to an even more
historically conscious "genealogy." His later works were thus increasingly
indebted to Nietzsche, who had already been brought vividly to the young
Foucault's attention (shortly after the war by the French philosopher Jean
Wahl, whose boundless curiosity and energetic teaching brought so many
new currents of thought, from both the 19th and 20th centuries, into the
lecture halls of the Sorbonne and into French intellectual life.) Later, of
course, Nietzsche became the pre-eminent influence on Foucault's thought.
Perhaps it is even fair to say, on the evidence of this 1954 essay, that
Foucault was from the beginning already a philosopher of language and
of desire, and possibly (from remarks here and there), a philosopher of
social history.
However, the early concern with linguistic meaning as act of expres-
sion later expanded, far beyond anything visible in 1954, to linguistic
complexes of discourse which function as historically active, social
strategies of power inscribed in our very bodies. The empirical bent
revealed in his early preoccupation with the case histories of Freud and
Binswanger found new scope in his later studies of the actual institutions
of prison, madhouse, hospital, courtroom, medical profession; historical
studies which served to subtend his inquiries into the linguistic structures
of power condensed in such received oppositions as "the sane and the
mad," "the bon citoyen and the criminal," "the normal and the patholog-
ical." None of these now much-discussed writings, nor the apparently
unfinished "magnum opus, Histoire de La Sexualite, could have been
foreseen in this essay of over thirty years ago. Yet, whatever its late author
might have wished to say of this early work in July, 1984----which, sadly,
was not to be said-this essay does appear to contain a few of the elements
of his later writings; and, more important, seems to stand in its own right
as one of the few genuinely thoughtful investigations in our times of the
relations between dreaming, imagining, and Existenz.

NOTES ON THE TRANSLATION

The work by Michel Foucault translated here from the French appeared originally as
an "Introduction" to the French translation (by Jacqueline Verdeaux) of Ludwig
Binswanger's Traum und Existenz. The latter work was originally published in Neue
Schweizer Rundshau (Ziirich: Fretz u. Wasmuth), v. IX, 1930, and was reprinted in Ludwig
Binswanger, Ausgewiihlte Vortrage und Aufsatze (Bern; A. Francke, 1947, pp. 74-97).
The French volume was entitled Le reve et l' existence, and was published in Paris in 1954
by Editions Desclee De Brouwer in the series Textes el Etudes Anthrop%giqW!s. The
"Introduction" comprised pages 9-128; the text by Binswanger comprised pages 129-193.
28 Forrest Williams

*
The "Translator's Preface" contains some remarks on the occasional use of the special
German term, "Existenz," in the English translation.

*
Translations of passages quoted by Foucault from the works of the French poet, Rene
Char, were most kindly supplied by Mary Ann Caws.

*
Wherever possible, fragmentary footnotes have been completed for the English trans-
lation, and references have been adapted to English-language sources where these exist and
were discoverable. French paragraphing has been modified to conform to American editorial
practice, and some subdividing has been added.

*
I would like to express my appreciation for released time to work on this preface and
translation provided by the Center for Theory in the Humanities of the Uni versity of Colorado
at Boulder.
DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE

MICHEL FOUCAULT
A J'age d'homme, j'ai vu s'elever et grandir sur Ie mur mitoyen
de la vie et de la mort, une echelle de plus en plus nue, investie
d'un pouvoir d'evulsion unique: Ie reve ... Voici que l'obscurite
s'ecarte, et que VIVRE devient sous la forme d'un apre ascetisme
allegorique la conquete des pouvoirs extraordinaires dont nous
nous sentons confusement traverses mais que nous n'exprimons
qu'incompletement faute de loyaute, de discemement cruel et de
perseverance.

When I reached manhood, I saw rising and growing upon the wall
shared between life and death, a ladder barer all the time, invested
with an unique power of evulsion: this was the dream ... Now see
darkness draw away, and LIVING become, in the form of a harsh
allegorical asceticism, the conquest of extraordinary powers by
which we feel ourselves confusedly crossed, but which we only
express incompletely, lacking loyalty, cruel perception, and perse-
verence.
Rene Char, Fureur et Mystere
(Paris: Gallimard, 1984, 2nd
ed.), pp. 82-83 ("Partage For-
mel, XXII"). Translated by
Mary Ann Caws.
 Dream, Imagination and Existence*
An Introduction to Ludwig Binswanger's "Dream and Existence"

MICHEL FOUCAULT

Translated by Forrest Williams

In these introductory pages we do not intend to retrace, according to

the familiar paradox of prefaces, the path taken by Ludwig Binswanger
himself in "Dream and Existence" (Traum und Existenz). The difficulty
of this text suggests doing so, no doubt. But its difficulty is too essential
to its line of reflection to be attenuated in a zealous foreword ad usum
delphini, even if the "psychologist" remains always the dauphin in the
kingdom of reflection. Original forms of thought are their own introduction:
their history is the only kind of exegesis that they permit, and their destiny,
the only kind of critique.
Yet it is not its history either which we shall attempt to decipher
here. In another work we shall try to situate existential analysis within
the development of contemporary reflection on man, and try to show, by
observing the inflection of phenomenology toward anthropology, what
foundations have been proposed for concrete reflection on man. Here,
these introductory remarks have only one purpose: to present a form of
analysis which does not aim at being a philosophy, and whose end is not
to be a psychology; a form of analysis which is fundamental in relation
to all concrete, objective, and experimental knowledge; a form of analysis,
finally, whose principle and method are determined from the start solely
by the absolute privilege of their object: man, or rather, the being of man,
Menschsein.
The working dimensions of anthropology can thereby be cir-
cumscribed. I It is an undertaking which opposes anthropology to any type
of psychological positivism claiming to exhaust the significant content of
man by the reductive concept of homo natura. It relocates anthropology
within the context of an ontological reflection whose major theme is
presence-to-being, existence (Existenz) , Dasein. 2 Granted, an anthro-
pology of this sort can validate itself only by showing how an analysis
of human being can be articulated upon an analytic of existence. As a
problematic of foundations, it must define in the latter the conditions of

*This "Introduction" originally appeared in Le reve et l' existence, by Ludwig Binswanger

(Paris: Desc1~e de Brouwer, 1954), pp. 8-128. The Review is extremely grateful to Michel
Foucault for kindly granting permission to publish this first English translation. According
tohis recollection, it was written in 1953 while he was a doctoral student in Paris. (KH, Ed.)

31
32 Michel Foucault

possibility of the former. As a problem of justification, it must set out

the appropriate dimensions and the autochthonous meaning of anthropol-
ogy.
Let us say provisionally (pending some later revisions) that human
being (Menschsein) is nothing but the actual and concrete content which
ontology analyzes as the transcendental structure of Dasein, of presence-to-
the-world. Thus, this basic opposition to any science of human facts of
the order of positive knowledge, experimental analysis, and naturalistic
reflection does not refer anthropology to some a priori form of philosophical
speculation. The theme of inquiry is the human "fact," if one understands
by "fact," not some objective sector of a natural universe, but the real
content of an existence which is living itself and is experiencing itself,
which recognizes itself or loses itself, in a world that is at once the
plenitude of its own project and the "element" of its situation. Anthropology
may thus call itself a "science of facts" by developing in rigorous fashion
the existential content of presence-to-the-world. To reject such an inquiry
at first glance because it is neither philosophy nor psychology, because
one cannot define it as either science or speculation, because it neither
looks like positive knowledge nor provides the content of a priori cognition,
is to ignore the basic meaning of the project. 3
It has seemed to us worthwhile to follow for a moment this path of
reflection, and to see whether the reality of man may not prove to be
accessible only outside any distinction between the psychological and the
philosophical; whether man, in his forms of existence, may not be the
only means of getting to man.
In contemporary anthropology, the approach of Binswanger seems
to us to take the royal road. He outflanks the problem of ontology and
anthropology by going straight to concrete existence, to its development
and its historical content. Thence, by way of an analysis of the structures
of existence (Existenz)-of this very existence which bears such and such
a name and has traversed such and such a history-he moves continually
back and forth between the arithropological forms and the ontological
conditions of existence. He continually crosses a dividing line that seems
so difficult to draw, or rather, he sees it ceaselessly crossed by a concrete
existence in which the real limit of Menschsein and Dasein is manifested.
Hence, nothing could be more mistaken than to see in Binswanger's
analyses an "application" of the concept and methods of the philosophy
of existence to the "data" of clinical experience. It is a matter, for him,
of bringing to light, by returning to the concrete individual, the place
where the forms and conditions of existence articulate. Just as anthropology
resists any attempt to divide it into philosophy and psychology, so the
existential analysis of Binswanger avoids any a priori distinction between
ontology and anthropology. One avoids the distinction without eliminating
it or rendering it impossible: it is relocated at the terminus of an inquiry
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 33

whose point of departure is characterized not by a line of division, but

by an encounter with concrete existence.
To be sure, this encounter, and no less surely, the status that is finally
to be assigned to the ontological conditions, pose problems. But we leave
that issue to another time. We only wa.nt to show that one can enter
straightway into the analyses of Binswanger and get to what they signify
by an approach no less primordial, no less basic, than that by which he
himself reaches the concrete existence of his patients. Detouring through
a more or less Heideggerean philosophy is not some initiatory rite which
might open a door to the esotericism of the analysis of Dasein. The
philosophical problems are there; but they are not preconditions.
Therefore, we may dispense with an introduction which summarizes
Being and Time (Sein und Zeit) in numbered paragraphs, and we are free
to proceed less rigorously. Our proposal is only to write in the margins
of "Dream and Existence."

*
The theme of this 1930 essay4-the first of the texts of Binswanger
which belong strictly to the analysis of Dasein5-is less dream and exist-
ence than existence as it appears to itself and can be deciphered in the
dream: existence in that mode of being of the dream in which it announces
itself in a meaningful fashion. Is it not a gamble, however, to want to
circumscribe the positive content of Existenz by reference to a mode in
which it is least engaged in the world? If M enschsein does contain meanings
which are peculiar to it, will they reveal themselves in a privileged way
in that dream moment when the network of meanings seems to condense,
where the evidence clouds over, and where the forms of presence are
most blurred?
This paradox constitutes, in our opinion, the major interest of "Dream
and Existence." The privilege of meaning accorded by Binswanger to the
oneiric is doubly important. It defines the concrete progression of the
analysis toward the fundamental forms of existence: dream analysis does
not stop at the level of a hermeneutic of symbols. Rather, starting from
an external interpretation which is still only a kind of deciphering, it is
able, without slipping into a philosophy, to arrive at a comprehension of
existential structures. The meaning of the dream continually deploys itself
from the cipher of the appearance to the modalities of existence. On the
other hand, this privileged status of dream experience silently encompas-
ses, in this text, a whole anthropology of the imagination that requires a
new definition of the relations between meaning and symbol, between
image and expression-in short, a new way of conceiving how meanings
are manifested.
These two aspects of the problem will occupy us in the ensuing
34 Michel Foucault

pages. All the more so to the degree that Binswanger has left them
unclarified. We are not trying to parcel out credit to be sure, but rather
trying to express in this way what it is to "recognize" a line of thought
that brings us even more than it says, while still hoping to remain properly
modest toward its history.

II

A coincidence of dates is worth underscoring: 1899, Husserl' s Logical

Investigations; 1900, Freud's Interpretation of Dreams. Twofold attempt
by man to recapture his meanings and to recapture himself in his signifi-
cance.
With the Interpretation of Dreams, the dream makes its entry into
the field of human meanings. In the dream experience the meaning of
behavior seems to blur. As waking consciousness darkens and flickers
out, the dream seems to loosen, and finally to untie, the knot of meanings.
Dream had been taken as if it were the nonsense of consciousness. We
know how Freud turned this proposition around, making the dream the
meaning of the unconscious. This shift from the meaninglessness of the
dream to the disclosure of its hidden meaning, and the whole hermeneutic
labor involved, have frequently been emphasized. Much importance has
also been assigned to the reification of the unconscious, as psychic authority
and latent content. Much, and even too much: to the point of neglecting
another aspect of the problem which, insofar as it puts into question the
relations of meaning and image, is our concern here.
The imaginary forms of the dream carry the implicit meanings of the
unconscious; in the penumbra of dream life, they lend these meanings a
quasi-presence. Yet, precisely the presence of meaning in the dream is
not meaning making itself fully evident. The dream betrays the meaning
even as it effects it, offering it only while ephemeralizing it. The fire that
means sexual fire-shall we say that it is there only to point to that
meaning, or to attenuate the meaning, to hide it and obscure it by a new
glow? There are two ways to answer this question.
One way is along functional lines. The meaning is assigned as much
"counter-meaning" as necessary to cover the whole surface of the dream
realm. The dream is the fulfillment of a desire, but if it is dream and not
fulfilled desire, that is precisely because the dream also answers to all the
"counter desires" which oppose the desire itself. The dream fire is the
burning satisfaction of sexual desire, but what makes the desire take shape
in the subtle substance of fire is everything that denies this desire and
ceaselessly tries to extinguish it. The dream is a functional composite,
and if the meaning is invested in images, this is by way of a surplus, a
multiplication of meanings which override and contradict each other. The
imaginative plasticity of the dream is. for the meaning which comes to
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 35

light in it, but the fonn of its contradictoriness.

