TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT HRM

CHAPTER 5
TRAINING AND DEVELOPING EMPLOYEES

1. TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

5.1 Overview
It is know that successful candidates placed on the jobs need training to perform their
duties effectively. Workers must be trained to operate machines, reduce scrap and avoid
accidents. It is not only the workers who need training. Supervisors, managers and
executives also need to be developed in order to enable them to grow and acquire
maturity of thought and action. Training and development constitute an ongoing process
in any organization.
Training could be compared to this metaphor - if I miss one meal in a day, then I will starve
to death. The survival of the organization requires development throughout the ranks in
order to survive, while training makes the organization more effective and efficient in its
day-to-day operations.
Since managers are responsible for the effective performance of work to achieve the
organization aims and objectives, they logically must have the responsibility for ensuring
that employees are effectively trained for this purpose. Management must take the initiative
in setting up, resourcing and monitoring the effectiveness of the training system and its
provision in practice.
While management bears the main responsibility, all staff in the organization are involved
in the training task. Effective practice requires the collaboration of managerial, HR and
training staffs.
1.1. Training, Development, and Education
Training is a systematic process of changing the behavior, knowledge and motivation of
present employees to improve the match between employee characteristics and
employment requirements. In other words, it is the systematic development of the
knowledge, skills and attitudes required by an individual to perform adequately a given task
or job. Its focus is on individuals' current jobs, enhancing those specific skills and
abilities to immediately perform their jobs.
On the other hand, development is concerned with giving individuals the necessary
knowledge, skills and experience to enable them to undertake greater and more
demanding roles and responsibilities. It represents efforts to improve an employee's
ability to handle a variety of assignment. It generally focuses on future jobs in the
organization. Hence, it is not primarily skills-oriented.

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Development is training people to acquire new horizon, technologies, or viewpoints. It

enables leaders to guide their organizations onto new expectations by being proactive
rather than reactive. It enables workers to create better products, faster services, and more
competitive organizations. It is learning for growth of the individual, but not related to a
specific present job. It can be considered as the forefront of what many now call the
learning organization.
Education is concerned with imparting theoretical concepts and developing a sense of
reasoning and judgment. It is learning general knowledge of a particular subject.
6.1 Importance of Training
Training programs help remove performance deficiencies in employees. This is
particularly true when –
 The deficiency is caused by a lack of ability rather than a lack of motivation to
perform,
 The individuals involved have the aptitude and motivationto learn to do the job
better, and
 Supervisors and peers are supportive of the desired behaviors.
Training makes the employees versatile in operations. Accidents, scrap and damage to
machinery and equipment can be avoided or minimized through training. Even
dissatisfaction, complaints, absenteeism, and turnover can be reduced if employees are
trained well. Thus, training and development is an investment in HR with a promise of
better returns in future.
6.2 The purpose of training
The aim of training is to help the organization achieve its purpose by adding value
to its key resource – the people it employs. The purpose of training is to:
 To increase productivity and quality (improve the current performance of employees
who are performing at less than desirable levels)
 To promote versatility and adaptability to new methods
 To reduce the number of accidents
 To reduce labor turnover
 To increase job satisfaction displaying itself in lower labor turn-over and less
absenteeism
 To orient new hires; to teach new employees how to perform their initial assignment;
 To train for multi-skilling;
 To prepare employees for future promotions,

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 To prepare employees for changes in design, processes or technology and

 To increase efficiency
6.3 The Training Process
The training process involves the following stages: assessment of training needs;
establishment of training goals; developing training programs; implementation of
training programs; and evaluation of results.
6.3.1 Assessment of training needs
For training to be effective, it is important to not only discern the training needs of the
individual/group but also how their needs fit the overall objectives of the organization.
Many organizations invest considerable resources in training and development but never
really examine how training and development can most effectively promote organizational
objectives, or how developmental activities should be altered in the light of business plans.
Training efforts must aim at meeting the requirements of the organizations (long – term)
and the individual employees (short-term). This involves finding answers to questions
such as: Whether training is needed? If yes, where it is needed? Which training is needed?
Once we identify training gaps within the organization, it becomes easy to design an
appropriate training program.
Training needs analysis is the process of determining if there is a discrepancy between
designed performance and actual performance of the trainees. The analysis of training
needs aims to define the gap between what is happening and what should happen. The
gap may consist of the difference between:
 how the company or a function within the company is performing and how it
should perform;
 what people know and can do and what they should know and do;
 what people actually do and what they should do.
When does the need for training arise?
 The installation of new equipment or techniques
 A change in working methods or products produced
 A realization that performance is inadequate
 Labor shortage, necessitating the upgrading of some employees
 A desire to reduce the amount of scrap and to improve quality
 An increase in the number of accidents
 Promotion or transfer of individual employees.

