1.

Introduction to Operating Systems

Definition and Basic Concepts:

An operating system (OS) is software that acts as an interface between the hardware and
the user applications. It manages and controls the resources of a computer system,
providing an environment in which software programs can execute efficiently. The main
components of an operating system are the kernel, which is the core part responsible for
managing system resources, and various system utilities and libraries that support higher-
level functions.

Purpose and Functions of an Operating System:

The primary purpose of an operating system is to provide an abstraction layer between the
hardware and the software, enabling efficient and secure utilization of system resources.
The key functions of an operating system include:

Process Management:
The OS creates, schedules, and terminates processes (instances of running programs). It
provides mechanisms for process synchronization, communication, and deadlock handling.
Memory Management:
The OS allocates and manages the computer's memory resources, ensuring efficient and
secure memory usage by processes.
File Systems: The OS manages files and directories, providing methods for organizing,
storing, and accessing data on secondary storage devices.
Input/Output (I/O) Management: The OS handles communication between the computer
system and external devices, managing input and output operations to ensure efficient data
transfer.
Device Management: The OS interacts with device drivers to control and manage hardware
devices, including input/output devices, storage devices, and network devices.
User Interface: The OS provides a user-friendly interface for users to interact with the
system, including command-line interfaces, graphical user interfaces (GUIs), and application
programming interfaces (APIs) for software development.
Security and Protection: The OS enforces security policies, authenticates users, and
protects system resources from unauthorized access or malicious activities.
Error Handling and Fault Tolerance: The OS detects and handles errors, ensuring system
stability and providing fault tolerance mechanisms to recover from failures.
2. Process Management

Process and Thread Concepts:

A process can be thought of as an executing instance of a program. It consists of the

program code, its current execution state, and a set of system resources allocated to it. A
process has its own memory space and can contain multiple threads.
A thread, on the other hand, is a lightweight unit of execution within a process. Threads
share the same memory space and resources of their parent process, allowing concurrent
execution of different parts of a program.

Process Scheduling Algorithms:

Process scheduling algorithms determine the order in which processes are executed by the
CPU. Some commonly used scheduling algorithms include:

First-Come, First-Served (FCFS): Processes are executed in the order they arrive. This
algorithm is simple but can lead to poor average waiting times if long processes arrive first.
Shortest Job First (SJF): The process with the shortest burst time is executed next. It
minimizes the average waiting time but requires knowledge of the burst times in advance.
Round Robin (RR): Each process is assigned a fixed time quantum. Processes are
executed in a circular manner, with each process receiving a time slice before moving to the
next process.
Priority Scheduling (Primitive and Non-Primitive): Processes are assigned priorities, and
the one with the highest priority is executed first. Primitive priority scheduling can lead to
starvation, while non-primitive priority scheduling can prevent starvation by dynamically
adjusting priorities.
Process Synchronization and Deadlock Handling:

Process synchronization involves coordinating the execution of multiple processes or

threads to ensure correct and predictable behavior. It involves mechanisms such as locks,
semaphores, and monitors to enforce mutual exclusion and coordinate access to shared
resources.

Deadlock occurs when two or more processes are unable to proceed because each is
waiting for a resource held by another process. Deadlock handling techniques include:

Deadlock Prevention: Ensuring that the necessary conditions for deadlock cannot occur by
carefully allocating and managing resources.
Deadlock Avoidance: Using resource allocation algorithms and heuristics to avoid
situations that could potentially lead to deadlock.
Deadlock Detection: Periodically examining the resource allocation state to identify the
presence of deadlock. If detected, appropriate actions can be taken to resolve it.
Deadlock Recovery: Terminating processes or preempting resources to resolve deadlock
situations.
Interprocess Communication (IPC):

IPC enables processes to exchange data and synchronize their actions. Common
mechanisms for IPC include:

Shared Memory: Processes share a common memory region and can read/write to it.
Synchronization mechanisms like semaphores are often used to coordinate access.
Message Passing: Processes communicate by sending and receiving messages through a
communication channel provided by the operating system.
Process States and Transitions:

A process can be in one of several states during its execution. Common process states
include:

New: The process is being created.

Ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor.
Running: The process is currently being executed by the CPU.
Blocked (Waiting): The process is waiting for an event or resource to become
available.
Terminated: The process has finished its execution.
Transitions between these states occur based on events such as process creation,
process termination, I/O operations, and scheduling decisions.

Process Control Block (PCB):

A Process Control Block (PCB) is a data structure maintained by the operating system for
each process. It contains essential information about the process, including process state,
program counter, register contents, memory allocation, open files, and scheduling
information. The PCB allows the operating system to manage and control the execution of
processes efficiently.

Context Switching:

Context switching is the process of saving the current state of a running process and loading
the saved state of a new process. It occurs when the operating system switches the CPU
from one process to another. Context switching involves saving the current process's context
(registers, program counter, etc.) and restoring the context of the next process to be
executed. Context switches incur some overhead but enable multitasking and the illusion of
concurrent execution.

3. Process Synchronization and Deadlocks

Synchronization Mechanisms:

Synchronization mechanisms are used to coordinate the execution of concurrent processes

or threads to avoid race conditions and ensure consistent and correct results. Common
synchronization mechanisms include:

Semaphores: A semaphore is a variable used for controlling access to shared resources. It

can be used to implement mutual exclusion and synchronization between processes or
threads.
Monitors and Condition Variables: Monitors provide a high-level synchronization construct
that encapsulates shared data and the operations that can be performed on it. Condition
variables allow threads to wait until a certain condition becomes true before proceeding.
Resource Allocation Graph:

A resource allocation graph is a directed graph that represents the resource allocation state
of a system. It consists of two types of nodes: process nodes and resource nodes. Process
nodes represent processes, and resource nodes represent resources. The graph's edges
represent resource requests and resource allocations. The resource allocation graph can be
used to detect the presence of a deadlock in a system.

Critical Sections and Mutual Exclusion:

A critical section is a section of code in a program that accesses shared resources. Mutual
exclusion is the property that ensures only one process or thread can execute its critical
section at a time. Various synchronization mechanisms, such as locks and semaphores, can
be used to implement mutual exclusion.

Deadlock Prevention, Avoidance, and Detection:

Deadlock Prevention: Deadlock prevention techniques aim to ensure that the necessary
conditions for deadlock cannot occur. This can be achieved by avoiding one or more of the
four necessary conditions: mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no preemption, and circular wait.
Deadlock Avoidance: Deadlock avoidance techniques use resource allocation algorithms
and heuristics to avoid situations that could potentially lead to deadlock. These algorithms
dynamically analyze the resource allocation state and decide whether granting a resource
request may lead to deadlock.
Deadlock Detection: Deadlock detection algorithms periodically examine the resource
allocation state to identify the presence of a deadlock. If a deadlock is detected, appropriate
actions can be taken to resolve it

Deadlock Recovery and Handling Techniques:

Deadlock Recovery: Deadlock recovery techniques involve terminating one or more

processes or preempting resources to resolve a deadlock. The terminated processes or
preempted resources are then reallocated to other processes.
Handling Techniques: Other handling techniques include ignoring the deadlock and letting
the processes remain deadlocked (acceptable in some scenarios), notifying the user or
administrator about the deadlock, or using system restart or checkpointing mechanisms to
recover from a deadlock situation.
4. Memory Management

Memory Hierarchy:

Memory hierarchy refers to the organization and levels of memory in a computer system,
ranging from registers and caches close to the CPU to main memory (RAM), and secondary
storage devices such as hard disk drives. The memory hierarchy aims to provide a balance
between speed, capacity, and cost.

Address Spaces:

An address space is the range of valid addresses that a process can use to reference
memory locations. Each process has its own address space, which is isolated from other
processes. The operating system manages and maps the virtual addresses used by
processes to physical addresses in the main memory.

