CHAPTER 3

SET THEORY

3.1 SETS AND ELEMENTS

The development of logic that resulted in the work of Chapters 1 and 2 went through
many stages and benefited from the work of various mathematicians and logicians
through the centuries. Although modern logic can trace its roots to Descartes with
his mathesis universalis and Gottfried Leibniz’s De Arte Combinatoria (1666), the
beginnings of modern symbolic logic is generally attributed to Augustus De Morgan
[Formal Logic (1847)], George Boole [Mathematical Analysis of Logic (1847) and An
Investigation of the Laws of Thought (1847)], and Frege [Begriffsschrift (1879), Die
Grundlagen der Arithmetik (1884), and Grundgesetze der Arithmetik (1893)]. How-
ever, when it comes to set theory, it was Georg Cantor who, with his first paper, “Ueber
eine Eigenschaft des Inbegriffs aller reellen algebraischen Zahlen” (1874), and over a
decade of research, is the founder of the subject. For the next four chapters, Cantor’s
set theory will be our focus.
A set is a collection of objects known as elements. An element can be almost any-
thing, such as numbers, functions, or lines. A set is a single object that can contain
many elements. Think of it as a box with things inside. The box is the set, and the
things are the elements. We use uppercase letters to label sets, and elements will usu-
117
A First Course in Mathematical Logic and Set Theory, First Edition. Michael L. O’Leary.
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
118 Chapter 3 SET THEORY

ally be represented by lowercase letters. The symbol ∈ (fashioned after the Greek letter
epsilon) is used to mean “element of,” so if 𝐴 is a set and 𝑎 is an element of 𝐴, write
∈ 𝑎𝐴 or, the more standard, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴. The notation 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 means 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴. If
𝑐 is not an element of 𝐴, write 𝑐 ∉ 𝐴. If 𝐴 contains no elements, it is the empty set. It
is represented by the symbol ∅. Think of the empty set as a box with no things inside.

Rosters
Since the elements are those that distinguish one set from another, one method that
is used to write a set is to list its elements and surround them with braces. This is
called the roster method of writing a set, and the list is known as a roster. The braces
signify that a set has been defined. For example, the set of all integers between 1 and
10 inclusive is
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.
Read this as “the set containing 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.” The set of all integers
between 1 and 10 exclusive is

{2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.

If the roster is too long, use ellipses (… ). When there is a pattern to the elements of
the set, write down enough members so that the pattern is clear. Then use the ellipses
to represent the continuing pattern. For example, the set of all integers inclusively
between 1 and 1,000,000 can be written as

{1, 2, 3, … , 999,999, 1,000,000}.

Follow this strategy to write infinite sets as rosters. For instance, the set of even integers
can be written as
{… , −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, … }.

EXAMPLE 3.1.1
∙ As a roster, { } denotes the empty set. Warning: Never write {∅} for the empty
set. This set has one element in it.

∙ A set that contains exactly one element is called a singleton. Hence, the sets {1},
{𝑓 }, and {∅} are singletons written in roster form. Also, 1 ∈ {1}, 𝑓 ∈ {𝑓 },
and ∅ ∈ {∅}.

∙ The set of linear functions that intersect the origin with an integer slope can be
written as:
{… , −2𝑥, −𝑥, 0, 𝑥, 2𝑥, … }.
(Note: Here 0 represents the function 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0.)

Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. These are equal if they contain exactly the same elements. The
notation for this is 𝐴 = 𝐵. What this means is if any element is in 𝐴, it is also in 𝐵, and
 Section 3.1 SETS AND ELEMENTS 119

conversely, if an element is in 𝐵, it is in 𝐴. To fully understand set equality, consider

again the analogy between sets and boxes. Suppose that we have a box containing a
carrot and a rabbit. We could describe it with the phrase the box that contains the
carrot and the rabbit. Alternately, it could be referred to as the box that contains the
orange vegetable and the furry, cotton-tailed animal with long ears. Although these
are different descriptions, they do not refer to different boxes. Similarly, the set {1, 3}
and the set containing the solutions of (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) = 0 are equal because they contain
the same elements. Furthermore, the order in which the elements are listed does not
matter. The box can just as easily be described as the box with the rabbit and the carrot.
Likewise, {1, 3} = {3, 1}. Lastly, suppose that the box is described as containing the
carrot, the rabbit, and the carrot, forgetting that the carrot had already been mentioned.
This should not be confusing, for one understands that such mistakes are possible. It is
similar with sets. A repeated element does not add to the set. Hence, {1, 3} = {1, 3, 1}.

Famous Sets
Although sets can contain many different types of elements, numbers are probably the
most common for mathematics. For this reason particular important sets of numbers
have been given their own symbols.
Symbol Name
𝐍 The set of natural numbers
𝐙 The set of integers
𝐐 The set of rational numbers
𝐑 The set of real numbers
𝐂 The set of complex numbers
As rosters,
𝐍 = {0, 1, 2, … }
and
𝐙 = {… , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, … }.
Notice that we define the set of natural numbers to include zero and do not make a
distinction between counting numbers and whole numbers. Instead, write

𝐙+ = {1, 2, 3, … }

and
𝐙− = {… , −3, −2, −1}.