Nothing more. The image is exhausted in the multiplicity of meanings.
Its morphological structure, the space in which it deploys itself, its temporal
rhythm of development, in short, the world which it bears with it, all
these count for nothing if they are not allusions to these meanings. In
other words, the language of the dream is analyzed only in its semantic
function. Freudian analysis leaves its morphological and syntactic structure
in the dark. The distance between meaning and image is closed, in the
analytical interpretation, only by an excess of meaning; the image in its
fullness is detennined by over-detennination. The peculiarly imaginative
dimension of the meaningful expression is completely omitted.
And yet, it is not a matter of indifference that such and such an image
embodies such and such a meaning-that sexuality be water or fire, that
the father be a subterranean demon or a solar force. It is important that
the image possesses its own dynamic powers, that there is a different
morphology of space when it is free, luminous space and when the space
put into play is imprisoning, dark, and stifling. The imaginary world has
its own laws, its specific structures, and the image is somewhat more than
the immediate fulfillment of meaning. It has its own density, and the laws
which govern it are not solely significant propositions, just as the laws
of the world are not simply decrees of will, even a divine will. Freud
caused the world of the imaginary to be inhabited by Desire as classical
metaphysics caused the world of physics to be inhabited by Divine Will
and Understanding: a theology of meanings, in which the truth anticipates
its own fonnulations and completely constitutes them. The meanings
exhaust the reality of the world which displays that reality.
One might say that psychoanalysis gave the dream no status beyond
that of speech, and failed to see it in its reality as language. But that was
both risky and paradoxical: if the word seems to lose itself in the meaning
that it wants to bring to light, if it seems to exist only by and for the
signification, the word is nevertheless possible only by way of a language
that exists in rigorous syntactic rules and in the solid impress of morpholog-
ical shapes. The word, to say something, implies a world of expression
which precedes it, sustains it, and allows it to give body to what it means.
By failing to acknowledge this structure of language, which dream experi-
ence, like every expressive fact, necessarily envelops, Freudian
psychoanalysis of dreams never gets a comprehensive grasp of meaning.
Meaning does not appear, for psychoanalysis, through recognition of a
linguistic structure, but must be extracted, deduced, gleaned from a word
taken by itself. And dream interpretation, naturally, becomes a method
designed to discover the meanings of words in a language whose grammar
one does not understand: it becomes a method of cross-referencing of the
sort used by the archaeologist for lost languages, a method of probabilistic
confinnation, as in the deciphering of secret codes, a method of meaningful
36 Michel Foucault

coincidings as in the most traditional arts of divination. The boldness of

such methods and the risks do not invalidate their results. Nevertheless,
the uncertainty of the starting point is never entirely dispelled by the
constantly increasing probability that develops within the analysis itself,
not entirely eliminated by the number of cases that come to sanction a
kind of interindividuallexicon of the most frequent symbolizations. Freu-
dian analysis retrieves only one meaning among the many possible mean-
ings by the shortcut of divination or the longer route of probability. The
expressive act itself is never reconstituted in its necessity.
Psychoanalysis gets only to the hypothetical, thus generating one of
the most fundamental paradoxes of the Freudian conception of the image.
Whenever analysis tries to exhaust the whole content of the image in the
meaning it may secrete, the link uniting image to meaning is always
defined as a possible, eventual, contingent one. Why does the psycholog-
ical meaning take shape in an image, instead of remaining implicit or
dissolving into the limpidity of a verbal fonnulation? By what means does
the meaning insert itself within the malleable destiny of an image?
Freud gives a twofold answer to this question. As a result of repres-
sion, the meaning cannot acquire a clear formulation. In the density of
the image, meaning finds the wherewithal to express itself allusively. The
image is a language which expresses without fonnulating, an utterance
less transparent for meaning than the word itself. And, on the other hand,
Freud presupposes the primitively imaginative character of the satisfaction
of desire. In the primitive consciousness, archaic or infantile, desire first
finds satisfaction in the narcissistic and irreal mode of fantasy, and in the
regression of the dream this original mode of fulfillment is revealed. One
sees how Freud was led to rediscover in his theoretical mythology the
themes that had been excluded in the hermeneutic stage of this interpreta-
tion of dreams.
He thus reinstates the notion of some necessary and original link
between image and meaning, and admits that the structure of the image
has a syntax and a morphology irreducible to the meaning; for the meaning,
precisely, manages to hide itself in the expressive forms of the image.
Yet, despite the presence of these two themes, because of the purely
abstract form in which Freud leaves them, one looks in vain in his work
for a grammar of the imaginary modality, and for an analysis of the
expressive act in its necessity.
An inadequate elaboration of the notion of symbol is doubtless at the
origin of these defects of Freudian theory. Freud takes the symbol as
merely the tangential point where, for an instant, the limpid meaning joins
with the material of the image taken as a transformed and transformable
residue of perception. The symbol is that surface of contact, that film,
which separates, as it joins, an inner world and an external world; the
instantiation of an unconscious impulse Ilnd of Il perceptual consciouness;
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 37

the factor of implicit language and the factor of sensible image.

Nowhere more than in his analysis of Senate President Schreber did
Freud try to examine this place of contact. The privileged case of a crime
exhibited in effect the constant presence of meaning at work in an imaginary
world, and showed the structure belonging to this world through its refer-
ence to the meaning. But in the course of the analysis Freud finally
abandoned this attempt, and located his reflections on two different levels.
On one level, he established symbolic correlations which enable one to
detect beneath the image of the solar god, the Father figure, and beneath
the Ahriman image, the person of the patient himself. And on another
level, he analyzed meanings, while this fantasy world remains no more
than one possible expression of them. Reducing meanings to their most
transparent verbal expression, he thus purifies them, proffering an extraor-
dinary emotional declension, the magical framework of paranoid delirium:
"I don't love him, I hate him," "It isn't he whom I love, it's she whom
I love, because she loves me," "It isn't I who love the man, it's she who
loves him"--declensions whose first form and simplest semantic character
amount to: "I love her," and whose ultimate form, reached through all
the contradictory inflections, emerges quite to the contrary as: "I don't
love anyone at all, I love only myself. "6
If the analysis of the Schreber case is so important in Freud's work,
it is just to the extent that the distance has never been so shortened between
a psychology of meaning transcribed into a psychology of language, and
a psychology of the image expanded into a psychology of fantasy. At the
same time, nowhere in psychoanalysis has the possibility of finding a
connection between these two orders of analysis been more decisively
precluded. Or, if you like, the impossibility of a serious treatment of a
psychology of the Imago-to the extent that one can term "Imago" an
imaginary structure taken in all its meaningful implications.
The history of psychoanalysis seems to bear out our contention, since
to this day the gap has not been reduced. We see these two tendencies,
which at one time were seeking each other out, moving further and further
apart. There are analyses along the lines of Melanie Klein, which turn on
the genesis, development, and crystallization of fantasies, recognized as
in some way the primary material of the psychological experience. And
there are analyses along the lines of Jacques Lacan, which seek in language
the dialectical element where the ensemble of existential meanings are
constituted and find their destiny, just insofar as the word, remaining
outside all dialogue, fails to negotiate, through an Aujhebung, the deliver-
ance and transmutation of the meanings. Melanie Klein has doubtless
done the most to retrace the genesis of meaning from the movement of
fantasy alone. Lacan for his part has done everything possible to show in
the Imago the point at which the meaningful dialogue of language seizes
up and becomes spellbound by the interlocutor it constituted. But for the
38 Michel Foucault

former the meaning is basically nothing but the mobility of the image and
the path, as it were, of its trajectory; and for the latter the Imago is but
a muffled world, a moment of silence. In the realm of psychoanalytic
investigation, therefore, the unity between a psychology of the image
which demarcates the field of presence, and a psychology of meaning
which defines the field of linguistic potentialities, has not been found.
Psychoanalysis has never succeeded in making images speak.

*
The Logical Investigations are curiously contemporaneous with the
hermeneutic of the Interpretation of Dreams. Within the rigor of the
analyses conducted the length of the First and Sixth of these investigations,
can one find a theory of symbol and sign which reinstates in its necessity
the immanence of the meaning to the image?
Psychoanalysis had taken the term "symbol" as immediately valid,
without trying to develop or even to delimit it. By "symbolic value of the
dream image" Freud really had two quite distinct things in mind. On the
one hand, he had in mind the set of objective indices which betoken in
the image implicit structures, earlier events, experiences that remained
silent. Morphological similarities, dynamic analogies, syllabic identities
and all sorts of word games, these constitute so many objective indices
in the image, so many allusions to that which the image does not manifest
in its colorful fullness.
On the other hand, there is the global and significant link which
founds the meaning of the dream material and constitutes it as a dream
of incestuous desire, of infantile regression, or of return and narcissistic
envelopment. The set of indices can multiply indefinitely as the meaning
progresses and unifies, and cannot therefore be confounded with the mean-
ing. They arise along the path of inductive probabilities and are never
more than the method of reconstituting the latent content or the original
meaning. As for the meaning itself, it can only be brought to light in a
comprehensive grasp, for it is by its own movement that it founds the
symbolic value of the dream image. The confusing of these two things
has inclined psychoanalysis to describe the mechanisms of the formation
of dreams as the reverse and the correlative of the methods of reconstitution ,
confounding the achievement of meanings with the induction of indices.
In the first of the Logical Investigations , Husserl rightly distinguished
between the index and the signification. 7 No doubt in phenomena of
expression these are intermingled to the point that one tends to confound
them. When someone speaks, we understand what he says not only by a
meaningful grasp of the words he uses and the sentence structures he puts
into play, but we also let ourselves be guided by the vocal melody, which
now modulates and trembles. now assumes the hardness and glow by
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 39

which we recognize anger. In this global comprehension these two

attitudes, however mingled, are not identical. They are inverse and com-
plementary, since it is above all when the words begin to elude me,
distorted by distance, by noise, or by the stridency of the voice, that
induction of indices becomes more prominent than comprehension of
meaning: the tone of voice, the volume of words, the silences, even the
verbal slips, will guide me and cause me to presume that my interlocutor
is choking with rage.
By itself the index has no signification, and only in a secondary way
can it acquire one, by the oblique route of a consciousness which uses it
as a marker, a reference, or a token.
I see some holes in the snow, some regularly-shaped stars, some
crystalline shadows. A hunter would see the fresh tracks of a hare. We
have here two lived situations. It would be idle to say that one contains
more truth than the other. However, the essence of indication is exhibited
in the latter, not in the former. Only for the hunter is the little star pressed
down into the snow, i.e., a sign. This does not mean that the hunter has
more associative material than I do, that to his perception is associated
an image of the hare which, in the same situation, I lacked. The associating
is derivative in relation to the structure of indication. Association only
goes over with full strokes the dotted lines of a structure already given in
the essence of indicator and indicated. "Association recalls contents to
consciousness while leaving it to them to attach themselves to given
contents according to the law of their respective essences."8
But this essential structure, on which the psychological moment
rests---on what does it, in turn, rest? On an actual situation that exists,
or will exist, or has existed. The traces on the snow refer to the real hare
who has just bounded away. The trembling voice is, according to its
modulation, an index of exploding anger, or of mounting anger, or of
anger which, with great difficulty, is containing and calming itself.
Whereas the authentic sign, to be significant, does not need to rest on
any objective situation: when I utter the word "hare," I may be referring
to the one that raced the tortoise; when I mentioned my rage, I was
speaking of a surge of passion which I have never experienced except in
pretense or in a play. The words "hare" or "rage" are meaningful, the
strident voice, the trace impressed in the snow, are indices.
A phenomenology of the dream, to be rigorous, must not fail to
distinguish between indicative elements, which may designate for the
analyst an objective situation they betoken, and significant contents which
constitute, from within, the dream experience.
But what is a significant content, and what relation does it bear to
an imaginary content? Here, too, certain analyses of the LogicaL Investi-
gations can serve as a point of departure. It is not legitimate to allow, as
psychoanalysis does, an immediate identity between meaning and image,
40 Michel Foucault

united in the unique notion of symbol. The essence of the act of signification
must be sought beyond, and even before, the verbal expression or the
image structure in which it may be embodied.

The acts offonnulation, of imagination, of perception, are too diverse

for signification to exhaust itself now in these, now in those. We must
opt for a conception which attributes this function of signification to a
single act which is everywhere identical, to an act which is free of the
limits of a perception that may so often be lacking."

What are the characteristics of this fundamental act? Negatively speaking,

one sees at once that it cannot consist in relating one or more images. As
Husserl notes, if we think of a chiliagon, we imagine, no matter what, a
polygon with a lot of sides.!O More positively, an act of signification,
even the most thwarted, the most elementary, the most bound-up in some
perceptual content, opens onto a new horizon. Even when I say this spot
is red, or even in the exclamation, "This spot," even when I lack the
words and I point my finger at something before me, an act of aiming is
constituted that breaks with the immediate horizon of perception and
discloses the signifying essence of the lived perception: the act of meaning
this (der Akt des Diesmeinens).
This act is not definable (as our example suffices to demonstrate) by
some "judgmental activity," but by the ideal unity of what is aimed at in
the meaningful designation. This unity is the same each time the meaning
act is renewed, whatever words are used, whatever voice utters it, whatever
ink puts it on paper. What the symbol means is not some individual trait
of our lived-through experience, not some recurring quality, not some
property, as Husserl puts it, "of reappearing identically to itself," for we
are in the presence of an ideal content presenting itself through the symbol
as a unity of meaning.
But one must go further, if one is not to reduce the act of meaning
to a mere intentional aiming. How conceive this passing of the aim over
into a significant fullness, where it becomes embodied? Should we follow
the Husserlian analyses to the letter and concede a supplementary act of
meaning, that which the Sixth of the Logical Investigations calls an "act
of fulfillment"? That is at bottom merely to baptize the problem, to give
it a status within the activity of consciousness, but not to find a foundation.
No doubt that is what Husserl sensed in the revision (Umarbeitung)
of the Sixth Logical Investigation which he prepared in 1914.11 Through
this text one can glimpse what a phenomenology of meaning might be.
One and the same feature characterizes a symbol (such as a mathematical
sign), a word, or an image, whether the word or the symbol be uttered
or written, whether we abandon ourselves to the train of discourse or to
the imagination's dreaming; something new arises outside us, a little
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 41

different from what we expected, by virtue of the resistance offered by

imaginary material, verbal or symbolic, and also by virtue of the implica-
tions offered by the thing now constituted as significant: by fulfulling
itself in the actuality of the signifying, the intentionally virtual opens upon
new virtualities. This actuality in effect is located in a spatio-temporal
context, the words are inscribed in our surrounding world and point to
speakers at the horizon of the verbal implications. Here is where we grasp
the meaning act itself in its paradoxical nature; a taking-up of an objective
theme presents itself, like a word, as a cultural object; or like an image,
it presents itself as a quasi-perception. The meaning act operates as a
thematic activity in which the "I speak" or the "I imagine" are brought
to light. Word and image are conjugated in the first person at the very
moment that they achieve objective form. No doubt this is what Husserl
meant when he wrote about language:

One thing is certain ... The signified takes part in the accomplishing of
the deed. He who speaks engenders not only the word, but the expression
in its totality. 12

It is finally the expressive act itself that a phenomenological analysis

brings to light beneath the multiplicity of structures of signification.
This seems to us essential in a number of ways. Contrary to the
traditional interpretation, the theory of signification does not seem to us
to be the last word of the Husserlian eidetic of consciousness. In fact, it
culminates in a theory of expression which remains cloaked, but for which
the need is nonetheless present the whole length of the analyses. One
might be surprised that phenomenology never developed in the direction
of a theory of expression, which it left in the shadows, while bringing
into full light a theory of signification. But a philosophy of expression is
no doubt possible only by going beyond phenomenology.
At the moment, one thing should be noticed. This entire
phenomenological analysis which we have sketched, following Husserl,
calls for a completely different parsing of psychoanalysis with regard to
the fact of symbolism. It would establish in effect an essential distinction
between the structure of objective indication and that of signifying acts;
or, to stretch things a trifle, it would place the greatest possible distance
between what pertains to symptomatology and what pertains to semantics.
Psychoanalysis, by contrast, has always confounded the two struc-
tures, defining meaning by cross-referencing of objective signs and coin-
cidences within the deciphering process. As a result, Freudian analysis
could see only an artificial connection between meaning and expression,
namely, the hallucinatory nature of the satisfaction of desire. Phenomenol-
ogy, on the contrary, enables one to recapture the meaning in the context
of the expressive act which founds it. To that extent, a phenomenological
42 Michel Foucault

description can make manifest the presence of meaning in an imaginary

content.
Thus reinstated in its expressive base, however, the act of meaning
is cut off from any form of objective indication. No external context can
restore it to its truth. The time and space it bears are but a furrow which
immediately disappears; and others are implicated at the horizon of the
expressive act only in an ideal manner, with no possibility of real encounter.
To understand something or someone is thus definable in phenomenology
only as a new grasp in the mode of interiority, a new way of inhabiting
the expressive act, a method for reinstating oneself within it, never an
attempt to situate it in its own right. This cognitive problem becomes
central in any psychology of meaning and lies at the heart of any
psychopathology. Along the lines of pure phenomenology, there is no
principle for solving it. Jaspers, more than anyone, was troubled by this
impossibility. Just to the extent that he opposed significational (sinnhaft)
forms to sensible (sinnlich) forms,13 attributing to the former alone the
possibility of valid comprehension, he managed to justify the doctor-patient
relationship only by a mystique of communication. 14
Phenomenology has succeeded in making images speak; but it has
given no one the possibility of understanding their language.
One would not be much off the mark in defining this problem as one
of the major themes of existential analysis.
Phenomenology has indeed thrown light on the expressive foundation
of all meanings; but the need to justify comprehension implies a reinteg-
ration of the moment of objective indication on which Freudian analysis
had dwelt.