Memory Allocation:

Memory allocation refers to the process of assigning memory to processes. The operating
system tracks free and allocated memory blocks and provides allocation methods such as
contiguous allocation, non-contiguous allocation, or a combination of both.

Paging:

Paging is a memory management scheme where physical memory and process address
spaces are divided into fixed-size blocks called pages. The operating system maps pages of
a process's virtual address space to physical memory frames. Paging allows for efficient
memory allocation and virtual memory management.

Page Replacement Algorithms:

Page replacement algorithms determine which pages should be replaced when a new page
needs to be brought into memory but there is no free space available. Common page
replacement algorithms include First-In-First-Out (FIFO), Least Recently Used (LRU), and
Optimal.

Segmentation:

Segmentation is a memory management technique where a process's address space is

divided into variable-sized logical segments, such as code segment, data segment, stack
segment, etc. Each segment is assigned a base address and a length. Segmentation
provides flexibility but requires additional memory management mechanisms to handle
variable-sized segments.

Virtual Memory:

Virtual memory is a memory management technique that allows processes to use more
memory than is physically available. It provides an illusion of a large, contiguous address
space for each process by using a combination of main memory and secondary storage.
Virtual memory improves memory utilization and enables efficient multitasking.
Thrashing:

Thrashing occurs when a system spends a significant amount of time and resources in
paging, constantly swapping pages in and out of memory. It leads to poor performance as
the CPU is mostly occupied with paging operations rather than executing useful work.

Memory Compaction:

Memory compaction is a technique used to reduce external fragmentation in memory. It

involves moving allocated memory blocks and rearranging them to create larger contiguous
free memory blocks. Compaction can help improve memory utilization but requires careful
management to minimize disruptions to running processes.

Memory Protection:

Memory protection ensures that each process's memory space is isolated and protected
from unauthorized access. The operating system assigns access permissions to memory
pages, preventing processes from accessing memory locations that do not belong to them.

Shared Memory:

Shared memory is a memory management technique where multiple processes can access
a common region of memory. It allows processes to share data efficiently by avoiding the
need for data copying between processes. Synchronization mechanisms, such as
semaphores, are used to coordinate access to shared memory to avoid race conditions.

Memory Management Unit (MMU):

The Memory Management Unit (MMU) is a hardware component that works in conjunction
with the operating system to translate virtual addresses used by processes into physical
addresses in memory. The MMU handles address translation, and page table lookups, and
enforces memory protection mechanisms. It plays a vital role in virtual memory management
and memory access control.

Difference between Paging and Segmentation

Paging Segmentation

Segmentation divides programs into variable

Paging divides programs into fixed size size segments.
pages
Compiler is responsible.
OS is responsible
Paging is faster than segmentation Segmentation is slower than paging

Paging is closer to Operating System Segmentation is closer to User

It suffers from internal fragmentation It suffers from external fragmentation
There is no external fragmentation It suffers from external fragmentation
Logical address is divided into page number Logical address is divided into segment
and page offset number and segment offset
Page table is used to maintain the page Segment Table maintains the segment
information. information
Page table entry has the frame number and Segment table entry has the base address of
some flag bits to represent details about the segment and some protection bits for the
pages. segments.