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 Ensures availability of necessary skills and there could be a pool of talent from
which to promote from.
It is possible to assess training needs at three levels: at organizational level; at group or
occupational level, and at the individual level. These three areas are interconnected. The
analysis of corporate needs will lead to the identification of training needs in different
departments or occupations, while these in turn will indicate the training required for
individual employees. The process also operates in reverse. As the needs of individual
employees are analyzed separately, common needs emerge which can be dealt with on a
group basis. The sum of group and individual needs will define corporate needs,
although there may be some super ordinate training requirements which can only be related
to the company as a whole - the whole training plan may be greater than the sum of its
parts.
Corporate needs can be determined by analyzing company strengths and weaknesses
and analyzing corporate manpower plans. Analyzing company strengths and weaknesses
is part of the corporate planning process. In order to perform this task, attempt will be
made to examine the main activity areas: e.g. development, production, marketing,
finance, personnel and management services. The aim should be to identify those
problems that can be attributed to weaknesses or gaps in the knowledge, skill and
capacities of managerial, technical, clerical and production staff. This is necessarily a
broad approach to highlight areas within functions or departments where further study is
required.
Analyzing manpower plan will indicate the numbers and types of people required in the
future. So, manpower planning will provide a major source of information on longer-term
training requirements.
Group needs can be identified by analyzing functional or departmental manpower plans
or by conducting special surveys using questionnaires and interviews. Job analysis can
also be used to determine the knowledge and skills required in specific jobs and this
information can be supplemented by analyzing the results obtained from the assessment of
individual needs.
Individual needs can be assessed by the use of job analysis and by analyzing the
information obtained from performance reviews. An individual obviously needs training
when his or her performance falls short of standards, that is, when there is performance
deficiency. Inadequacy in performance may be due to lack of skill or knowledge or any

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other problem. Training can solve problems of performance deficiency caused by absence
or lack of skills or knowledge.
Eventually a training specification will be produced. Training specification is a detailed
statement of what the trainee needs to learn based on a comparison between the job
specification and the trainee's present level of performance.
Training needs analysis - methods
Surveys to identify training needs can be conducted by questionnaire or by interview or
preferably by a combination of these two methods. The simplest method of conducting
training surveys is to go round asking managers and supervisors what they think is the
training priorities in their departments. The results of the training surveys should be used to
define objectives, priorities and the likely pay off of any proposed schemes. Several
methods are available for training need analysis.
Methods used in Training Needs assessment
Group or organizational analysis Individuals Analysis
Organizational goals and objectives. Performance appraisal
Personnel /skills inventories Work sampling
Organizational climate indices Interviews
Efficiency indices Questionnaires
Exit interview Attitude survey
MBO or work planning systems Training progress
Quality circles Rating scales.
Customer survey/satisfaction data
Consideration of current and projected
changes

6.3.2 Establishment of training goals

Once training needs are assessed, training and development goals must be established.
Without clearly set goals, it is not possible to design and evaluate training programs.
Training objectives/goals are statements of what a trainee will be able to do at the end of
training activity. They are stated as behaviors that can be observed in a trainee. Goals
must be tangible, verifiable, measurable and timely. Without measurable training
goals/objectives, learning cannot be successfully planned or evaluated. It is not adequate
merely to say the change in employee knowledge, skills, attitudes or behaviour is desirable;
we must clarify what is to change and by how much.