*
To find the foundation common to objective structures of indication,
significant ensembles, and acts of expression, such is the problem posed
by the twofold tradition of phenomenology and psychoanalysis. From the
confrontation between Husserl and Freud has emerged a double problema-
tic: a method of interpretation is needed that reinstates acts of expression
in their fullness. The hermeneutic journey should not stop at the verbal
sequences which have preoccupied psychoanalysis. It should continue to
the decisive movement in which expression objectifies itself in the essential
structures of indication. Much more than verification was needed: a foun-
dation was required.
This fundamental moment in which meanings are knit together is
what Binswanger tried to bring to light in "Dream and Existence."
We will be reproached for having not only gone beyond the letter of
the Husserlian and Freudian texts in this presentation, but for having
constructed from whole cloth a problematic that Binswanger never formu-
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 43

lated, one whose themes are not even implicit in his texts. To our thinking,
this charge carries little weight, because we are fallible enough to believe
in history even when it is a question of Existenz. Weare not concerned
to present an exegesis, but to disengage an objective meaning. We believe
that the work of Binswanger is important enough to bear such a meaning.
That is why only its real problematic has occupied our attention. In his
texts will be found the problem which he set for himself; for our part, we
wanted to specify the problem to which he was responding.

III

Nihil magnum somnianti-Cicero

By bringing to light a dynamic as fundamental as dreaming and

expression, Binswanger rejoined a tradition left unclarified by a 19th-cen-
tury psychology that Freud did not always succeed in transcending.
Psychoanalysis had inaugurated a psychology of dreams or, at least, had
restored to the dream its psychological rights. And yet this was undoubtedly
not to recognize its full range of validity. In Freud, the dream is the
element common to the expressive forms of motivation and the method
of psychological deciphering: it is at once the symbolic code of psychology
and its grammar. Freud thus restored a psychological dimension to the
dream, but he did not succeed in understanding it as a specific form of
experience. He reconstituted the dream in its original mode with fragments
of revived thoughts, symbolic translations and implicit verbalizations. The
logical analysis of the whole is a logic of discourse, the motivations and
structures uncovered are woven on the same psychological warp as the
forms of waking consciousness. Freud psychologized the dream-and the
privilege it thus acquired in the realm of psychology deprived it of any
privilege as a specific form of experience.
Freud did not succeed in going beyond a solidly established postulate
of 19th-century psychology: that a dream is a rhapsody of images. If it
really were no more than that, a dream would be exhausted by a psycholog-
ical analysis, whether in the mechanistic mode of a psychophysiology or
in the manner of an investigation of significations. But a dream is without
doubt quite other than a rhapsody of images, for the simple reason that a
dream is an imaginary experience; and if it cannot be exhausted-as we
saw earlier-by a psychological analysis, this is because it relates also to
a theory of knowledge.
Until the 19th century, the problem of dreams had indeed been posed
in epistemological terms. The dream had been described as an absolutely
specific form of experience. If a psychology of dreams could be set forth,
this had been possible only in a secondary and derivative way, on the
basis of a theory of knowledge which located it as a type of experience.
44 Michel Foucault

In "Dream and Existence," Binswanger links up again with this forgotten

tradition.
He rediscovered the notion that the signifying value of the dream
tends to be tailored to the psychological analyses that can be effected.
The dream experience, by contrast, has a content all the richer to the
degree that it is irreducible to the psychological determinations to which
one tries to adapt it. It is the old idea, so constant in the literary and
mystical tradition, that only "morning dreams" have a valid meaning.
"The dreams of the hale and hearty man are the morning dreams," said
Schelling. 15 The idea goes back to a Greco-Roman tradition. The justifi-
cation may be found in lamblichas of Calchis: a dream cannot be deemed
divine if it occurs among digestive vapors. It has value only before the
meal or else after digestion, at dusk or in the morning. De Mirbel wrote
in Le prince du sommeil: "And one must maintain the most cleansed time
of night is toward morning, 'inter somnum et vigilicum. "'16 Theophile had
one of his characters say to his Pyramus:

The hour in which our bodies, filled with heavy vapors,

Arouse in our senses deceitful motions
Had already passed, and my quieted brain
Was feeding on the poppies of sleep distilled,
At the moment the night is about to end
And the chariot of Dawn is yet to arrive. 17

Consequently, the dream is not meaningful only to the extent that

psychological motivations and physiological determinations intersect and
cross-index in a thousand ways; on the contrary, it is rich by reason of
the poverty of its objective content. It is all the more valid in that it has
the less reason for being. Hence the strange privilege of morning dreams.
Like the dawn they proclaim a new day, with a depth to their clarity that
the wakefulness of high noon will never know.
Between the sleeping mind and the waking mind, the dreaming mind
enjoys an experience which borrows from nowhere its light and its genius.
Baader spoke in this sense of this "sleeping wakefulness" and this "wakeful
sleep" which is tantamount to clairvoyance, and which is an immediate
return to objects without passing through the mediation of the organs. 18
But the theme of original dimensions to dream experience is not only
inscribed in a literary, mystical, or popular tradition. It can easily be
discerned as well in Cartesian and post-Cartesian texts.
At the point of convergence of a mystical tradition and a rationalisitic
method the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus posed the problem of the
prophetic dream. "Not only true things, but also trifles and fancies may
be useful," Spinoza wrote to Boxel. 19 And in another letter, addressed to
Pierre Balling,>o on the subject of dreams, premonitions, and warnings,
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 45

he distinguished two sorts of imaginings: those which depend solely on

the body, its complexion and the motions of its humors, and those which
give sensory body to ideas of the understanding, in which one can find
at once track and sign, a tracing of truth. The one form of imagination
can be found in delirium, and makes up the physiological warp of the
dream. But the other makes of the imagination a specific form of knowl-
edge. This is what the Ethics refers to when it shows the imagination in
essential connection with the idea and with the makeup of the mind. 21 The
analysis of prophetic dreams in the Tractatus moves at these two levels.
There is the imagination tied to the motions of the body which give their
individual coloring to the dreams of the prophets. Each prophet dreamed
the dreams appropriate to his temperament. The affliction of Jeremiah or
the anger of Elias can only be explained externally, they pertain to an
examination of their bodies and the motions of their humors. But each of
these dreams had its meaning, which exegesis now has the task of bringing
to light. The meaning which exhibits the link of imagination to truth is
the language of God to men, to show them his commandments and his
truth. Men of imagination, the Hebrews understood only the Word of
images. Men of passion, they could be made to submit only by the emotions
conveyed in frightening and angry dreams. The prophetic dream is like
an oblique path of philosophy, another experience of the same truth, "for
the truth cannot contradict itself." It is God revealing Himself to men by
images and figures. 22 Dream, like imagination, is the concrete form of
revelation. "The prophets only perceived God's revelation by the aid of
the imagination. "23
Spinoza thereby rejoined the great classical theme of the relations
between imagination and transcendence. Like Malebranche, he discovered
the notion that the imagination, in its mysterious ciphers, in the imperfec-
tion of its understanding, in its half-light, in the presence which it always
shows forth only elusively, points beyond the content of human experience,
beyond even the discursive knowledge we can master, to the existence of
a truth which surpasses man on all sides, yet bends towards him and offers
itself to his mind in concrete species of images. The dream, like every
imaginary experience, is thus a specific form of experience which cannot
be wholly reconstituted by psychological analysis, one whose content
points to man as transcended being. The imaginary, sign of transcendence;
the dream, experience of this transcendence under the sign of the imagi-
nary.
This is the lesson of classical psychology which Binswanger implicitly
reaffirmed in his analysis of the dream.

*
But he also rejoined another tradition, implied in the classical one.
46 Michel Foucault

In the dream, as in the experience of a transcendent truth, Christian

theology found shortcuts taken by divine will, a quicker way in which
God may distribute His proofs, His decrees, and His warnings. It is as if
a dream were an expression of that human freedom which can be inclined
without being determined, which is illuminated without being constrained,
and which receives warnings with something less than full evidence. In
the classical literature on dreams one can detect the whole theological
dispute concerning Grace, the dream standing, so to speak, to the imag-
ination as Grace does to the heart or the will. In classical tragedy the
dream is a kind of figuring forth of Grace. The tragic significance of the
dream poses for the Christian consciousness of the 18th century the same
problems as the theological significance of Grace. After an ominous dream,
Tristan has Herod say:

What Destiny writes cannot be erased,

And its secret shares cannot be escaped,
We run the more toward them
When we think to escape them."

After a dream, a character in Ferrier's Adraste declares:

No, my lord, in the skies is our death inscribed,

Man cannot cross that limit ordained,
And measures only plunge him down
Into the very misfortune he tries to avoid.
Thus does the sovereign grandeur of the gods,
Choose to play with our human weaknesses."

Thus, the tragic dream for Jansenism. As for Molinism, the dream is no
longer predestination, but warning or signal, more to prevent predetermi-
nation than to declare it. In Benserade's drama, Briseis says:

Achilles, those things that mar your joy

Are so many counsels from Heaven.'·

In Osman, the lesson is even clearer:

But heaven yet may, during our sleep,

Turn our minds to lend us counsel,
The outcome of our destiny
Is not always decided by its views,
The murmuring thunder does not always strike as lightning,
A movement of the heart may deflect its course. 27

But we should not be deceived. Beneath this doubtless most literary quarrel,
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 47

in which from one tragedy to another the characters answer each other
and throw out arguments borrowed from theological treatises, lies hidden
the problem, more genuinely tragic, of destiny.

*
Man has known, since antiquity, that in dreams he encounters what
he is and what he will be, what he has done and what he is going to do,
discovering there the knot that ties his freedom to the necessity of the
world. In the dream and its individual significance Chrysippus saw the
universal concatenation of the world and the effect of sympatheia which
conspires to form the unity of the world and which animates each fragment
with the same spiritual fire. Much later the Renaissance will take up the
idea again. For Campanella, it is the soul of the world-principle of
universal cohesion-that inspires human instincts, desires, and dreams
together. And to mark the last stage of this great mythology of the dream,
this fantastic cosmogony of the dream where the whole universe seems
to conspire at a momentary and vacillating image, there were also Novalis
and Schelling: "The world becomes dream, the dream becomes world,
and the outcome in which one believes can be seen coming from afar. "28
What has changed from one epoch to another has not been this reading
of destiny in dreams, nor even the deciphering procedures, but rather the
justification of this relation of dream to world, and the way of conceiving
how the truth of the world can anticipate itself and gather together its
future in an image capable only of reconstituting it in a murky form.
These justifications, to be sure, are still more imaginary than philo-
sophical, exalting myth at the boundaries between poetry and abstract
reflection. In Aristotle, the value of the dream is connected with the calm
of the soul, with the nocturnal dream in which the soul is removed from
the agitation of the body. 29 In that silence it becomes sensitive to the most
pervasive movements of the world, to the most distant agitations, and like
the surface of water is all the more disturbed by the agitation at its shores
as its center is the more calm and quiet; similarly, the sleeping soul is
more sensitive than the waking soul to the motions of the distant world.
The ripples get larger as they move and soon take on enough magnitude
to make the whole surface tremble; similarly, in a dream, the weakest
excitations end by distorting the whole mirror of the soul. A noise scarcely
perceptible to the waking ear turns in dream into a roll of thunder, the
least warmth becomes a conflagration. In the dream, the soul, freed of
its body, plunges into the kosmos, becomes immersed in it, and mingles
with its motions in a sort of aquatic union.
For others, the mythic element through which the dream joins the
world is not water, but fire. In the dream, the subtle body of the soul
catches fire from the secret flame of the world and thereby penetrates to
48 MicheL FoucauLt

the intimacy of things. This is the Stoic theme of the cohesion of the
world ensured by the pneuma and sustained by that heat which culminates
in a universal fire. It is the esoteric theme, which reached from medieval
alchemy to the "prescientific" spirit of the 18th century, of an "oneiro-
mancy ," a sort of phlogiston of the soul. Finally, it is the Romantic theme
in which the precise image of fire begins to attenuate, keeping only the
spiritual qualities and the dynamic values; subtlety, lightness, flickering
light casting shadows, ardor which transforms, consumes, and destroys,
leaving only ashes where once had been brightness and joy. Novalis writes
that "the dream teaches us in a remarkable fashion the subtlety with which
our soul insinuates itself among objects and at the same time transforms
itself into each of them."
The complementary myths of water and fire maintain the philosophic
theme of the substantial unity of the soul and the world in the dreaming
imagination. But one can also find other ways, in the history of dream,
to justify its transcendent character. The dream may be the shadowy
apperception of those things one senses all around oneself at night~r
contrariwise, the instantaneous flash of light, the utter brightness of intui-
tion, which completes itself in its very occurrence.
It was above all Baader who defined the dream by the luminosity of
intuition. The dream, for him, was the lightning flash of inner vision
which, beyond all sensory and discursive mediations, attains the truth in
a single movement. He spoke of that "inner and objective vision" which
"is not mediated by the external senses" which "we experience in our
common dreams." At first, inner sensibility stands in opposition to outer
sensibility, but finally, in the full grip of sleep, the former overwhelms
the latter, and the mind emerges into a SUbjective world much more
profound than the world of objects, and laden with a far weightier mean-
ing. 30 The privilege that tradition accords to waking consciousness and its
knowledge is "but uncertainty and prejudice." In the darkest night the
glow of the dream is more luminous than the light of day, and the intuition
borne with it is the most elevated form of knowledge.
We meet with the same idea in Carns: the dream reaches well beyond
itself towards objective knowledge. It is that movement ofthe mind which,
of its own accord, goes unto the world and finds its unity with the world.
It explains in effect that waking knowledge of the world is opposition,
for the receptivity of the senses and the possibility of being affected by
objects are nothing but opposition to the world, "Gegenwirken gegen eine
Welt." The dream, by contrast, breaks down this opposition and goes
beyond it-not in a luminous instant of clarity, but by the slow immersion
of the mind in the night of the unconscious.