1. OS (Operating System):
o The OS is system software that manages computer hardware and software
resources.
o It provides services to applications and users, acting as an intermediary
between the user and hardware.
2. Generation of OS:
o First Generation (1940s-50s): No operating system, only hardware and
manually loaded programs.
o Second Generation (1950s-60s): Simple batch processing systems.
o Third Generation (1960s-70s): Multiprogramming and time-sharing systems.
o Fourth Generation (1980s): Personal computers with GUI-based OS.
o Fifth Generation (1990s+): Distributed, real-time, and cloud-based systems.
3. OS Components:
o Kernel: Core of the OS, managing memory, processes, and hardware
communication.
o Shell: User interface to interact with the OS.
o File System: Manages data storage and retrieval.
o Device Drivers: Interfaces between hardware and the OS.
4. History & Types of OS:
o History: Development of operating systems over decades.
o Types:
 Batch OS
 Time-sharing OS
 Distributed OS
 Real-time OS
 Mobile OS
5. Single Stream Batch Processing:
o Tasks are processed in batches sequentially.
o No user interaction is needed once the batch starts executing.
6. 5 Steps of OS:
o Booting: Starting the computer.
o Memory Management: Allocating RAM to processes.
o Process Management: Handling process execution and multitasking.
o I/O Management: Managing input/output devices.
o File Management: Organizing and accessing files.
7. Single User System:
o An operating system designed for one user at a time (e.g., MS-DOS, some
Linux distributions).
8. Computer System Structure with its Components:
o Includes hardware (CPU, memory, I/O devices), software (OS, applications),
and users.
9. OS in Different Fields:
 o Applications of OS in:
 Embedded systems (e.g., home appliances).
 Mobile devices (e.g., Android, iOS).
 Enterprise systems (e.g., servers).
 Real-time systems (e.g., robotics).
10. Hardware Protection:
o Mechanisms to protect the computer's hardware resources (e.g., memory
protection, access controls).
11. Services:
o OS provides services like:
 Process execution.
 I/O device communication.
 File management.
 Security and error detection.
12. Thread Synchronization:
o Mechanisms to coordinate threads running concurrently (e.g., locks,
semaphores) to avoid conflicts.
13. Process Management:
o Handles the creation, scheduling, and termination of processes.
o Ensures fair allocation of resources to all processes.
14. Memory Management:
o Allocates and tracks memory usage.
o Techniques include paging, segmentation, and swapping.
15. Virtual Memory:
o Extends physical memory by using disk space, allowing larger programs to
run.
16. File System:
o Organizes data on storage devices.
o Includes file formats like FAT, NTFS, and ext4.
17. DBMS System:
o Database Management System, a software layer for managing structured
data (e.g., SQL databases).
18. Process Synchronization:
o Techniques to ensure multiple processes execute without interfering with
each other.
o Critical for concurrent processing.

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Here’s a deeper explanation of each topic for better understanding:

1. OS (Operating System):

 The operating system is the backbone of any computer system.

 Functions:
o Manages hardware resources (CPU, memory, I/O devices).
o Provides a user interface (CLI, GUI).
o Runs applications and services.
 Examples: Windows, Linux, macOS, Android.

2. Generation of OS:

 First Generation (1940s-1950s):

o No OS; programs were loaded manually using punch cards.
 Second Generation (1950s-1960s):
o Batch systems: jobs processed in batches without user interaction.
 Third Generation (1960s-1980s):
o Multiprogramming: multiple programs in memory; switching among tasks.
o Time-sharing: multiple users interact with the system simultaneously.
 Fourth Generation (1980s-1990s):
o Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) with personal computing systems.
 Fifth Generation (1990s-present):
o Distributed systems, cloud computing, mobile OS, AI integration.

3. OS Components:

 Kernel:
o Core part; directly interacts with hardware and manages resources.
 Shell:
o Interface between the user and the kernel (CLI or GUI).
 File System:
o Organizes and manages data storage in directories and files.
 Process Manager:
o Handles the execution of programs and scheduling.
 Memory Manager:
o Allocates and deallocates memory during program execution.
 Device Drivers:
o Software modules enabling the OS to interact with hardware devices.

4. History & Types of OS:

 History: OS evolved from simple batch systems to modern multi-user, multitasking

systems.
 Types:
o Batch OS: Jobs are executed sequentially without user interaction.
 o Real-Time OS (RTOS): Processes events as they occur (used in robotics,
aviation).
o Distributed OS: Manages multiple systems and resources over a network.
o Mobile OS: Specialized for mobile devices (e.g., Android, iOS).