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Training objectives should meet the following criteria. Objectives should be:
 Expressed in learner-oriented terms,
Example: "By the end of the program, trainees should be able to demonstrate specified
knowledge and skills".
 As specific as possible about terminal performance, standards required and attendant
conditions;
Example: "By the end of training, the manager will be able to use the computer to prepare
spread sheets to create a project plan showing all the main stages in the plan accurately".
 As measurable as possible and capable of achievement in the time allowed for
training.
 Expressed in language that clearly stages what the trainees have to do.
For instance, an objective on a management training course might be "To familiarize
student with the principles of effective management". This objective in no way serves as a
criterion for measuring learning achievement.
It is relatively easy to define objectives in measurable terms for specific activities such as
computing skills, driving, flying, playing instruments, carpentry, plumbing, cooking,
etc. It is much more difficult with a subject such as management. This is easy where skills’
training is involved. For example, the successful trainee will be expected to type 55 words
per minute with two or three errors per page. Nevertheless, clear behavioral standards of
expected results are necessary so that the program can be effectively designed and results
can be evaluated.
6.3.3 Developing Training Programs
Every training and development program must address certain vital issues. It involves:
identifying the target audience; selecting the resource persons to deliver the training;
selecting training methods and techniques; identifying where to conduct the program;
incorporating the principles of learning, and identifying the level of training.
Who are the trainers: Trainers should be selected on the basis of self-nomination,
recommendations of supervisors or by the HR department itself. Several people,
including the following may conduct training and development programs: Immediate
supervisors; Co-workers, as in buddy systems; Members of the personnel staff;
Specialists in other parts of the company; outside consultants and Industry
associations, and faculty members at universities.

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Methods and Techniques of training: A multitude of methods of training is used to train

employees. Training methods are categorized into two groups (i) on-the-job training and (ii)
off-the-job methods.

On-the-job training: refers to methods that are applied in the workplace, while the
employees are actually working. It is learning by doing. It places the employees in actual
work situations and makes them appear to be immediately productive. Cannell (1997:28)
defines on-the-job training as: “training that is planned and structured that takes place
mainly at the normal workstation of the trainee - although some instruction may be
provided in a special training area on site - and where a manager, supervisor, trainer or peer
colleague spends significant time with a trainee to teach a set of skills that have been
specified in advance.”

On-the-job training is the most widely used training methods. The popularity of these
methods can be attributed to their simplicity and the impression that they are less costly
to operate. Types of on-the-job training are: orientation training; apprentice training;
internships and assistantships; job rotation; coaching and so on.

Advantages:
 Tailor - made course content with use of REAL company situations /examples.
 It is usually less expensive than off-job training.
 Learning will take place using the equipment which will be actually used.
 Trainees acclimatize/adjust more rapidly.
Disadvantages
 Possibility of poor instruction and insufficient time.
 Trainee may be exposed to bad work practices.
 A large amount of spoiled work and scrap material may be produced.
 It leads to low productivity till the employees develop their skills.
 Valuable equipment may be damaged.
 Training takes place under production conditions that are stressful, i.e. noisy, busy,
confusing and exposing the trainee to comments by other workers.
Off-the-job training: are used away from workplaces. Types of the off-the-job training are
the following: vestibule; lecture; films; television; conference or discussion; case study;
role playing; simulation and so on.

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Advantages
 A specialist instructor enables delivery of high quality training.
 Wider range of facilities and equipment are available.
 The trainee can learn the job in planned stages.
 It is free from the pressures and distractions of company life.
 It is easier to calculate the cost of off-the-job training because it is more self-
contained.
Disadvantages
 Can result in transfer of learning difficulties when a trainee changes from training
equipment to production equipment.
 No training can be entirely off-the-job as some aspects of the task can only be
learned by doing them in the normal production setting, with its own customs and
network of personal relationships.
 Can be more expensive.

Everyone involved in the training should be informed well in advance of the training
session(s). It is equally important that the person(s) delivering the training – whether on-
the-job or off-the-job-training - are well versed in what has to be achieved and the most
suitable techniques to adopt. At this point, it is worthwhile to elaborate important
techniques of training.