EXAMPLE 3.1.2

∙ 10 ∈ 𝐙+ , but 0 ∉ 𝐙+ .

∙ 4 ∈ 𝐍, but −5 ∉ 𝐍.

∙ −5 ∈ 𝐙, but .65 ∉ 𝐙.
120 Chapter 3 SET THEORY

∙ .65 ∈ 𝐐 and 1∕2 ∈ 𝐐, but 𝜋 ∉ 𝐐.

∙ 𝜋 ∈ 𝐑, but 3 − 2𝑖 ∉ 𝐑.

∙ 3 − 2𝑖 ∈ 𝐂.

Of the sets mentioned above, the real numbers are probably the most familiar. It
is the set of numbers most frequently used in calculus and is often represented by a
number line. The line can be subdivided into intervals. Given two endpoints, an
interval includes all real numbers between the endpoints and possibly the endpoints
themselves. Interval notation is used to name these sets. A parenthesis next to an
endpoint means that the endpoint is not included in the set, while a bracket means that
the endpoint is included. If the endpoints are included, the interval is closed. If they
are excluded, the interval is open. If one endpoint is included and the other is not, the
interval is half-open. If the interval has only one endpoint, then the set is called a ray
and is defined using the infinity symbol (∞), with or without the negative sign.

DEFINITION 3.1.3
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐑 such that 𝑎 < 𝑏.

closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] closed ray [𝑎, ∞)

open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) closed ray (−∞, 𝑎]
half-open interval [𝑎, 𝑏) open ray (𝑎, ∞)
half-open interval (𝑎, 𝑏] open ray (−∞, 𝑎)

EXAMPLE 3.1.4
We can describe (4, 7) as

the interval of real numbers between 4 and 7 exclusive

and [4, 7] as

all real numbers between 4 and 7 inclusive.

There is not a straightforward way to name the half-open intervals. For (4, 7], we
can try

the set of all real numbers 𝑥 such that 4 < 𝑥 ≤ 7

or

the set of all real numbers greater than 4 and less than or equal to 7.

The infinity symbol does not represent a real number, so a parenthesis must be used
with it. Furthermore, the interval (−∞, ∞) can be used to denote 𝐑.
 Section 3.1 SETS AND ELEMENTS 121

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

(a) (−1, 3] (b) (−∞, 2]

Figure 3.1 A half-open interval and a closed ray.

EXAMPLE 3.1.5
The interval (−1, 3] contains all real numbers that are greater than −1 but less
than or equal to 3 [Figure 3.1(a)]. A common mistake is to equate (−1, 3] with
{0, 1, 2, 3}. It is important to remember that (−1, 3] includes all real numbers
between −1 and 3. Hence, this set is infinite, as is (−∞, 2). It contains all real
numbers less than 2 [Figure 3.1(b)].

EXAMPLE 3.1.6
Let 𝑝(𝑥) := 𝑥 + 2 = 7. Since 𝑝(5) and there is no other real number 𝑎 such that
𝑝(𝑎), there exists a unique 𝑥 ∈ 𝐑 such that 𝑝(𝑥). However, if 𝑎 is an element of
𝐙− or (−∞, 5), then ¬𝑝(𝑎).

EXAMPLE 3.1.7
If 𝑞(𝑥) := 𝑥 ≥ 10, then 𝑞(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ∈ [20, 100], there exists 𝑥 ∈ 𝐐 such that
¬𝑞(𝑥), and there is no element 𝑎 of {1, 2, 3} such that 𝑞(𝑎).

Abstraction
When trying to write sets as rosters, we quickly discover issues with the technique.
Since the rational numbers are defined using integers, we suspect that 𝐐 can be written
as a roster, but when we try to begin a list, such as
1 1 2
1, , , … , 2, , … ,
2 3 3
we realize that there are complications with the pattern and are not quite sure that the
we will exhaust them all. When considering 𝐑, we know immediately that a roster is
out of the question. We conclude that we need another method.
Fix a first-order alphabet with theory symbols 𝖲. Let 𝐴 be a set and 𝖲-formula 𝑝(𝑥)
have the property that for every 𝑎,

𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 ⇔ 𝑝(𝑎).

Notice that 𝑝(𝑥) completely describes the members of 𝐴. Namely, whenever we write
𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, we can also write 𝑝(𝑎), and, conversely, whenever we write 𝑝(𝑎), we can also
write 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴. For example, let 𝐸 be the set of even integers. As a roster,

𝐸 = {… , −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, … }.
122 Chapter 3 SET THEORY

Let 𝑝(𝑥) denote the formula

∃𝑛(𝑛 ∈ 𝐙 ∧ 𝑥 = 2𝑛). (3.1)

The even integers are exactly those numbers 𝑥 such that 𝑝(𝑥). In particular, we have
𝑝(2) and 𝑝(−4) but not 𝑝(5). Therefore, 2 and −4 are elements of 𝐸, but 5 is not.