By this plunge deep into the unconscious, far more than in a state of
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 49

conscious freedom, the soul will play its part in the universal intertwinings
and will allow itself to be penetrated by everything spatial and temporal,
as produced in the Unconscious.'l

To that extent, the dream experience would be a Fernsehen like that

"farsighted vision" which is limited only by the horizons of the world,
an obscure exploration of that unconscious which from Leibniz and
Hartmann has been conceived as the muted echo, in man, of the world
in which he has been placed.
All these conceptions constitute a double polarity in the imaginary
philosophy of the dream: the water-fire polarity and the darkness-light
polarity. We will see later that Binswanger discovers them, empirically
as it were, in the dreams of his patients. The analysis of Ellen West
transcribes fantasies of soaring toward the world of light and burrowing
into the cold, dark earth. 32
It is curious indeed to see each of these themes branch out and take
its place within the history of reflection on dreams, a history that seems
to have exploited all the potentialities of an imaginary constellation-or
perhaps imagination takes, by crystallizing them, themes constituted and
brought to light by the cultural process.
Let us fasten for the moment on a single point: the dream, like every
imaginary experience, is an anthropological index of transcendence; and
in this transcendence it announces the world to man by making itself into
a world, and by giving itselfthe species of light, fire, water, and darkness.
In its anthropological significance, the history of the dream teaches us
that it both reveals the world in its transcendence and modulates the world
in its substance, playing on its material character.
We have purposely left aside until now one ofthe best-known aspects
of the history of the dream, one of the themes most commonly exploited
by its historians. There hardly exists a study of dreams, since Freud's
Interpretation of Dreams, that does not feel obliged to cite the Tenth book
of the Republic. One squares accounts with history thanks to Plato, and
this erudite reference ensures a good conscience, as citing Quintilian does
for child psychology. 33 One never fails to underline the pre-Freudian-and
post-Oedipal-resonances of this famous text.

"But what sort of desires do you mean?"

"The sort that emerges in our dreams, when the reasonable and humane
part of us is asleep and its control relaxed, and our bestial nature, full of
food and drink, wakes and has its fling and tries to secure its own kind
of satisfaction. As you know, there's nothing too bad for it and it's
completely lost to all sense and shame. It doesn't shrink at the thought
of intercourse with a mother or anyone else, man, beast, or god, or from
murder or sacrilege. There is in fact no folly or shamelessness it will not
commit,HI'"
50 Michel Foucault

The manifesting of desire by dreams remained until the 19th century one
of the most frequently used themes of medicine, literature, and philosophy.
In 1613, seeking out "all the causes of dreams," Andre de Laurent, Physi-
cian to the King, found there movements of the humors and traits of
temperament: "He who is angry dreams only of jousts, battles, fires; the
phlegmatic always thinks he is in water. "35 Literature adopts authoritatively
the pronouncements of the scholars. In Mariane, Tristan has Pherore say,

Thus does each perceive in sleep

The secret signs of his temperament ... ,

and, proceeding from the principle to examples, describes the soul of the
thief who

... anticipating his destiny

Encounters militia, or makes off with his loot,
Just as the usurer in sleep runs his eyes
And his hands over the heaps of money,
And the lover beset already by fears or desires,
Experiences the trials or enjoys the pleasure. 36

Romanticism takes up the same theme and diversifies it in a thousand

forms. For Novalis the dream is "the secret path" which leads to "the
depths of our mind."37 Schleiermacher discerns, in dream images, desires
so vast and so deep that they cannot belong to the individual. And Bovet
recalls the passage in Hugo's Les Miserables:

If it were given to our bodily eyes to see into the mind of another, we
would judge a man far more often by what he dreams than by what he
thinks ... The dream, which is all spontaneity, takes and keeps the impress
of our mind. Nothing emerges more directly and with more sincerity from
the very depths of our soul than our unreflective and unconfined aspira-
tions ... Our chimeras are what resemble us the most."

But the closeness of these analogies should not lead us into the sin
of anachronism. What is Freudian in Plato or Victor Hugo, what suggests
lung in Schleiermacher, is not of the nature of scientific anticipation. The
functioning of such intuitions, and their justification, are not to be found
in some unrecognized psychoanalysis. Rather, one finds, at the origin of
the theme of the dream as manifestation of the soul in its inwardness, the
Heraclitean principle:

We share a world when we are awake; each sleeper is in a world of his own."
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 51

Elsewhere than in "Dream and Existence," Binswanger returned several

times to this principle to gauge its conceptual bearing and to bring out its
anthropological significance. 40 The phrase can easily be taken in a trivial
sense: the pathways of perception are closed to the dreamer, who is isolated
by the internal multiplication of his images. So understood, the aphorism
of Heraclitus would flatly contradict the theme, just set out, of a transcen-
dence in dream experience, and would overlook all the sensory wealth of
dream imagery, all that heat and sensible coloration which caused Land-
ermann to say, "when we abandon ourselves to our senses, then we are
in a dream. "41 What constitutes the idios kosmos of the dreamer is not the
absence of perceptual contents but their elaboration into an isolated uni-
verse. The dream world is a world of its own, not in the sense of subjective
experience defying the norms of objectivity, but in the sense that it is
constituted in the original mode of a world which belongs to me, while
at the same time exhibiting my solitude.
One cannot apply to the dream the classical dichotomies of immanence
and transcendence, of subjectivity and objectivity. The transcendence of
the dream world of which we spoke earlier cannot be defined in terms of
objectivity, and it would be futile to reduce it, in the name of its "subjec-
tivity," to a mystified form of immanence. In and by its transcendence
the dream discloses the original movement by which existence, in its
irreducible solitude, projects itself toward a world which constitutes itself
as the setting of its history. The dream unveils, in its very principle, that
ambiguity of the world which at one and the same time designates the
existence projected into it and outlines itself objectively in experience.
By breaking with the objectivity which fascinates waking consciousness
and by reinstating the human subject in its radical freedom, the dream
discloses paradoxically the movement of freedom toward the world, the
point of origin from which freedom makes itself world. The cosmogony
of the dream is the origination itself of existence. This movement of
solitude and of originative responsibility is no doubt what Heraclitus meant
by his famous phrase, "idios kosmos."

*
This Heraclitean theme runs through the whole of literature and the
whole of philosophy. It reappears in the various texts we have cited, which
seem so close, at first glance, to psychoanalysis. But what is indicated,
in reality, by this depth of the spirit, these "abysses of the soul" whose
emergence is described in the dream, is not the biological equipment of
the libidinal instinct; it is the originative movement of freedom, the birth
of the world in the very movement of existence. Novalis, more than
52 Michel Foucault

anyone, was close to this theme and tried ceaselessly to capture it in a

mythic expression. He recognized, in the world ofthe dream, the reference
to the existence which sustains it:

We dream of voyages over the whole world, yet is not this whole world
in us? It is in oneself and nowhere else that Eternity lies with its worlds,
the past and recollections. The external world is a world of shadows and
it casts its shadows on the empire of light. 42

But the moment of the dream does not remain the equivocal instant of an
ironic reduction to subjectivity. Novalis took from Herder the idea that
the dream is the original moment of genesis: the dream is the primary
image of poetry, and poetry, the primitive form of language, the "maternal
language of man. "43 The dream is thus at the very center of becoming and
objectivity. And Novalis added:

Nature is an infinite animal, an infinite plant, an infinite mineral; and

these three domains are the images of its dream. 44

To that extent the dream experience cannot be isolated from its ethical
content. Not because it may uncover secret inclinations, inadmissible
desires, nor because it may release the whole flock of instincts, nor because
it might, like Kant's God, "sound our hearts"; but because it restores the
movement of freedom in its authentic meaning, showing how it establishes
itself or alienates itelf, how it constitutes itself as radical responsibility in
the world, or how it forgets itself and abandons itself to its plunge into
causality. The dream is that absolute disclosure of the ethical content, the
heart shown naked. This is the meaning referred to by Plato in Book Ten
of the Republic, and not, in some pre-Freudian fashion, secret manifesta-
tions of instinct. Indeed, the wise man does not have the same dreams as
the man of violence, the "tyrannical" man, governed by the tyranny of
his desires and open to the political tyranny of the first Thrasymachus on
the scene, the man of desire who dreams of impudence and folly. But when

"a man of sound and disciplined character, before he goes to sleep, has
awakened his reason ... , has neither starved nor indulged his desires, so
that they sink to rest and don't plague the higher pan of him ... , has
calmed ... his spirited element so that he goes to sleep without anger at
anyone, thus going to rest with appetite and spirit quieted, while his
reasoning part is stimulated, then he is better than ever in a state to grasp
the truth in visions in his dreams undisturbed by wrong doing.""

Cultural history has carefully preserved this theme of the ethical value of
the dream, while its premonitional import remains secondary. What the
dream declares for the future of the dreamer derives only from what it
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 53

discloses of the involvements and ties of his freedom. Jezebel is not there
to predict imminent misfortune to Athalea: though she is told summarily
that "the cruel God of the Jews has overwhelmed you," she is shown only
her freedom chained down by a succession of crimes and bound over
beyond appeal to the vengeance that restores justice. Two sorts of dreams
are considered particularly significant: the dream of the hardened sinner
who at the moment of teetering into despair sees opening before his eyes
the path of salvation (sometimes the dream is transferred to someone less
blind and more disposed to grasp its meaning, viz., the famous dream of
St. Cecilia who can read in the dream that her son is turning to God); and
the murderous dreamer who meets in the dream both the death he deals
out and the death which stalks him, and who discovers the horror of an
existence which has bound itself to death by a bloody pact. Linking the
past to the present in the rehearsing of remorse, and knitting it into the
unity of a destiny, this is the dream that fills the nights of Macbeth, and
that is so frequently found in other classical tragedies.

Pale body, immobile corpse, cold heap of bones,

That troubleth the savor of my delights,
Object full of horror, frightful figure
Mingling the horrors of all Nature,
0, come not near!"

And Cyrano wrote in his Agrippina:

The cause of my mourning

Is the moaning sound of a fertile casket,
A desolate shade, a speaking image,
That tugs my garb with trembling hand,
That sobs by the head of my bed."

If the dream is the bearer of the deepest human meanings, this is not
insofar as it betrays their hidden mechanisms or shows their inhuman cogs
and wheels, but on the contrary, insofar as it brings to light the freedom
of man in its most original form. And when, in ceaseless repetition, it
declares some destiny, it is bewailing a freedom which has lost itself, an
ineradicable past, and an existence fallen of its own motion into a definite
determination. We will see later how Binswanger gives a new reality to
this theme, ceaselessly present in literary expression, and how, in taking
up again the lesson of the tragic poets, he restores, thanks to the trajectory
of the dream, the whole Odyssey of human freedom.

*
Such is no doubt the meaning one must give to the idios kosmos of
54 Michel Foucault

Heraclitus. The dream world is not the inner garden of fantasy. If the
dreamer meets there a world of his own, this is because he can recognize
there the fact of his own destiny: he finds there the original movement of
his existence and his freedom, in its achievement or in its alienation.

*
But does not the dream thus reflect a contradiction just where one
might succeed in discerning the cipher of existence? Does it not designate
at one and the same time the content of a transcendent world and the
original movement of a freedom? The dream is deployed, we saw earlier,
in a world which secretes its opaque contents and the forms of a necessity
which cannot be deciphered. Yet at the same time it is free genesis,
self-accomplishment, emergence of what is most individual in the indi-
vidual. This contradiction is manifest in the content of the dream when
it is deployed and offered to discursive interpretation. It even bursts forth
as the ultimate meaning in all those dreams that are haunted by the anguish
of death. Death is experienced as the supreme moment of that contradiction,
which death constitutes as destiny. Hence the meaningfulness of all those
dreams of violent death, of savage death, of horrified death, in which one
must indeed recognize, in the final analysis, a freedom up against a world.
If consciousness sleeps during sleep, existence awakens in the dream.
Sleep, itself, goes toward the life that it is preparing, that it is spelling
out, that it favors. If it is a seeming death, this is by a ruse of life, which
does not want to die; it "plays dead," but "from fear of death." It remains
of the order of life.
The dream is no accomplice of sleep. It ascends again the slope that
sleep descends, towards life, it goes towards existence, and there, in full
light, it sees death as the destiny of freedom. For the dream, as such, and
by virtue of the meanings of existence it bears with it, kills sleep and life
that falls asleep. Say not that sleep makes dreaming possible, for it is the
dream that makes sleep impossible by waking it to the light of death. The
dream, as with Macbeth, murders sleep.

Sleep that knits up the ravell'd sleave of care,

The death of each day's life, sore labour's bath,
Balm of hurt minds, great nature's second course,
Chief nourisher in life's feast ... "

In the depth of his dream, what man encounters is his death, a death
which in its most inauthentic form is but the brutal and bloody interruption
oflife, yet in its authentic form, is his very existence being accomplished.
It is doubtless no accident that Freud was halted, in his dream interpre-
tation, by the recounting of dreams of death. They marked, in effect, an
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 55

absolute limit to the biological principle of the satisfaction of desire; they

showed, Freud sensed only too keenly, the need for a dialectic. But it
was not in fact a matter of a rudimentary opposition of the organic and
the inorganic at the heart of the dream. Freud set two external principles
one against the other, one of which carried by itself all the powers of
death. But death is quite another thing than one term in an opposition. It
is that contradiction in which freedom, in the world and against the world,
at once realizes itself and denies itself as destiny. This contradiction and
this struggle may be seen in Calpurnia's dream, which foretells the death
of Caesar: a dream which speaks no less of the entire power and freedom
of the imperator who shakes the world-in the interpretation of Decius-
than of the risks he runs and his imminent assassination, in Calpurnia's
own interpretation.
The death glimpsed here is that which comes from behind, like a
thief, to take life and tie a freedom forever to the necessity of a world.
"The things that threatened me / Ne'er looked but on my back ... "49
But death can also appear in dreams with another face: no longer
that of contradiction between freedom and the world, but that in which
their original unity and their new alliance is woven. Death then carries
the meaning of reconciliation, and the dream in which this death figures
is then the most fundamental of all: it no longer speaks of life interrupted,
but of the fulfillment of existence, showing forth the moment in which
life reaches its fullness in a world about to close in. Hence, in all the
legends, death as reward of the wise man, as happy declaration that
henceforth the perfection of his existence no longer requires the movement
of his life; in announcing death, the dream exhibits the fullness of being
which existence has now attained.
In this latter form, as in the former one, the dream of death appears
as what existence can learn that is most fundamental about itself. In this
death, anguished or serene, the dream fulfills its ultimate vocation. Nothing
could be more mistaken, therefore, than the naturalistic tradition according
to which sleep would be a seeming death. It is rather a matter of a dialectic
of the dream itself insofar as it is a kind of explosion of life toward
existence, which discovers in this light its destiny of death. The recurrence
of dreams of death, which for a moment caused Freudian psychoanalysis
to hesitate, the anguish which accompanies them, exhibit a death encoun-
tered, refused, cursed as a punishment, or as a contradiction. But in the
serene dreams of fulfillment, there, too, is death: whether with the new
visage of resurrection, for the healed man, or as the calming, at last, of
life. But in every case death is the absolute meaning of the dream.