1. Vestibule Training: This training method attempt to duplicate on-the-job-situation in a

company classroom. It is a classroom training that is often imported with the help of the
equipment and machines, which are identical with those in use in the place of work. This
technique enables the trainees to concentrate on learning new skill rather than on
performing on actual job. This type of training is efficient to train semi-skilled
personnel, particularly when many employees have to be trained for the same kind of
work at the same time. Often used to train – bank tellers, inspectors, machine operators,
typists etc. In this, training is generally given in the form of lectures, conferences, case
studies, role-play etc.
2. Demonstrations and Example: In this type of training method trainer describes and
displays something, as and when he teaches an employee, how to do something by actually
performing the activity himself and going on explaining why and what he is doing. This
method is very effective in teaching because it is much easier to show a person how to do a

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job than tell him or give him instruction about a particular job. This training is done by
combination with lectures, pictures, text materials etc.

3. Lectures: Lecture is a verbal presentation of information by an instructor to a large

audience. The lecturer is presumed to possess a considerable depth of knowledge of the
subject at hand. A virtue of this method is that it can be used for very large groups, and
hence the cost per trainee is low. This method is mainly used in colleges and universities,
though its application is restricted in training factory employees. Limitations of the lecture
method account for its low popularity. The method violates the principle of learning by
practice. It constitutes a one-way communication. There is no feedback from the
audience. Continued lecturing method can be made effective it if is combined with other
methods of training.
4. Audio-visuals: Audio-visuals include television slides, overheads, video-tapes and
films. These can be used to provide a wide range of realistic examples of job conditions
and situations in the condensed period of time. Further, the quality of the presentation can
be controlled and will remain equal for all training groups. But, audio-visuals constitute a
one-way system of communication with no scope for the audience to raise doubts for
clarification. Further, there is no flexibility of presentation from audience to audience.
7. Apprenticeship: This method of training is usually done in crafts, trades and in
technical areas. It is the oldest and most commonly used method, if the training is
relatively for a longer period. Here a major part of training is spent on the job, productive
work. Each apprentice is given a program of assignments according to a pre-determined
schedule, which provide for efficient training in trade skills.

8. Simulation: A simulator is any kind of equipment or technique that duplicates as

nearly as possible the actual conditions encountered on the job. Simulation then, is an
attempt to create a realistic decision-making environment for the trainee. Simulations
present likely problem situations and decision alternatives to the trainee. The more widely
held simulation exercises are case study, role-playing and vestibule training.
9. Conference: In this method, the participating individuals confer to discuss points of
common interest to each other. It is a basic to most participative group centered methods
of developments. This emphasis on small group discussion, on organized subject matter
and on the active participation of the members involved.

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10. Case Studies: This method was developed in 1800s at the Harvard Law School. The
case study is based upon the belief that managerial competence can best be attained
through the study, contemplation and discussion of concrete cases. When the trainees
are given cases to analyze, they are asked to identify the problem and recommend
tentative solution for it. The case study is primarily useful as a training technique for
supervisors and is especially valuable as a technique of developing discussion-making
skills, and for broadening the prospective of the trainee.

In case study method the trainee is expected to master the facts, should be acquainted with
the content of the case, define the objective sought in dealing with the issues in the case,
identify the problem, develop alternative courses of action, define the controls needed to
make the action effective and role play the action to test its effectiveness and find
conditions that may limit it.
11. Role Playing: In role-playing trainees act out the given role as they would be in stage
play. Two or more trainees are assigned parts to play before the rest of the class. Here role
players are informed of a situation and of the respective roles they have to play. Sometimes
after the preliminary planning, the situation is acted out by the role players. This method
primarily involves employee-employer relationship – Hiring, firing, discussing a
grievance procedure, conducting a post appraisal interview etc.
Learning Principles
Training is more likely to be effective when it incorporates principles of learning:
Modeling
Modeling is simply copying someone else’s behavior. Passive class-room learning does not
leave any room for modeling. If we want to change behaviour of people, it would be a
good idea to have videotapes of people showing the desired behavior. The selected
model should provide the right kind of behavior to be copied by others. A great deal of
human behavior is learned by modeling others. Children learn by modeling; parents and
older children, they are quite comfortable with the process by the time they grow up. As
experts put it; “Managers tend to manage as they were managed."
Motivation
For learning to take place, intention to learn is important. When the employee is
motivated, he pays attention to what is being said, done and presented. Motivation to learn
is influenced by the answers to questions such as: How important is my job to me? How
important is the information? Will learning help me progress in the company? People learn