5. Single Stream Batch Processing:

 A method where tasks (jobs) are grouped and processed in batches.

 Advantages:
o Efficient for large-scale repetitive tasks.
 Disadvantages:
o No user interaction during execution.
 Example: Early mainframe systems.

6. 5 Steps of OS:

1. Booting: Loading the OS into memory when the computer starts.

2. Memory Management: Allocating memory to programs and processes.
3. Process Management: Scheduling tasks and managing process states (ready,
running, waiting).
4. I/O Management: Handling input/output devices like printers, keyboards, etc.
5. File Management: Managing file storage and access permissions.

7. Single User System:

 OS designed to support only one user at a time.

 Examples:
o Early DOS systems.
o Single-user workstations.
 Limited multitasking but optimized for personal use.

8. Computer System Structure with its Components:

 Hardware: CPU, memory, storage, I/O devices.

 Software: OS, system software, application software.
 Users: End-users interacting with the system through input devices.
 Data: Raw input processed into useful information.
9. OS in Different Fields:

 Embedded Systems: Minimal OS for controlling devices (e.g., cars, appliances).

 Mobile Systems: Lightweight OS for mobile devices (e.g., iOS, Android).
 Real-Time Systems: Immediate processing (e.g., medical equipment).
 Desktop Systems: Windows, macOS, Linux for personal computing.
 Enterprise Systems: OS for servers and cloud systems.

10. Hardware Protection:

 Ensures the system is safe from unauthorized access or damage.

 Methods:
o Memory protection: Prevents processes from accessing restricted memory
areas.
o Access control: Limits user or program permissions.
o Privileged instructions: Only OS kernel can execute certain critical
commands.

11. Services:

 Process Execution: Load and execute programs.

 I/O Operations: Manage input/output devices.
 File System Manipulation: Read, write, create, and delete files.
 Error Detection: Identify and handle errors in hardware/software.
 Security: Prevent unauthorized access to resources.

12. Thread Synchronization:

 Threads share resources; synchronization ensures safe, correct execution.

 Techniques:
o Mutex (Mutual Exclusion): Prevents simultaneous access.
o Semaphores: Counters that signal availability of resources.
o Monitors: High-level abstraction for thread synchronization.

13. Process Management:

 OS manages process life cycle: creation, execution, and termination.

 Scheduling: Determines which process gets CPU time (e.g., round-robin, priority).
 Inter-Process Communication (IPC): Processes can exchange data safely.
14. Memory Management:

 Efficient allocation and management of memory resources.

 Techniques:
o Paging: Divides memory into fixed-size pages.
o Segmentation: Divides memory into variable-size segments.
o Swapping: Moves processes between RAM and disk as needed.

15. Virtual Memory:

 A technique to use disk space as if it were additional RAM.

 Allows running larger programs or multiple applications simultaneously.
 Uses page replacement algorithms (e.g., Least Recently Used - LRU).

16. File System:

 Functions:
o Organizes files in directories.
o Manages file permissions and metadata.
o Provides a logical view of storage devices.
 Types of File Systems:
o FAT (File Allocation Table)
o NTFS (New Technology File System)
o ext4 (Linux).

17. DBMS System:

 Database Management System: Software for managing and querying databases.

 Examples: MySQL, PostgreSQL, MongoDB.
 Provides data integrity, security, and efficient storage.

18. Process Synchronization:

 Prevents race conditions where multiple processes modify shared data

inconsistently.
 Critical Section Problem:
o Part of the code where shared resources are accessed.
 Solutions:
o Mutex locks.
o Semaphores.
o Monitors.
Distributed OS:

 Coordinates resources across multiple interconnected computers.

 Appears as a single cohesive system to users.
 Examples: Google File System, Hadoop.
 Applications: Cloud computing, load balancing.

13. Clustered OS:

 Combines multiple systems into a cluster to work as a unified system.