Banquo and Donalbain! Malcolm! awake

Shake off this downy sleep, death's counterfeit,
And look on dellth itself!
(Mac-he/h, II, iii, 79-81.)
56 Michel Foucault

IV

Ce qui pese en l'homme, c'est Ie reve.-Bernanos

In the filigree of the dream experience solely as transcribed in liter-

ature, philosophy, and mysticism, one can discern already an anthropolog-
ical significance of the dream. This is the very significance that Binswanger
tried to retrieve from another angle, in a completely different style of
analysis, in "Dream and Existence." We do not claim either to summarize
it or to gloss it, but only to show to what extent his work can contribute
to an anthropology of the imagination. The anthropological analysis of a
dream uncovers more layers of significance than the Freudian method
implies. Psychoanalysis explores only one dimension of the dream uni-
verse, that of its symbolic vocabulary, which from beginning to end
transmutes a determining past into a present that symbolizes it. The
polysemantic character of the symbol defined by Freud as "overdetermi-
nation" doubtless complicates this scheme and gives it a wealth that reduces
the element of arbitrariness. All the same, this plurality of symbolic sig-
nifications does not generate a new axis of independent meanings. Freud
sensed the limits of his analysis and perceived the need to go further.
Often he came upon signs of the dreamer situated within the oneiric drama,
as if it did not stop at symbolizing and telling in images a history of earlier
experiences, as if the dream circled about the whole existence of the
subject to restore its dramatic essence in theatrical form. Such was the
case with the second dream of Dora, whose full meaning Freud had
subsequently to admit he had not grasped. 50 Dora's dream referred not
only to her attachment to Mr. K., nor even to the actual transfer of her
feelings upon the psychoanalyst, but by way of all the signs of lesbian
fixation on Mrs. K., expressed her disgust for the virility of men, her
refusal to assume her feminine sexuality, and already exhibited murkily
her decision to put an end to this psychoanalysis which was for her only
one more sign of the grand complicity of men. Like her aphonia and her
hysterical fits of coughing, Dora's dream referred not only to the history
of her life, but to a mode of existence of which this history was, strictly
speaking, only a chronicle: an existence for which the alien sexuality of
man appeared only under the sign of hostility, constraint, irruption cul-
minating in rape; an existence which does not even succeed in finding
itself in the sexuality so near and so parallel of a woman, but which
instead embeds its most profound meanings in rejective behavior, the most
decisive of which was to stop psychoanalysis. One could say that Dora
got better, not despite the interruption of the psychoanalysis, but because,
by deciding to break it off, she went the whole distance to that solitude
toward which until then her existence had been only an indecisive move-
ment. All the elements of the dream point to this resolution of hers as an
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 57

active break no less than as an acceptance of solitude. Indeed, she saw

herself in her dream as "going out without her parents' knowledge"; she
learns of the death of her father; then she is in a forest where she meets
a man but refuses to go with him; back home, she learns from the cham-
bermaid that her mother and the others are already at the cemetery; she
does not feel sad at all, goes up to her bedroom, and proceeds to read a
big book. 51 Freud glimpsed this choice of solitude: beneath the explicit
discourse and the dream did not Freud note the formula: "I am abandoning
you and continuing my journey alone"?S2 If one cared to implicate the
psychoanalyst in the psychoanalysis, surely one could not help charging
Freud's failure, or at least the limitation of his understanding, to his refusal
to see that this discourse was addressed to him, no less than to Mr. K.
But this is secondary. For us, the real defect of the Freudian analysis
was to have discerned there one of the possible meanings of the dream,
and yet to have wanted to analyze it, among others, as simply one of
many semantic potentials. A method of this sort presupposes a radical
objectification of the dreaming subject, which comes to play its role among
other personages in a setting where it takes on a symbolic character. The
subject of the dream, in Freud's sense, is always a lesser subjectivity, a
delegate, so to speak, projected into an intermediate status, suspended
somewhere in the play of the other, somewhere between the dreamer and
what he dreams. The proof is that for Freud this dreamplay may actually
represent someone else by an alienating identification; or another personage
may, by a sort of heautoscopy, represent the dreamer himself.
However, it is not this quasi-subject that in fact bears the radical
subjectivity of the dream experience. This is only a constituted subjectivity.
The analysis of the dream ought to bring into full light the constituting
feature of dream sUbjectivity. This is where the Freudian method becomes
inadequate, for the one-dimensional meanings it extracts through the sym-
bolic relation cannot reach this radical subjectivity. Perhaps Young under-
stood it, he who spoke of those dreams in which the subject lives his own
destiny as a dream. But it is thanks to the writings of Binswanger that
one can best grasp what the dream-subject might be. This subject is not
characterized as one of the possible meanings of one of the personages
of the dream, but as the foundation of all its eventual meanings. To that
extent, the dream-subject is not a later edition of a previous form, or an
archaic stage of personality. It manifests itself as the coming-to-be and
the totality of the existence itself.

*
Here is a dream analysis by Binswanger done well before the time
of "Dream and Existence."~J It concerned a young woman, age 33, who
was under treatment for severe depression, with outbursts of rage and
58 Michel Foucault

sexual inhibition. At the age of 5, she had undergone a sexual trauma. A

boy had made advances; she had reacted at first with a good deal of
interest and curiosity, then became defensive and violently angry.
Throughout the psychotherapy she had numerous dreams. She had been
in treatment for about a year when she had the following dream: she is
crossing the frontier, a customs agent makes her open her luggage; "I take
out all my things, the official takes them one by one, finally I take out a
silver goblet, wrapped in tissue paper; then he says, 'Why do you bring
me the most important thing last?'"
At the time of the dream the psychotherapy had not yet succeeded
in discovering the primary trauma. When the doctor had asked the patient
to associate regarding the silver goblet, she had felt a sensation of discom-
fort; she became agitated, her heart pounded, she felt anxious, and finally
she stated that her grandmother had silver objects of this sort. She was
unable to say any more, but all day she experienced a feeling of anguish
which she pronounced "meaningless." Finally, that night, just as she fell
asleep, the traumatic scene returned. It is her grandmother's house, she
is trying to take an apple from the larder, which she had been explicitly
forbidden to do. At that moment a young boy pushes the window open,
enters the room, and approaches. The next day, describing this scene to
her physician, she suddenly remembers that in that room, on an old
harmonium no longer in use, stood a silver teapot wrapped in silver foil,
and she cries: "There's the silver in the tissue paper, there's the goblet!"
At the symbolic level, granted, the dream puts the ill patient on stage.
The customs inspection signifies the analytic situation in which the ill
person must open her luggage and show everything she is carrying. The
silver goblet relocates her in an earlier phase of her history, and shows
her as in a lesser existence which scarcely belongs to her. But the essential
point of the dream lies not so much in what it revives of the past as in
what it declares about the future. It anticipates and announces that moment
in which the patient will finally deliver to the analyst that secret which
she does not yet know and which is nonetheless the heaviest burden of
her present. The dream points to this secret already, down to its content,
with the precision of a detailed image. The dream anticipates the moment
of liberation. It is a prefiguring of history even more than an obligatory
repetition of the traumatic past.
But as the subject of the dream cannot be the quasi-objectified subject
of that past history, its constituting moment can only be that existence
which makes itself through time, that existence in its movement toward
the future. The dream is already this future making itself, the first moment
of freedom freeing itself, the still secret jarring of an existence which is
taking hold of itself again in the whole of its becoming.
The dream means repetition only to the extent that the repetition is
precisely the experience of a temporality which opens upon the future and
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 59

constitutes itself as freedom. This is the sense in which repetition may be

authentic, and not by reason of its exactness. The historical correctness
of a detail in the dream is only the chronicle of its authenticity. The one
links together the horizontal meanings of the symbolism; the other brings
to light the profound significance of the repetition. The one is oriented
toward anecdotal situations, the other touches the constitutive movement
of the individual's history at its source, and displays the mode of an
existence as it takes shape through its temporal moments.
I do not, I think, distort the thought of Binswanger by interpreting
in this same way the Hegelian dialectic of a dream which he sets forth in
"Dream and Existence." He analyzed a dream which was dreamed by the
very patient just discussed. The threefold movement of a sea, first agitated,
then caught and as if fixed in a deathlike immobility, and finally, let loose
in joyous freedom, is the very movement of an existence (Existenz) aban-
doned first to the chaos of a subjectivity which knows only itself, a freedom
of incoherence, fantasy, and disorder; then, of a freedom invested in an
objectivity which binds it to the point of overcoming it and alienating it
in the silence of things dead; and finally, of a freedom rediscovered as
resurrection and deliverance--but, having traversed the painful moment
of objectivity in which it loses itself, a freedom that is no longer distress,
cacophony, "sound and fury"; the joy of a freedom that can recognize
itself in the movement of objectivity. But then we see that, if this interpre-
tation is correct, the subject of the dream is not so much the personage
who says "I" (in this case, a stroller who follows the endless shores of a
beach) as the whole dream in the entirety of its dream content. The patient
who is dreaming is indeed the anguished personage, but is also the sea,
is also the troubling man who casts his mortal net, and is also and above
all that world, first a din, then struck with immobility and death, which
finally returns to the happy movement of life. The subject of the dream,
the first person of the dream, is the dream itself, the whole dream. In the
dream, everything says, "I", even the things and the animals, even the
empty space, even objects distant and strange which populate the phantas-
magoria. The dream is an existence carving itself out in barren space,
shattering chaotically, exploding noisily, netting itself, a scarcely breathing
animal, in the webs of death. It is the world at the dawn of its first
explosion when the world is still existence itself and is not yet the universe
of objectivity. To dream is not another way of experiencing another world,
it is for the dreaming subject the radical way of experiencing its own
world. This way of experiencing is so radical, because existence does not
pronounce itself world. The dream is situated in that ultimate moment in
which existence still is its world; once beyond, at the dawn of wakefulness,
already it is no longer its world.
That is why the analysis of dreams is decisive for bringing to light
the fundamental meanings of existence. What, then, are the most essential
60 Michel Foucault

of these meanings?

*
They are to be found in the first movements of freedom and in its
original directness. If dreams are so weighty for determining existential
meanings, it is because they trace in their fundamental coordinates the
trajectory of existence itself. Much has been said about the temporal
pulsations of the dream, its particular rhythms, the contradictions or par-
adoxes of its duration. Much less about dream space.
Yet the forms of spatiality disclose in the dream the very "meaning
and direction" of existence. Did not Stefan George note that "space and
being-there abide only in the image" ("Raum und Dasein bleiben nur im
BUde")? In lived experience, at its original level, space is not presented
as the geometric structure of simultaneity. This type of space, within
which the natural sciences deploy objective phenomena in their coherence,
is only constituted by way of a genesis whose moments have been analyzed
by Oscar Becker in their psychological aspect,54 and by Husserl in their
historical aspect. ss Before being geometric or even geographic, space
presents itself first and foremost as scene or landscape: 56 it gives itself
originally as the distance of colored plenitudes or of reaches lost in the
horizon, enveloped in the gathering distance; or, it is the space of things
there, resistant to my touch; it is to my right or my left, behind me, opaque
or transparent to my gaze. In contrast to the space of geographical refer-
ence, totally elucidated in the form of a general diagram, the scene is
paradoxically closed by the infinite openness of the horizon. Everything
that this horizon implies in the way of an eventual beyond delimits the
familiarity of the hither and of all the pathways staked out by habit. It
refers thus to the absolute of a situation which gathers in all the affective
powers of the hearth, the native land, the Heimat. And each of these lines,
which vanish into the horizon, is already like a road of return, a familiar
bearing for rediscovering ten hodou oikade, the homeward road. In geog-
raphic space, motion is nothing but displacement: a concerted change of
position from one point to another according to a previously established
trajectory. The path is thus no more than the indispensable intermediary,
reduced as far as possible, the lower limit of time which is indispensable
for going from one point to another. In lived space, the displacement
preserves an original spatial character; it does not cross, it travels along;
until the very moment it stops, it remains a proffered trajectory of which
only its point of departure is known for certain; its future is not prearranged
by the geography of the setting, but is awaited in its authentic historicity.
Finally it is the space of encounters; not merely the intersection of lines
which trace the shortest distance between two points, but overlapping of
journeys, paths crossing, roads which converge to the same place on the
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 61

horizon, or which, like Guennantes Way, suddenly arrive, after the widest
turn, at a birthplace. The dream deploys itself in this original spatiality
of the scene and finds there its principal affective meanings.
"L' espace signe de rna puissance." ("Space, sign of my power.")
This is true of lived space only to the extent that the values of this space
are reciprocally ordered. The security that space provides, the solid support
that it lends to my powers, rests on the articulation of near space and far
space: the latter, by which one withdraws and eludes, or which one sets
out to explore or conquer; the fonner, that of rest, of familiarity, that
which is right at hand. But this relation is disturbed in some experiences:
then, far space may press upon near space, penneating it on all sides with
a massive presence, with a kind of grip that one cannot loosen. Now the
distant may slowly enter into the porous presence of near space, mingling
with it, to the complete elimination of perspective, as in those catatonics
who are "in attendance" before what is going on "around them," indifferent,
as if everything were far off, yet concerned, as if everything were close,
confounding the objective displacement of things at the horizon and their
own bodily movement. Now, far space may penetrate the immediate
sphere of the subject like a meteor-witness the patient reported by
Binswanger: 57 he is properly oriented in space, but lying in bed he has
the sensation that a piece of the railroad track, over there, below the
window, separates from the horizon, penetrates the bedroom, traverses
it, bores through his skull and lodges in his brain. In all these metatheses
of the near and the far, space loses its secure character, becomes filled
with stifling threats and sudden dangers, is furrowed by irruptive forces.
Space, sign of my weakness.
The polarity of light and dark is not identical with that of near and
far, even though they are not always distinct. Minkowski has described
that dark space where hallucinatory voices cross and mingle, at once far
and near. 58 In that dark world, spatial implication does not reflect the laws
of juxtaposition, but the special modalities of envelopment or fusion.
Space then ceases to function as a divider, no longer dissociates; it is no
more than moving of shapes and sounds, coming and going according to
the flux and reflux of their apparition. Over against this nocturnal spatiality
one can, like Minkowski, analyze the clear space which takes shape before
the subject, a levelled and socialized space where I experience in the mode
of action all my potentials of movement, and where everything has its
particular place, according to its function and its use. In fact, even more
radically opposed to the space of darkness is a space of pure luminosity,
where all dimensions seem both to be realized and to be eliminated, where
all things seem to find unity, not in a fusion of fleeting appearances but
in the clarity of a presence completely open to our gaze. Experiences of
this sort have been described by Riimke. 59 One of his patients feels some-
thing in her so vast. so peaceful, an immense expanse of water, and feels
62 Michel Foucault

herself dispersed in this luminous transparency. Another patient said,

at certain times everything I saw took on enonnous proportions, men

seemed to be giants, all objects and all distances appeared to me as if
through a magnifying lens, it would be as if I were looking through a
pair of gloves, with more perspective, more depth, and more clarity to
everything.