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more quickly when the material is important and relevant to them. Learning is usually
quicker and long-lasting when the learner participates actively. Most people, for
example, never forget how to ride a bicycle because they took an active part in the learning
process.
Reinforcement:
If behavior is rewarded, it probably will be repeated. Positive reinforcement consists of
rewarding desired behaviors. People avoid certain behaviors that invite criticism and
punishment. A bank officer would want to do a postgraduate course in finance, if it earns
him increments and makes him eligible for further promotions. Both the external rewards
(investments, praise) and the internal rewards (a feeling of pride and achievement)
associated with desired behaviors compel subjects to learn properly. To be effective, the
trainer must reward desired behaviors only. If he rewards poor performance, the results may
be disastrous: good performers may quit in frustration, accidents may go up, and
productivity may suffer.

The reinforcement principle is also based on the premise that punishment is less effective in
learning than reward. Punishment is a pointer to undesirable behaviors. When administered,
it causes pain to the employee. He may not repeat the mistakes. The reactions may be mild
or wild. Action taken to repeal a person from undesirable action is punishment. If
administered properly, punishment may force the trainee to modify the undesired or
incorrect behaviors.
Feedback
People learn best if feedback is given as soon as possible after training. Every employee
want to know what is expected of him and how well he is doing. If he is off the track,
somebody must put him back on rails. The errors in such cases must be rectified
immediately. The trainee after learning the right behavior is motivated to do things in a
'right' way and earn the associated rewards. Positive feedback (showing the trainee the right
way of doing things) is to be preferred to negative feedback (telling the trainee that he is not
correct) when we want to change behavior.

Spaced Practice
Learning takes place easily if the practice sessions are spread over a period of time. New
employees learn better if the orientation program is spread over a two or three day’s period,
instead of covering it all in one day. For memorizing tasks, 'massed' practice is usually

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more effective. For 'acquiring' skills as stated by Mathis and Jackson, spaced practice is
usually the best. This incremental approach to skill acquisition minimizes physical fatigue
that deters learning.
Whole Learning
The concept of whole learning suggests that employees learn better if the job information is
explained as an entire logical process, so that they can see how the various actions fit
together into the 'big picture'. A broad overview of what the trainee would be doing on the
job should be given top priority, if learning has to take place quickly. Research studies have
also indicated that it is more efficient to practice a whole task all at once rather than
trying to master the various components of the task at different intervals.
Active Practice
'Practice makes a man perfect' so said Bacon. To be a swimmer, you should plunge into
water instead of simply reading about swimming or looking at films of worlds' best
swimmers. Learning is enhanced when trainees are provided ample opportunities to repeat
the task. For maximum benefit, practice sessions should be distributed over time.
Applicability of Training
Training should be as real as possible so that trainees can successfully transfer the new
knowledge to their jobs. The training situations should be set up so that trainees can
picture the types of situations they can come across on the job.
Environment
Finally, environment plays a major role in training. It is natural that workers, who are
exposed to training in comfortable environments with adequate, well spaced rest
periods, are more likely to learn than employees whose training conditions are less than
ideal. Generally speaking, learning is very fast at the beginning. Thereafter the pace of
learning slows down as opportunities for improvement are reduced.
6.3.4 Implementation of the training program
Once the training program has been designed, it needs to be implemented. Program
implementation involves action on the following lines:
 Deciding the location and organizing training and other facilities
 Scheduling the training program
 Conducting the program
 Monitoring the progress of trainees.
6.3.5 Evaluation of the training program

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The last stage in the training and development process is the evaluation of results. The
main objective of evaluating the training programs is to determine if the organization has
accomplished a specific training objective that is, correcting performance deficiencies. A
second reason for evaluation is to ensure that any changes in trainee capabilities are due
to the training program and not due to any other conditions.
HR professionals should try to collect four types of data while evaluating training
programs:
I/ measures of reaction - The reactions of trainees to the training experience itself:
 how useful or even how enjoyable they feel the training is,
 what they think of individual sessions and speakers,
 What they would like put in or taken out, and so on.
Ii/ Learning
Evaluation at the learning level measures the degree to which trainees have
mastered the concepts, knowledge and skills of the training.
Ii/ Job behavior /behavior change/
At this level, evaluation attempts to measure the extent to which trainees have
applied their learning on the job.
IV/ Organizational results
Evaluation at this level attempts to measure the effect of changes in the job
behavior of trainees on the functioning of the organization in which they are
employed. The measurement might be in such terms as improvements in output,
productivity, quality, morale, contribution, or sales turnover.
Methods of Evaluation various methods can be used to collect data on the outcomes of
training. Some of these are:
Questionnaires: Comprehensive questionnaires could be used to obtain opinion reactions,
views of trainees.
Tests: Standard tests could be used to find out whether trainees have learnt anything during
and after the training.
Interviews: Interviews could be conducted to find the usefulness of training offered to
operatives.
Studies: Comprehensive studies could be carried out eliciting the opinions and judgments
of trainers, superiors and peer groups about the training.