 Used for tasks requiring high processing power (e.g., scientific simulations).

14. Pervasive Computing:

 Also called "ubiquitous computing."

 Embedding computing devices in everyday objects (e.g., smart watches, IoT).
 OS designed for minimal power consumption and real-time responsiveness.

15. Embedded OS:

 Specialized OS designed for embedded systems.

 Characteristics:
o Lightweight.
o Performs specific tasks.
 Examples: FreeRTOS, VxWorks, Android (for mobile devices).

The model of an Operating System (OS) refers to the architectural approach or design
structure used to implement the OS. Different models are designed based on system
requirements, performance needs, and use cases. Below are the commonly used OS models,
along with their explanations:

1. Monolithic OS Model

 Description:
 o All operating system functions (file system, process management, memory
management, device drivers, etc.) are part of a single large program running
in kernel mode.
o The kernel handles all the tasks of the OS.
 Characteristics:
o Fast as everything is in one place (no context-switching between
components).
o Difficult to maintain and debug due to the tightly coupled structure.
 Examples:
o UNIX, MS-DOS.
 Advantages:
o High performance due to minimal inter-process communication (IPC).
 Disadvantages:
o Poor modularity and difficult to extend.

2. Layered OS Model

 Description:
o The OS is divided into layers, where each layer has specific functionalities.
o Each layer interacts only with the layer directly above or below it.
 Characteristics:
o Top layer (user interface) interacts with the user.
o Bottom layer interfaces with the hardware.
 Examples:
o THE Operating System, OS/2.
 Advantages:
o Easier debugging and maintenance due to separation of concerns.
 Disadvantages:
o Performance overhead due to the additional layer-to-layer communication.

3. Microkernel OS Model

 Description:
o Only the core functions (process management, memory management, and
IPC) are part of the kernel.
o Other services (like device drivers, file systems, etc.) run in user space as
separate processes.
 Characteristics:
o Focuses on running the smallest possible kernel in privileged mode.
o Communication between kernel and services is handled via message
passing.
 Examples:
o Minix, QNX, macOS (partially microkernel-based).
 Advantages:
o More secure and reliable as most OS services run in user space.
o Easier to extend and port to new hardware.
 Disadvantages:
o Slower due to frequent message passing and context-switching.
4. Modular OS Model

 Description:
o The OS kernel is designed with a modular structure where different
components (modules) can be dynamically added or removed.
o Each module is independent and interacts with the kernel through well-
defined interfaces.
 Characteristics:
o Combines the best features of monolithic and microkernel models.
 Examples:
o Linux (modular monolithic kernel), Solaris.
 Advantages:
o Flexibility to add or remove features without rebooting the system.
o Improved maintainability and scalability.
 Disadvantages:
o Modules require rigorous testing to ensure compatibility with the kernel.

5. Client-Server OS Model

 Description:
o The OS is divided into servers (services) and clients (users or applications).
o The kernel provides basic IPC mechanisms, while services are implemented
as user-mode processes.
 Characteristics:
o Services are modular and can communicate using network protocols or IPC.
 Examples:
o Windows NT, modern Linux distributions (partially client-server based).
 Advantages:
o Fault isolation; a crashed service does not affect the whole OS.
o Distributed services are supported.
 Disadvantages:
o Performance overhead due to increased communication between client and
server.

6. Exokernel OS Model

 Description:
o Minimalistic OS kernel that gives application programs direct access to
hardware resources.
o The kernel only provides resource allocation and access control.
 Characteristics:
o Applications can manage hardware resources directly, optimizing for specific
needs.
 Examples:
o ExOS, Aegis.
  Advantages:
o High performance as applications have low-level hardware access.
 Disadvantages:
o Complexity in application development since they need to handle resource
management.