Finally, Binswanger himself analyzed the vertical axis of space in

its existential meaning: the theme of the slow, raw power of enthusiasm,
of joy; the theme of the glittering peak where the light mingled with
shadow is purified into an absolute brightness, whose movement is fulfilled
and comes to rest in the serenity of the movement. But upward movement
does not imply only an existence transcending itself in enthusiasm. It is
not only the direction of that selfsurpassing by which man, tom from
himself, accedes, according to Fink, to "the greatest being," to the "the-
ion".60 The vertical axis can also be the vector of an existence that has
lost its place on earth and, like Solness the Builder, is going to resume,
up above, its dialogue with God. Then it indicates flight into excess, and
from the start is marked by the vertigo of a fall ("he dare not, he cannot,
climb as high as he builds"). And yet he is summoned from above, by
the one who has burned down his house and stolen his children, by the
one who wanted him "to attach himself to nothing but Him." It was toward
Him that he wanted to ascend, to show Him that he would go down again,
at last, to the love of man. But from such summits, one returns only in
a vertiginous fall.
This set of oppositions defines the essential dimensions of existence.
They fonn the primitive coordinates of the dream and, as it were, the
mythic space of its cosmogony. In the analyses of dreams, fantasies, and
deliriums, one sees them all combining and symbolizing each other to
constitute a universe.
In his study of a schizophrenic, the case of Ellen West,61 Binswanger
brought out these great imaginary ensembles, whose phenomenological
meanings are the precursors of the concrete, singular images that give
them an expressive content. The world of Ellen West is divided between
two cosmic powers that know no possible reconciliation. There is the
underground world of burial, symbolized by the cold dark of the tomb,
which the patient resists with all her might by refusing to gain weight,
grow old, or be trapped in the crudely materialistic life of her family.
And there is the ethereal, luminous world, where in a single moment a
totally free existence could arise, an existence without the weight of living,
that would know only that transparency of love totalized in the eternity
of an instant. Life has become possible for her only in the fonn of a flight
toward that distant and lofty space of light, and the earth, in its dark
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 63

closeness, holds only the imminence of death. For Ellen West, the solid
space of real movement, the space where things come to be, has progres-
sively, bit by bit, disappeared. It has become wholly reabsorbed into limits
of its own, it has become its own suppression, it is exiled into the two
contradictories of which it had been the unifying moment. It exists only
beyond itself, both as if it did not yet exist and as if already it no longer
existed. The existential space of Ellen West is that of life suppressed, at
once in the desire for death and in the myth of a second birth. It already
wears the sign of the suicide by which Ellen West was to attain the
culmination of her existence.

*
A phenomenological analysis, however, cannot stand by itself. It
must be completed and grounded. It must complete itself by elucidating
the expressive act which gives a concrete shape to these original dimensions
of existence. It must ground itself by elucidating that movement in which
the directions of the trajectory of existence are constituted.
We shall put aside, for the moment, the analysis of expression,
leaving that for another inquiry. Let us simply note a few elements that
are easily specified.
Every act of expression is to be understood on the basis of its primary
directions. It does not produce these ex nihilo, but locates itself on their
trajectory, which makes it possible, as from the points of a curve, to
rediscover the whole, completed movement. To this extent, there can be
an anthropology of art which would in no way become psychological
reductionism. One would not refer expressive structures back to uncon-
scious motivations, but reinstate them the whole length of that line along
which human freedom moves.
On this line from near space to far space we will encounter a specific
form of expression: there, existence knows the dawn of triumphal depar-
tures, voyages and circumnavigations, dazzling discoveries, the siege of
towns, the mesh of exile, the stubborn return, the bitterness of coming
back to things unchanged and aged, the whole course of that Odyssey of
existence; on those "great cloths woven ofthe dreamed and the real," epic
expression takes shape as a basic structure of the expressive act.
Lyric expression, by contrast, is possible only in the alternation of
light and darkness where existence plays itself out. By its nature-quite
apart from the topic chosen or the metaphor adopted, even though either
may often be significant-the lyrical is seasonal or a "nyct hemeral,"
day-blinded with night vision, night-blinded with day vision. It is at once
solar and nocturnal, and in its essence, takes on the values of dawn and
dusk. The lyrical does not traverse distances, it is always the others who
depart. There is no return from exile, because its own land is already
64 Michel Foucault

exile. If the lyrical can survey all the changes ofthe world, all its motions,
if it can, itself immobile, search out in every direction, this is because it
seizes everything in a play of light and shadow, in the pulsations of day
and night, which tell, upon the shifting surface of things, the unchangeable
truth.
Finally, the axis of tragic expression is located along the vertical axis
of existence. The tragic movement is always of the order of ascent and
fall. Its special mark is that privileged moment in which it completes its
rise, and balances imperceptibly, still, yet oscillating, before faltering.
That is why tragedy hardly needs time and space in which to extend itself,
nor foreign lands, not even the surcease of the night, for it sets itself the
task of manifesting the vertical transcendence of destiny. 62
Thus, there is an anthropological basis for the characteristic structures
of epic, lyric, and tragic expression. An analysis would be needed to show
both the nature of the expressive act and the anthropological necessities
that dominate and govern it; one could study the expressive forms of exile,
of a descent into an Inferno, of the mountain, of the prison.
Let us return to the only question that can occupy us here: how are
the essential directions of Existenz, which form the anthropological struc-
tures of its entire history, constituted?

*
The first thing to note is that the three polarities we have described
do not have equal universality and the same anthropological depth. And
even though each has its independent status, one at least appears more
fundamental, more originative. Hence, no doubt, the fact that Binswanger,
without broaching the problem of various expressive forms, has scarcely
emphasized anything but the oppositions of ascent and fall. What is the
anthropological privilege of this vertical dimension?
First of all, it brings out, almost nakedly, the structures of temporality.
Horizontal opposition of the near and the far exhibits time only in the
chronology of spatial progression. Time unfolds only between a point of
departure and a point of arrival, and is wholly exhausted in the journeying;
and when it renews itself, it does so in the form of repetition, return,
another departure. In this existential direction, time is in its essence nos-
talgic. It tries to close around itself, to recommence by linking up again
to its beginning. The time of the epic is circular or reiterative. In the
opposition ofthe light and the dark, too, time is not authentic temporality,
but a rhythmic time marked by oscillations, a seasonal time where absence
is always a pledge of return, and death, the pledge of resurrection.
With the movement of ascent and fall, on the contrary, one can grasp
temporality in its primitive meaning.
Let us return to the case of Ellen West. The whole movement of her
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 65

existence channels into a phobic fear of a fall into the grave and in the
delirious desire to soar into the ether, finding its gratification in the immo-
bility of pure movement. But this orientation and its affective polarity
designate the very form according to which existence temporalizes itself.
The patient does not take on the future as disclosure of a fullness and
anticipation of death. She already experiences death, there, inscribed in
her aging body which is more burdened each day. Death for her is only
the actual weight of her flesh, is but one and the same thing as the presence
of her body. During the thirteen years of her illness, Ellen West lived
only to flee the imminence of this death attached to her flesh. She refused
to eat or to give life in any form at all to this body, which would transform
into the menace of death. Whatever gives substance, continuity, and weight
to this presence of the body multiplies the deadly powers that envelop it.
She rejects all food, and by the same token rejects her past. She does not
take up her past in the authentic form of repetition, but suppresses it by
the myth of a new birth which is to erase everything she had been.
However, by virtue of this making-present of death in the guise of imminent
menace, the future is emptied of its fullness. It is no longer a future by
which existence anticipates it own death, taking upon itself its solitude
and its facti city , but a future by which existence tears itself away from
everything that grounds it as finite existence. The future into which exist-
ence projects itself is not that of an existence in the world, but that of an
existence above the world, an overflight, where the limits which enclose
its fullness are abolished in order to accede to the pure existence of eternity .
An empty eternity, to be sure, without content, a "bad eternity," as is
"bad" the subjective infinity of which Hegel spoke. This temporalization
of existence in Ellen West is an inauthentic one.
Indeed, it is along this vertical direction of existence, and according
to the structures of temporality, that the authentic and inauthentic forms
of existence can best be allocated. This self-transcendence of the existent
in its temporal movement, this transcendence designated by the vertical
axis of the imaginary, can be lived as a wrenching away from the bases
of the existence itself. Then we see crystallizing all those themes of
immortality, of survival, of pure love, of unmediated communication
between minds. Or it can be lived, on the contrary, as "transcendence,"
as an imminent plunge from the dangerous pinnacle of the present. Then
the imaginary elaborates itself into a fantastic world of disaster. The
universe is but the moment of its own annihilation: this is the constitutive
moment of those deliriums of "the end of the world." Temporality's
movement of transcendence can likewise be covered over and hidden by
a pseudo-transcendence of space. Then the vertical axis is wholly absorbed
into the horizontal trajectory of existence. The future lies in the spatially
distant. Existence defends itself against the menacings of death by all
those obsessional rites which block the free pathways of the world with
66 Michel Foucault

magical obstacles. One could describe a transcendence which acknowl-

edges itself solely in the discontinuity of the moment and which declares
itself only in a rupture of itself with itself: this is the sense in which
Binswanger speaks of "manic existence."63
These varying structures of the authentic and the inauthentic enable
us to see the forms of historicity of existence. When lived in the inauthentic
mode, it does not become in an historical fashion. It is absorbed into the
inner history of its delirium, or its duration is wholly exhausted in the
becoming of things. It gives itself up entirely to an objective determinism
where its original freedom is completely alienated. And in the one case,
as in the other, quite of its own impetus and of itself, existence comes to
inscribe itself in this determinism of its illness. The psychiatrist then sees
in this state of affairs a verification of his own diagnosis, which justifies
him in considering the illness as an "objective process," and the patient
as an inert thing where the process is running its course according to an
inner determinism. The psychiatrist forgets that it is existence itself which
constitutes the natural history of the illness as an inauthentic form of its
historicity, and that what he characterizes as the reality in itself of the
illness is but an instantaneous snapshot of that movement of existence
which grounds its historicity at the same moment in which it temporalizes
itself.
One must therefore grant an absolute privilege, among all the sig-
nifying dimensions of existence, to that of ascent and fall, where alone
can be discerned the temporality, the authenticity, and the historicity of
existence. If one remains at the level of the other existential directions,
one can never grasp existence in any but its constituted forms. One could
identify situations, define structures and modes of being, one could explore
the modalities of its Menschsein: but one must tum to the vertical dimension
to grasp existence making itself, tum to the vertical dimension in that
form of absolutely original presence in which Dasein is defined. One
thereby abandons the anthropological level of reflection which analyzes
man as man within his human world, and accedes to an ontological reflec-
tion which concerns the mode of being of an existence as presence to the
world. Thus is the transition effected from anthropology to ontology,
confirming that this is not an a priori division, but a concrete movement
of reflection. It is existence itself indicating, in the fundamental direction
of the imagination, its own ontological foundation. 64

v
Le poete est aux ordres de sa nuit.-Jean Cocteau

We must reverse our familiar perspective. Strictly speaking, the dream

does not point to an archaic image, a phantasm, or a hereditary myth as
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 67

its constituting elements; these are not its prime matter, and they do not
constitute its ultimate significance. On the contrary, every act of imagina-
tion points implicitly to the dream. The dream is not a modality of the
imagination, the dream is the first condition of its possibility.
Classically, the image is always defined by reference to the real: thus
locating its origin and its positivisitic truth in a traditional conception of
images as residues of perception. Or else, it defines the essence of the
image negatively, as in the Sartrean conception of an "imaging conscious-
ness" that posits its object as irreal. On the one definition, as on the other,
the image bears in itself, and by a natural necessity, an allusion to reality,
or at least to an eventual content of perception. No doubt Sartre has amply
shown that this content "is not there"; that, indeed, I aim at it insofar as
it is absent; that it offers itself, from the start, as irreal; that it remains
porous and docile to my magical incantations. The image of Peter is the
perception of Peter invoked, but it takes place in, confines itself to, and
exhausts itself in, the irreality where Peter presents himself as absent.

At frrst I only want to see Peter. But my desire becomes a desire for a
certain smile, for certain features. Thus it limits itself and exasperates
itself at one and the same time, and the irreal object is precisely ... the
limitation and the exasperation of this desire. And it is but a mirage: the
desire, in the imaging act, feeds on itself."'

In fact, we must ask whether the image does indeed, as Sartre would
have it, designate-even negatively and in the mode of unreality-the
real itself.
I am trying to imagine today what Peter will do when he gets· such
and such news. Agreed, Peter's absence surrounds and circumscribes the
movement of my imagination. But that absence was already there, before
I imagined; and not in some implicit way, but in the keen mode of my
regret at not having seen him for a year. That absence was already present,
in the very things, the familiar things which today still bear the mark of
his departure. Absence precedes and colors my imagination, but it is
neither the condition of its possibility nor its eidetic index. If I had seen
Peter just yesterday, my imagination today would bring him too close and
would burden me with too immediate a presence. To imagine Peter after
a year's absence is not to confront him in a mode of unreality (that does
not require imagination, the least feeling of bitterness would suffice), it
is first of all to derealize myself, it is to absent myself from that world
where it is no longer possible to encounter Peter. Which is not to say that
I "escape to another world," nor even that I frequent the possible margins
of the real world. The lines of necessity that exclude Peter are smudged,
and my presence, as presence to this world, fades. I undertake to adopt
once more that mode of presence in which the movement of my freedom
68 Michel Foucault