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Human resource factors: Training can also be evaluated on the basis of employee
satisfaction, which in turn can be examined on the basis of decrease in employee turnover,
absenteeism, accidents, grievances, discharges, dismissals, etc.
Cost benefit analysis: The costs of training (cost of hiring trainers, tools to learn training
centre, wastage, production stoppage, opportunity cost of trainers and trainees) could be
compared with its value (in terms of reduced learning time, improved learning, superior
performance) in order to evaluate a training program.
Feedback: After evaluation, the situation should be examined to identify the probable
causes for gaps in performance. The training evaluation information (about costs, time
spent, outcomes, etc.) should be provided to the instructors’, trainees and other parties
concerned for control, correction and improvement of trainees' activities. The training
evaluator should follow it up sincerely so as to ensure effective implementation of the
feedback report at every stage.

6.4 Employee Development Methods

All employees, regardless of level, can be developed. Historically development was
reserved in potential management personnel. Although it is critical for individuals to be
trained in specific skills related to managing, time has taught us that these skills are needed
by non - managerial employees as well. Those methods used to develop employees in
general are the same as those used to develop future management talent.

Some development of an individual's abilities can take place on the job. Three popular on-
the-job techniques are: job rotation, assistant-to-positions and committee assignment.
On the other hand, the other three off-the-job methods are: lecture courses and seminars,
simulation exercise and outdoor training.

Job Rotation: It involves moving employees to various positions in the organization in an

effort to expand their skills, knowledge, and abilities. It represents an excellent method
for broadening an individual's exposure to company operations and for turning a
specialist into a generalist. It can reduce boredom and stimulate the development of new
ideas.

Assistant-to-positions: Employees with demonstrated potential are sometimes given the

opportunity to work under a seasoned and successfully manager, often in different areas of

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the organization. These individuals perform many duties under the watchful eye of a
supportive coach. In doing so, these employees get exposure to a wide variety of
management activities and are groomed for assuming the duties of the next higher level.

Committee Assignment: It can provide an opportunity on the employee to share in

decision-making, to learn by watching others, and to investigate specific organizational
problems.
Lecture courses and seminars: Traditional forms of instruction revolved around formal
lecture courses and seminars. These offered an opportunity for individuals to acquire
knowledge and develop their conceptual and analytical abilities.
Simulations: While critical in training employees on actual work experiences, simulations
are probably even more popular on employee development. The more widely used
simulation exercises include: case studies, decision games, and role plays.
Case study: Trainees study the cases (describes the real problems that managers have
faced) to determine the problem, analyze causes, develop alternative solutions, select
what they believe to be the best solution and implement it. It can provide stimulating
discussions among participants, as well as excellent opportunities for individuals to defend
their analytical and judgmental abilities. It appears to be a rather effective method in
improving decision making abilities within the constraints of limited information.
Outdoor Training: A 1990s trend in employee development has been the use of outdoor
(sometimes referred to as wilderness or survival) training. The primary focus of such
training is to teach trainees the importance of working together; gelling as a team.
Typically such kind of development involves some major emotional and physical
challenge. This could be white-water rafting, mountain climbing, paint ball games, or
surviving a week in the "jungle".
The purpose of such training is to see how employees react to the difficulties that nature
presents to them. Do they face these dangers alone? Do they "freak"? Or are they controlled
and successful in achieving their goals?
The reality is that today's business environment does not permit employees to "stand
alone". This has reinforced the importance of working closely with one another, building
trusting relationships, and succeeding as a member of a group.

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