DEFINITION 3.1.8
Let 𝖠 be a first-order alphabet with theory symbols 𝖲. Let 𝑝(𝑥) be an 𝖲-formula
and 𝐴 be a set. Write 𝐴 = {𝑥 : 𝑝(𝑥)} to mean

𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 ⇔ 𝑝(𝑎).

Using {𝑥 : 𝑝(𝑥)} to identify 𝐴 is called the method of abstraction.

Using Definition 3.1.8 and (3.1), write 𝐸 using abstraction as

𝐸 = {𝑥 : ∃𝑛(𝑛 ∈ 𝐙 ∧ 𝑥 = 2𝑛)}

or
𝐸 = {𝑥 : 𝑝(𝑥)}.
Read this as “the set of 𝑥 such that 𝑝(𝑥).” Because 𝑥 = 2𝑛, it is customary to remove 𝑥
from the definition of sets like 𝐸 and write

𝐸 = {2𝑛 : ∈ 𝑛𝐙},

or
𝐸 = {2𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ 𝐙}.
Read this as “the set of all 2𝑛 such that 𝑛 is an integer.” This simplified notation is still
considered abstraction. Its form can be summarized as

{elements : condition}.

That is, what the elements look like come before the colon, and the condition that must
be satisfied to be an element of the set comes after the colon.

EXAMPLE 3.1.9

Given the quadratic equation 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0, we know that its solutions are −1

and 2. Thus, its solution set is 𝐴 = {−1, 2}. Using the method of abstraction,
this can be written as

𝐴 = {𝑥 : − − ⋅ 𝑥𝑥𝑥2 = 0 ∧ ∈𝑥𝐑}.

However, as we have seen, it is customary to write the formula so that it is easier

to read, so
𝐴 : 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0 ∧ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐑},
 Section 3.1 SETS AND ELEMENTS 123

or, using a common notation,

𝐴{𝑥 ∈ 𝐑 : 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0}.

Therefore, given an arbitrary polynomial 𝑓 (𝑥), its solution set over the real num-
bers is
{𝑥 ∈ 𝐑 : 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0}.

EXAMPLE 3.1.10
Since 𝑥 ∉ ∅ is always true, to write the empty set using abstraction, we use a
formula like 𝑥 ≠ 𝑥 or a contradiction like 𝑃 ∧ ¬𝑃 , where 𝑃 is a propositional
form. Then,
∅ = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐑 : 𝑥 ≠ 𝑥} = {𝑥 : 𝑃 ∧ ¬𝑃 }.

EXAMPLE 3.1.11
Using the natural numbers as the starting point, 𝐙 and 𝐐 can be defined using
the abstraction method by writing

𝐙 = {𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ 𝐍 ∨ −𝑛 ∈ 𝐍}

and { }
𝑎
𝐐= : 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐙 ∧ 𝑏 ≠ 0 .
𝑏
Notice the redundancy in the definition of 𝐐. The fraction 1∕2 is named multiple
times like 2∕4 or 9∕18, but remember that this does not mean that the numbers
appear infinitely many times in the set. They appear only once.

EXAMPLE 3.1.12
The open intervals can be defined using abstraction.

(𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐑 : 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏},

(𝑎, ∞) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐑 : 𝑎 < 𝑥},
(−∞, 𝑏) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐑 : 𝑥 < 𝑎}.

See Exercise 9 for the closed and half-open intervals. Also, as with 𝐙+ and 𝐙− ,
the superscript + or − is always used to denote the positive or negative numbers,
respectively, of a set. For example,

𝐑+ = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐑 : 𝑥 > 0}

and
𝐑− = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐑 : 𝑥 < 0}.
124 Chapter 3 SET THEORY

EXAMPLE 3.1.13
Each of the following are written using the abstraction method and, where ap-
propriate, as a roster.
∙ The set of all rational numbers with denominator equal to 3 in roster form
is { }
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
…,− ,− ,− , , , , ,… .
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Using abstraction, it is { }
𝑛
:𝑛∈𝐙 .
3
∙ The set of all linear polynomials with integer coefficients and leading co-
efficient equal to 1 is

{… , 𝑥 − 2, 𝑥 − 1, 𝑥, 𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 + 2, … }.

Using abstraction it is
{𝑥 + 𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ 𝐙}.

∙ The set of all polynomials of degree at most 5 can be written as

{𝑎5 𝑥5 + · · · + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 : 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝐑 ∧ 𝑖 = 0, 1, … , 5}.

Exercises
1. Determine whether the given propositions are true or false.
(a) 0 ∈ 𝐍
(b) 1∕2 ∈ 𝐙
(c) −4 ∈ 𝐐
(d) 4 + 𝜋 ∈ 𝐑
(e) 4.34534 ∈ 𝐂
(f) {1, 2} = {2, 1}
(g) {1, 2} = {1, 2, 1}
(h) [1, 2] = {1, 2}
(i) (1, 3) = {2}
(j) −1 ∈ (−∞, −1)
(k) −1 ∈ [−1, ∞)
(l) ∅ ∈ (−2, 2)
(m) ∅ ∈ ∅
(n) 0 ∈ ∅
2. Write the given sets as rosters.
(a) The set of all integers between 1 and 5 inclusive
(b) The set of all odd integers
(c) The set of all nonnegative integers