was not yet caught up in this world toward which it moves, where every-
thing still denoted the constitutive possession of the world of my existence.
To imagine what Peter is doing today in some circumstance that concerns
us both is not to invoke a perception or a reality; it is primarily to try to
recapture that world where everything is still conjugated in the first person.
When in imagination I see him in his room, I do not imagine myself
peering at him through the keyhole, or watching him from the outside.
Nor is it quite right to say that I transport myself magically into his room,
where I remain invisible. To imagine is not to actualize the fable of the
little mouse, it is not to transport oneself into the world of Peter. It is to
become the world where he is: I am the letter he is reading; I conjure
myself from that look of attentive reader; I am the walls of his room that
watch him from all sides and hence do not "see" him. But I am also his
gaze and his attentiveness, his dissatisfaction or his surprise before the
letter. I am not only absolute master of what he is doing, I am what he
is doing, I am what he is. That is why imagination adds nothing new to
what I already know. Yet it would be incorrect to say that it brings nothing
and teaches me nothing. The imaginary is not to be confused with imma-
nence, and is not even exhausted in that formal transcendence of whatever
delineates itself as irreal. The imaginary is transcendent. Not with an
"objective" transcendence (as in W. Szilasi's sense of the term), since the
moment I imagine Peter, he obeys me; each of his gestures fulfills my
expectations, and finally he even comes to see me because I want him to
do so. But the imaginary gives itself as a transcendence where, without
learning anything unknown to me, I can "recognize" my destiny. Even
in imagination, or rather, especially in imagination, I do not obey myself,
I am not my own master, for the sole reason that I prey upon myself. In
Peter's imagined return, I am not there, before him, because I am
everywhere, around him, and in him; I do not talk with him, I hold forth;
I am not with him, I "stage" him. And it is because I rediscover and
recognize myself everywhere that I can decipher in this imagining the law
of my heart, and read my destiny there: these feelings, this desire, this
drive to spoil the simplest things, necessarily means my solitariness, at
the very instant in which I try, in imagination, to dispel it. Consequently,
to imagine is not so much a behavior towards others which intends them
as quasi-presences on an essential ground of absence; it is rather to intend
oneself as a movement of freedom which makes itself world and finally
anchors itself in this world as its destiny. Through what it imagines,
therefore, consciousness aims at the original movement which discloses
itself in dreams. Thus, dreaming is not a singularly powerful and vivid
way of imagining. On the contrary, imagining is to take aim at oneself
in the moment of dreaming; it is to dream oneself dreaming.
And just as dreams of death appeared to us to disclose the ultimate
meaning of the dream, no doubt there are certain forms of imagination
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 69

which, linked to death, show with the greatest clarity what, at bottom,
imagination is. In the movement of imagination it is always myself that
I derealize as presence to this very world; and I experience this world
(not another one, but this very one) as entirely new to my presence, as
penetrated by my presence, as belonging to me as mine. Through this
world, which is only the cosmogony of my existence, I can rediscover
the entire trajectory of my freedom, fathom its every direction, and totalize
it as the curve of a destiny. When I imagine the return of Peter, to have
an image of Peter crossing the threshold is not essential; what is essential
is that my presence, inclining to dreamlike ubiquity, spread itself out on
this side and on that side of the doorway; find itself wholly in the thoughts
of the arriving Peter and in my own thoughts as I wait, in his smile and
in my pleasure, aiming at this meeting as a fulfillment. The imagination
does not tend to halt the movement of existence, but to totalize it. One
always imagines the decisive, the definitive, that which is thenceforward
going to be closed. What we imagine is of the order of a solution, not a
task. Happiness and unhappiness are inscribed in the imagination's register,
not duty and virtue. This is why the major forms of imagination are aligned
with suicide. Or rather, suicide appears as the absolute of imaginary
behaviors: every suicidal desire is filled by that world in which I would
no longer be present here, or there, but everywhere, in every sector: a
world transparent to me and signifying its indebtedness to my absolute
presence. Suicide is not a way of cancelling the world or myself, or the
two together, but a way of rediscovering the original moment in which I
make myself world, in which space is still no more than directedness of
existence, and time the movement of its history.66 To commit suicide is
the ultimate mode of imagining; to try to characterize suicide in the realistic
terms of supression is to doom oneself to misunderstanding it. Only an
anthropology of the imagination can ground psychology and an ethics of
suicide.
Let us hold on for the moment only to the notion that suicide is the
ultimate myth, the "Last Judgment" of the imagination, as the dream is
its genesis, its absolute origin.
Hence, one cannot define the imaginary as the inverse function, the
negative index, of reality. No doubt it develops readily on the ground of
absence, and the gaps and denials by which it opposes my desires are
above all what refer the world back to its basis. Yet it is also through the
imaginary that the original meaning of reality is disclosed. Therefore, it
cannot exclude reality. At the very heart of perception it can throw into
bright light the secret and hidden power at work in the most manifest
forms of presence. To be sure, Peter's absence and my dismay prompt
me to dream that dream in which my existence goes forth to meet Peter.
But in his presence, too, before that face which today I am reduced to
imagining, I can already summon up Peter in imagination, not as elsewhere
70 Michel Foucault

or as different, but there, where he was, just as he was. This Peter who
is seated there before me is not imaginary in that his actuality might have
duplicated itself and might have assigned me another, virtual Peter (the
Peter I hypothesize, desire, anticipate), but is imaginary in that, at this
privileged moment, he is, for me, precisely himself, Peter. He it is, toward
whom I go, whose encounter promises me certain satisfactions. His
friendship for me is located there, somewhere, on that trajectory of my
existence I am already tracing out. His friendship marks the moment in
which directions will change, or where, perhaps, they will regain their
initial orientation and simply run their course. To imagine Peter when I
am perceiving him thus is not to have, alongside him, an image of him
as older, or as in some other place and time, but to grasp once more that
original movement of our existences whose precocious concurrence can
make up a single world more fundamental than that system of actuality
which today defines our common presence in this room. Then my percep-
tion itself, while remaining perception, becomes imaginary by the sole
fact that it finds its coordinates in the directions of existence itself. Imag-
inary, too, my words and feelings, this conversation I am now having
with Peter, this friendship. Yet not false, for all that, nor illusory. The
imaginary is not a mode of unreality, but indeed a mode of actuality, a
way of approaching presence obliquely to bring out its primordial dimen-
sions.
Gaston Bachelard is absolutely right when he shows the imagination
at work in the intimate recesses of perception, and the secret labor which
transforms the object one is perceiving into an object of contemplation.
"One understands forms by their transformation"; then, beyond the norms
of objective truth, "the realism of unreality holds sway. "67 No one has
better understood the dynamic work of the imagination and the incessantly
vectorial nature of its movement. But should we also follow Bachelard
when he shows this movement culminating in the image, and the thrust
of the image installing itself of its own accord within the dynamism of
the imagination?

*
On the contrary, the image does not seem to be made of the same
stuff as the imagination. The image which takes shape as a crystallized
form and which almost always borrows its vivacity from memory, does
indeed play the part of a substitute for the reality, functioning as the
analogon which we earlier denied to imagination. When I imagine Peter's
return, or what we shall first say to each other, I do not, strictly speaking,
have an image, and what bears me along is solely the movement signifying
this eventual meeting-whatever it may bring, that is, in excitement or
bitterness, exultation or dismay. But here is Peter, all of a sudden, "in
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 71

image," in that somber attire and that lurking smile I know him by. Did
this image serve to complete the movement of my imagination and fill it
with what it was still lacking? Absolutely not: for I soon cease imagining.
Even if it should persist for a while, this image does not fail to refer me,
sooner or later, to my actual perception, to those white walls around me
that exclude the presence of Peter. The image is not given at the culminating
moment of imagination, but at the moment of its alteration. The image
mimes the presence of Peter, the imagination goes forth to encounter him.
To have an image is therefore to leave off imagining.
The image is impure, therefore, and precarious. Impure, because
always of the order of the "as if." To a certain extent, it will shape itself
within that movement of the imagination which reinstates the very direc-
tions of existence, but it will feign an identification of these directions
with the dimensions of perceived space, and of this movement, with the
mobility of the perceived object. By presenting my meeting with Peter in
this very room, and a conversation of such and such words, the image
enables me to elude the real task of imagination: to bring to light the
significance of this encounter and the movement of my existence which
bears me toward it with such invincible freedom. That is why the "as if'
of the image turns the authentic freedom of the imagination into the fantasy
of desire. Just as it mimes perception by way of quasi-presence, so the
image mimes freedom by a quasi-satisfaction of the desire.
And by the same token the image is precarious. It completely exhausts
itself in its contradictory status. On the one hand, it takes the place of
imagination and of that movement which refers me back toward the origin
of the constituted world; at the same time, it points to this world, constituted
in the perceptual mode, as its target. That is why reflection kills the image,
as perception also does, whereas the one and the other reinforce and
nourish imagination. When I am perceiving this doorway, I cannot have
an image of Peter passing through it; and yet this room in which I find
myself, with all that is familiar about it, with all the traces it bears of my
past life and my projects, may ceaselessly assist me, by its very perceptual
content, in imagining what the return of Peter and his reappearance in my
life would mean. The image as fixation upon a quasi-presence is but the
vertigo of imagination as it turns back toward the primordial meaning of
presence. The image constitutes a ruse of consciousness in order to cease
imagining, the moment of discouragement in the hard labor of imagining.

*
Poetic expression is the manifest proof. It does not, indeed, find its
greatest expansion where it finds the greatest number of substitutes for
reality, where it invents the most duplications and metaphors, but, on the
contrary. where it best restores presence to itself-where the proliferation
72 Michel Foucault

of analogies well up, and where the metaphors by neutralizing each other,
restore the depth to immediacy. The inventors of images discover
similarities and hunt down metaphors. The imagination, in its true poetic
function, meditates on identity. If it is true that the imagination circulates
through a universe of images, it does notmove to the extent that it promotes
or reunites images, but to the extent that it destroys and consumes them.
The imagination is in essence iconoclastic. Metaphor is the metaphysics
of the image, in the sense that metaphysics is the destruction of physics.
The true poet denies himself the accomplishment of desire in the image,
because the freedom of imagination imposes itself on him as a task of
refusal:

While carrying out the poetic task among the freshly cleared fields of the
Word in its universality, the poet-integral, avid, impressionable, and
plucky-will never welcome any enterprise which might alienate that
marvel which freedom in poetry is."

The value of a poetic imagination is to be measured by the inner destructive

power of the image.
Exactly opposite stands the morbid fantasy, and perhaps even certain
crude forms of hallucination. Here, the imagination is completely
enmeshed in the image. Phantasms emerge when the subject finds the free
movements of its existence crushed in the presence of a quasi-perception
which envelops and inunobilizes it. The slightest effort of the imagination
stops, and is sucked into the image as if f . . .ts direct contradictory.
The dimension of the imaginary h collapsed. The atient is left only
with the capacity to have image, images all the mor forceful, all the
more tightly knit as the iconoc astic imagination is alienated in them.
Phantasms cannot be understo ,therefore, in terms of imagination
deploying itself, but only in term . of imagination disenfranchised. The
aim of psychotherapy should be to free the imaginary that is trapped in
the image.
Yet a difficulty arises, one which is all the more important for us
since it touches upon our main theme: is the dream a rhapsody of images?
If it is true that images are but the imagination alienated, deflected in its
undertaking, alienated in its essence, our whole analysis of the dreaming
imagination is threatened by this very fact.
But are we in fact justified in speaking of dream "images"? No doubt
we become conscious of a dream only by way of images, and starting
from them. Yet in themselves they are given only fragmentarily and
choppily: "First I was in a forest. .. , then I was at home ... ," etc. To be
sure, as everyone knows, a suddenly interrupted dream always ends on a
thoroughly crystallized image.
Far from proving that the image makes up the weave of the dream,
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 73

these facts show only that the image is a view-point on dream-imagination,

a way for waking consciousness to retrieve its dream features. In other
words, during the dream, the movement of imagination is directed toward
the primary moment of existence where the original constitution of the
world is achieved. Now, when trying to grasp this movement within the
constituted world, waking consciousness provides it with the lines of an
almost-perceived space as coordinates, and presses it towards a quasi-pre-
sence of the image. In short, the authentic current of the imagination is
reversed and, against the dream itself, images are put in its place.
For the rest, the genius of Freud bears witness to this state of affairs,
since he sensed clearly that the meaning of a dream was not to be sought
at the level of image content. Better than anyone, he understood that the
phantasmagoria of the dream hid more than it revealed, and that it was
but a compromise permeated by contradictions. But the compromise is
not in fact between the repressed and the censor, between the instinctive
impulses and the perceptual material. It is between the authentic movement
of the imaginative and its adulteration in the image. If the meaning of the
dream is always beyond the images gleaned upon waking, this is not
because they veil hidden forces, but because wakefulness can reach the
dream only mediately, and because between waking image and dream
imagination, the distance is as great as between quasi-presence in a con-
stituted world and original presence to a world being constituted.
Analysis of a dream starting from the images supplied by waking
consciousness must precisely have the goal of bridging that distance
between image and imagination, or, if you will, of effecting the transcend-
ental reduction of the imaginary.
This is the step that, in our view, Binswanger took concretely in
"Dream and Existence." And it is essential that this transcendental reduc-
tion of the imaginary ultimately be one and the same thing as the passage
from an anthropological analysis of dreams to an ontological analysis of
the imagination. Thus is the passage from anthropology to ontology, which
seems to us from the outset the major problem of the analysis of Dasein,
actually accomplished.

*
We have not, of course, followed the imagination along the whole
course of its movement. We have only retraced that line that connects it
to the dream as to its origin and its truth. We have only followed it in its.
reference back to the dream by which it breaks away from images, in
which it always risks alienation. But the moment of the dream is not the
definitive form in which imagination takes shape. No doubt, the dream
restores the imagination to its truth and gives it back the absolute meaning
of its freedom. All imagination, to be authentic, must once more learn to
74 Michel Foucault

dream, and "ars poetica" has no meaning unless it teaches us to break

with the fascination of images and to reopen, for imagination, its path of
freedom toward the dream that offers it, as its absolute truth, the "unshat-
terable kernel of night." But on the other side of the dream, the movement
of imagination continues. Then imagination is taken up in the work of
expression that gives a new meaning to truth and freedom:
Then the poet can see how the contraries,--these punctual yet tumultuous
mirages-tum out, how their immanent heritage becomes personified,
poetry and truth being, as we know, synonymous."

The image can then come forward again, no longer as imagination

renounced, but on the contrary as its fulfillment. Purified in the fire of
the dream, what in the dream was only alienation of the imaginative,
becoines ashes, but the fire itself finds its fulfillment in the flame. The
image is no longer image of something, totally projected toward an absence
which it replaces; rather, it is gathered into itself and is given as the
fullness of a presence, it is addressed to someone. Now, the image appears
as a modality of expression, and achieves its meaning in a "style," if one
may understand by that term the originative movement of the imagination
when it becomes "the Visage willing to exchange."7o But here we are
already speaking in the register of history. Expression is language, work
of art, the ethical; here lurk all problems of style, all historical moments
whose objective becoming is constitutive of that world whose directional
meanings for our existence are exhibited by the dream. Not that the dream
is the truth of history. But in bringing forth that which in Existenz is most
irreducible to history, the dream shows best the meaning it can take for
a freedom that has not yet really reached its universal moment in an
objective expression. This is why the dream has absolute primacy for an
anthropological understanding of concrete man. The surpassing of this
primacy, however, is the task that lies ahead for the real man-an ethical
task and an historical necessity:
It is doubtle of this man so utterly at grips with Evil, whose
voracious d medullary fac e knows, to transform the fabricated fact
into an hist rical one. Our restle conviction should not denigrate it, but
interrogate. it, we the fervent sla rs of real beings in the successive
person of/our chimera ... Escape i to one's counterpart, with all the
immense promises of poetry, will pe aps one day be possible. 7I

But all this has to do with an anthropology of expression which would

be more fundamental, in our view, than an anthropology of the imagination.
We do not propose to outline it at this time. We only wanted to show all
that Binswanger's text could bring to an anthropological study of the
imaginary. What he brought to light regarding dreams is the fundamental
moment where the movement of existence discovers the decisive point of
bifurcation between those images in which it becomes alienated in a
pathological subjectivity, and expressions in which it fulfills itself in an
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 75
objective history. The imaginary is the milieu, the "element," of this
choice. Therefore, by placing at the heart of imagination the meaning of
the dream, one can restore the fundamental forms of existence, and one
can reveal its freedom. And one can also designate its happiness and its
unhappiness, since the unhappiness of existence is always writ in alien-
ation, and happiness, in the empirical order, can only be the happiness
of expression.