7. Virtual Machine OS Model

 Description:
o The OS provides a virtualized environment where multiple virtual machines
(VMs) can run.
o Each VM runs its own OS instance as if it were on physical hardware.
 Characteristics:
o The host OS runs directly on the hardware, while guest OS instances run on
top of the virtualized platform.
 Examples:
o VMware ESXi, Microsoft Hyper-V.
 Advantages:
o Efficient resource utilization and isolation between VMs.
 Disadvantages:
o Overhead due to virtualization.

8. Real-Time OS (RTOS) Model

 Description:
o Designed to process data and execute tasks in real-time with predictable
response times.
o Critical in environments where timing is crucial, like industrial automation and
embedded systems.
 Characteristics:
o Tasks are prioritized, and deadlines are strictly enforced.
 Examples:
o FreeRTOS, VxWorks, QNX.
 Advantages:
o Predictable and reliable task execution.
 Disadvantages:
o Limited multitasking and resource flexibility compared to general-purpose OS.

In operating systems, user mode and kernel mode refer to two distinct operational states of a
system's CPU, which define the level of access and privilege for executing instructions and
accessing system resources. These modes ensure system security and stability by separating
user-level processes from the core operating system functions.
1. User Mode

 Definition:
o A restricted operational mode where applications and processes execute.
o Processes running in user mode do not have direct access to hardware or
critical system resources.
 Key Characteristics:
o Limited Privileges: Cannot execute sensitive instructions like accessing
hardware devices or modifying kernel memory.
o Runs Applications: Programs like browsers, media players, and games run
in user mode.
o Isolation: If a process crashes in user mode, it does not affect the entire
system, only that specific application.
o System Call Interface: Applications must use system calls (provided by the
OS) to request services from the kernel.
 Advantages:
o Prevents applications from corrupting or interfering with the kernel.
o Improves system stability and security.
 Example: An application trying to open a file uses the open() system call to
communicate with the kernel.

2. Kernel Mode

 Definition:
o A privileged mode where the operating system kernel executes.
o Has unrestricted access to the hardware and all system resources.
 Key Characteristics:
o Full Privileges: Can execute all instructions, including I/O operations,
memory management, and device control.
o Runs Critical Code: All kernel-level services like process management,
memory management, and device drivers run in kernel mode.
o System-Centric: Provides the core functions necessary for the OS and
manages user-mode processes.
o Access to Hardware: Directly interacts with CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
 Advantages:
o Enables low-level control over the system hardware.
o Handles critical operations like scheduling, memory allocation, and interrupts.
 Example: The kernel managing a disk read request or allocating memory for a
process.

1. Batch Operating System (Batch OS)

 Alternate Names:
o Job Scheduling System
 o Single Stream Batch Processing ,Batch Processing OS
 Explanation: Processes are executed in batches without user interaction during
execution.

2. Time-Sharing Operating System

 Alternate Names:
o Multitasking OS
o Interactive OS
 Explanation: Multiple users or processes share CPU time simultaneously, enabling
multitasking.

3. Distributed Operating System

 Alternate Names:
o Networked OS
o Decentralized OS
 Explanation: A group of independent systems works together as a single system by
sharing resources.

4. Real-Time Operating System (RTOS)

 Alternate Names:
o Embedded RTOS (in embedded devices)
o Hard Real-Time OS (strict timing constraints)
o Soft Real-Time OS (less stringent timing constraints)
 Explanation: Used in systems where processing must occur within a strict deadline.

5. Embedded Operating System

 Alternate Names:
o Device-Specific OS
o Firmware OS
 Explanation: Designed for embedded devices like microwaves, ATMs, or IoT
devices, with limited hardware.

6. Network Operating System

 Alternate Names:
 o Server OS
o LAN/WAN OS
 Explanation: Manages networking functions like file sharing, device sharing, and
communication between computers in a network.

7. Mobile Operating System

 Alternate Names:
o Handheld OS
o Smartphone OS
 Examples: iOS, Android, HarmonyOS.
 Explanation: Specialized OS for mobile devices optimized for touch input,
communication, and power efficiency.