NOTES

I Cf. for example, Paul Hiiberlin, Der Mensch: Eine Philosophische Anthropologie, "Vor-
wort" (Zurich: Schweizer Spiegel, 1941),7-8.
2 Ibid., passim.
3 Cf. K. Schneider, Fortschritte der Neurologie, Psychiatrie und ihrer Grenzgebiete
(Stuttgart/Leipzig: Thieme), I, 145.
4 In Neue Schweizer Rundschau (Zurich: Fretz u. Wasmuth), IX, 1930; reprinted in
Ludwig Binswanger, Ausgewiihlte Vortriige und Aufsiitze (Bern: A. Francke, 1947),
74-97. English translation by Jacob Needleman, "Dream and Existence," in Needleman,
Being-in-the-World (New York: Basic Books, 1963),222-248.
5 "Uber Ideenflucht" (Schweizer Archiv for Neurologie und Psychiatrie, XXX, 1931-1933)
was the first study of psychopathology in the mode of Dasein-ana1ysis.
6 James Strachey (ed), Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund
Freud (London: Hogarth, 1953), XII (1911-1913), 36, 36n., 63-64.
7 See Edmund Husserl, Logische Untersuchungen (Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1922), v.lI,
Pt. I, "Untersuchung I," "Ausdruck und Bedeutung," Ch.1, sec. 5, pp. 30-31.-Logical
Investigations (New York: Humanities Press, 1970; trans. J.N. Findlay), I, "Investigation
I," Ch.1, Sec. 5, p. 275.
8 Translator's note: The passage in the French text reads: "L'association rappelle a la
conscience des contenus en leur laissant Ie soin de se rattacher aux contenus donnes
suivant la loi de leurs essences respectives." The original German text by Edmund
Husser! reads: "Die Assoziation ruft die Inhalte nicht bloss ins Bewusstsein zUrUck und
uber!iisst es ihnen, sich mit den gegebenen Inhalten zu verknupfen, wie es das Wesen
der einen und Anderen (ihre Gattungsbestimmtheit) geseztlich vorschreibt." (Logische
Untersuchungen, op.cit., p.29.) The English translation by J.N. Findlay reads: "Associ-
ation does not merely restore contents to consciousness, and then leave it to them to
combine with the contents there present, as the essence or generic nature of either may
necessarily prescribe." (Logical Investigations, op. cit., pp.273- 274.) (F.W.)
9 Translator's note: The passage in the French text reads: "Les actes de formulation,
d'imagination, de perception, sont trop differents pour que la signification s' epuise tantot
en ceux-ci tantot en ceux-Ia; nous devons preferer une conception qui attribue cette
fonction de signification a un seul acte partout identique, a un acte qui so it delivre des
limites de cette perception qui nous fait si souvent defaut." The original German text
by Edmund Husser! reads: "Die Akte, welche mit dem Wortlaut geeinigt sind, je nachdem
dieser rein symbolisch oder intuitiv, auf Grund blosser Phantasie oder realisender
Wahmehmung, bedeutsam ist, sind phiinomenologische zu sehr different, als dass wir
glauben ktinnten, das Bedeuten spiele sich bald in jenem, welche diese Funktion des
Bedeuten einem uberall gleichartigen Akten zuweist, der von den Schranken der uns so
oft versagten Wahmehmung und selbst Phantasie frei ist und sich, wo der Ausdruck im
eigentlichc Sinne 'uusdrilckt,' mit dem ausgedruckten Akte nur vereint." (Logische
76 Michel Foucault

Untersuchungen, op. cit., v.II, Pt. 2, "Untersuchung VI," sec.4, pp. 15-16.) The English
translation by J.N. Findlay reads: "The acts which are united with the sound of our
words are phenomenologically quite different according as these words have a purely
symbolic, or an intuitively fulfilled significance, or according as they have a merely
fancied or a perceptually realizing basis: we cannot believe that signification is now
achieved in this sort of act, now in that. We shall rather have to conceive that the
function of meaning pertains in all cases to one and the same sort of act, a type of act
free from the limitations of the perception or the imagination which so often fails us,
and which, in all cases where an expression authentically 'expresses,' merely becomes
one with the act expressed." (Logical Investigations, op.cit., v. II, "Investigation VI,"
Ch. I, Sec. 4, p.681. (F.W.)
10 Translator's note: The passage in the French text reads: "Comrne Ie remarque encore
Husser!, si nous pensons un chiliagone, nous imaginons n'importe quel polygone ayant
beaucoup de cotes."-The original German text by Edmund Husser! reads: "Ebenso
denken wir ein Tausendeck und imaginieren irgendein Polygon von 'Vielen' Seite."
(Logische Untersuchungen, op. cit., v. II, PI. 2, "Untersuchung I," Ch. 2, Sec. 18, p.
65.)--The English translation by J.N. Findlay reads: ..... we think of a chiliagon, while
we imagine any polygon with 'many' sides." (Logical Investigations, op. cit., v. I,
"Investigation I," Ch. 2, Sec. 18, p. 302.) (F.W.)
II Edmund Husserl, Umarbeitung of the "Sixth Logical Investigation." Manuscript M III,
2 II 8a.
12Ibid., p.37.
13 Karl Jaspers, Psychopathologie generale (Paris, Alcan, 1933; tf. A. Kastler), p.230.
14 Karl Jaspers, Philosophy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970; tr. E.B. Ashton),
v.2, pp. 47ff.
15 F.W.J. Schelling, Werke (ed. Otto Weiss; Munich: Biederstein, 1946), v.l, 657.
16 De Mirbel, Le Palais du Prince de Soimmeil, ou est enseignee l' oniromancie autrement
l' art de deviner par les songes. (Lyons: L. Pavlhe, 1670).
17 Theophile de Viau (1590-1626), Les amours tragiques de Pyrame et Thisbe (Napoli:
Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, 1967; ed. Guido Saba), Act IV, sc. ii, 11. 852-853, p.1l5.
18 Franz von Baader (1765-1841), Werke (Leipzig: H. Bethmann, 1850-1860), I, 475.
19 See A. Wolf (ed. & tr.), The Correspondence ofSpinoza (London: Frank Cass, 1966),
"Letter 52," p. 272. (Translation by F.W.)
20 Ibid., "Letter 17," p.I40.
21 R.H.M. Elwes (tr.), Chief Works of Benedict Spinoza, v.II, (Dover), "Ethics," Pt. II,
Ax. 3.
22 Ibid., v. I, Ch. 1, p. 15.
23 Ibid., pp. 24-25.
24 Francois Tristan L'Hermite (1601-1655), La Mariane. See Claude K. Abraham et al.
(eds.), Le thetitre complet de Tristan l'Hermite (University, Alabama: University of
Alabama Press, 1975), p.40.
25 Louis Ferrier de la Martiniere (1652-1721), Adraste, tragedie, in Theatre Francois
(Paris, 1737).
26 Isaac de Benserade, La mort d'Achille, et La dispute de ses armes, tragedie (Paris: A.
de Sammaville, 1637).
27 Tristan I'Hermite, Osman, Act II, sc.i, II. 327-332. See Claude K. Abraham, op. cit.,
p.7"->-o-____
28 . .J. SChelling,~erke (op.cit.), IV, 217.
2 Aristotle, The Parv Naturalia (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1908; ed. J .A. Beare), "De
, Divinatione per Somn m," Ch. II, 464a.
30 Franz von Baader, op.\cit., IV, 135.
31 Cf. Eduard von Hartrr\ann. Ausgewiihlte Werke, Bd. 13: Die Moderne Psychologie
(Leipzig: Haacke, 1900, pp. 32-36.
/
 DREAM, IMAGINATION AND EXISTENCE 77

32 Ludwig Binswanger, "Der Fall Ellen West," in Schweizer Archiv fur Neurolo/iie und
Psychiatrie, v. 53 (1944), 225-277; v. 54 (1944),69-117,330-360; v. 55 (1945), 16-40;
"The Case of Ellen West," in Rollo May (ed.) Existence (New York: Basic Books,
1958), 237-364.
33 Quintilian, Institutes of Oratory Book l.
34 Plato, Republic (Baltimore, Md.: Penguin, 1958; tr. H.D.P. Lee), pp. 344-345 (Steph.
371 C-D).
35 "Discours sur les maladies melancoliques," Ch. VI.
36 Francois Tristan I'Hermite, La Mariane (loc. cit.), Act I, sc. ii, 11. 61-62, 69-79.
37 Friedrich von Hardenburg (1772-1801; pseudo Novalis), Werke, II, 114.
38 Quoted by Bovet, Intern. Zeitschrift Psychanalyse, VI, 354.
39 See Guy Davenport (tr.) Herakleitos and Diogenes (San Francisco: Grey Fox Press,
1979), Fragment No. 15, p.13.
40 Ludwig Binswanger, "Heraklits Auffassung der Menschen," Die Antike, v. XI, 1935.
Also in Binswanger, Ausgewiihlte Vortriige, op. cit., v. I.
41 Landermann, Die Transcendenz des Erkennens.
42 Friedrich von Hardenburg, op.cit., II, 114.
43 Johann G. von Herder, Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit (Berlin:
Deutscher Bibliotek, 1915).
44 Friedrich von Hardenburg, op.cit., III, 253.
45 Plato, Republic, op.cit., p. 345 (Steph. 57ID-572A). (English translation adapted to
reflect French text. F.W.)
46 Arnauld, Agamemnon, 1,1.
47 Frederic Lachevre (ed.), Les oeuvres libertines de Cyrano de Bergerac (Paris: Librarie
Ancienne Honore Champion, 1921), p. 136.
48 Shakespeare, Macbeth, II, ii, 36-40.
49 Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, II, ii, 10-11.
50 James Strachey (ed.), op. cit., v.7 (1901-1905), pp. 118-119.
51 Ibid., pp. 109-110& note.
52 Ibid., p. 120, n.1.
53 Ludwig Binswanger, Wandlungen der Auffassung und Deutung des Traumes von den
Griechen bis zum Gegenwart (Berlin: Springer, 1928).
54 Oskar Becker, "Beitrage zur phiinomenologischen Begriindung der Geometrie und ihrer
physikalischen Anwendung," in Jahrbuch for Philosophie und Phiinomenologische
Forschung (Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1923; ed. Edmund Husserl), 383-560. See Sec. 7,
pp. 446-459.
55 Edmund Husserl, The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology
(Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1970), tr. David Carr; Appendix VI,
"The Origin of Geometry," pp. 353-378.
56 Erwin W. Straus, Yom Sinn der Sinne (Berlin: Springer, 1935). The Primary World of
the Senses (tr. Jacob Needleman; New York: Free Press, 1963), pp. 318 et. seq.
57 Ludwig Binswanger, "Das Raumproblem in der Psychopathologie," in Zeitschrift for
die Neurologie, Ziirich, 1933.
58 Eugene Minkowski, "Esquisses Phenomenologiques," in Recherches Philosophiques
(Paris: Boivin), v. IV (1934-1935), 295-313.
59 Riirnke, Zur Phiinomenoiogie und Klinik des Gliickgefuhls (Springer: 1924).
60 Eugen Fink, Yom Wesen des Enthusiasmus (Freiburg i. Breisgau: Verlag Dr. Hans V.
Chamier, 1947). 12.
61 See n. 32, supra.
62 Cf. Fricdril:h Ilehhcl (11113-11163): "A strange dream: A night in which my seething
imaginulion wenl III its c!(treme in a dream so monstrous and so overwhelming that it
78 Michel Foucault

occurred seven more times. I had the impression that God had stretched a rope between
sky and earth, placed me on it, and proceeded to swing me. I flew up and down
vertiginously. Now I was among the clouds, my hair streaming in the wind, I held on,
shutting my eyes; now I was hurled so close to the ground that I could make out the
yellow sand, and the little white and red pebbles, and I felt as if I could touch it with
my foot. I would want to get off at that moment, but before I could do so, I felt myself
propelled once again into the air, and I could only hang onto the rope to keep from
falling and crashing to the ground." (Gerhard Fricke, ed., Hebbels Tagebiicher (Leipzig:
Phillipp Reclam, 1936.)
63 See n. 5, supra.
64 To the extent to which tragic expression is located on this vertical direction of existence,
it has an ontological root that gives it an absolute privilege over other modes of expression;
the latter are rather anthropological modulations.
65 Jean-Paul Sartre, L' imaginaire (Paris: Gallimard, 1940), p.163. (My translation.-F.W.)
Cf. J.-P. Sartre, The Psychology of Imagination (New York: Washington Square, 1966),
p. 161.
66 In certain schizophrenics, the theme of suicide is linked to the myth of rebirth.
67 Gaston Bachelard, L'air et les songes (Paris: Corti, 1943), p. 13.
68 Rene Char, Fureur et Mystere (Paris: Gallimard, 1948: 2nd ed.), p. 86 ("Partage Formel,
XXXIII"). Translator's note: The passage in the French text reads: "Au cours de son
action parmi les essarts de I'universalite du Verbe, Ie poete integre, avide, impressionable
et temeraire se gardera de sympathiser avec les entreprises qui alienent Ie prodige de la
liberte en poesie." (English translation in text supplied by Mary Ann Caws.)
69 Rene Char, ibid., "Partage Formel, XVII," p.81. Translator's note: The passage in the
French text reads: "Le poete peut alors voir les contraires,--ces mirages ponctuels et
tumultueux,-aboutir, leur lignee immanente se personnifier, poesie et verite, etant,
come nous savons, synonymes. " (English translation in text supplied by Mary Ann Caws.)
70 Rene Char, ibid., "Partage Formel, XXXVII," p. 87. Translator's note: The passage in
the French text reads: "n ne depend que de la necessite et de votre volupte qui me
creditent que j'aie ou non Ie Visage de I'echange." (English translation in text supplied
by Mary Ann Caws.)
71 Rene Char, ibid., "Partage Formel, LV," p.92. Translator's note: The passage in the
French text reads: "Sans doute appartient-il it cet homme de fond en comble aux prises
avec Ie mal dont il connait Ie visage vorace et medullaire, de transformer Ie fait fabuleux
en fait historique. Notre conviction inquiete ne doit Ie denigrer, mais l'interroger, nous
fervents tueurs d'etres reels dans la personne successive de notre chimere ... L'evasion
dans son semblable avec d'immenses promesses de poesie sera peut-etre unjour possible."
(English translation in text supplied by Mary Ann Caws.)