RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES

AN INTRODUCTION
MEANING OF RESEARCH

Research may be very broadly defined as systematic gathering of data and information and
its analysis for advancement of knowledge in any subject. Research attempts to find answer
intellectual and practical questions through application of systematic methods. `

Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary defines research as "studious inquiry or examination; esp:

investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts,
revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of
such new or revised theories or laws".

Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown.
It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for,
when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and
attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all
knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever
the unknown, can be termed as research. Research is an academic activity and as such the
term should be used in a technical sense.

According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems,

formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions
to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

D. Steiner and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define research as

“the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend,
correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the
practice of an art.”

Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning
generalization and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’
refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions
either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations
for some theoretical formulation.

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OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of

scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific
purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad
groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies

with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH

• The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
• The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the researcher for further advancement, keeping the continuity
of what has already been attained.
• The procedural design of the research should carefully plan to yield results that are
as objective as possible.
• The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design
and estimate their effects upon the findings.
• The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the
data should be checked carefully.
• Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
• Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a
good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

QUALITIES OF GOOD RESEARCH

Good research is systematic

It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in
accordance with the well-defined set of rules.

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Good research is logical

This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of
induction are of great value us carrying out research.

Good research is empirical

It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals
with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.

Good research is replicable

This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby
building a sound basis fir decision.

SIGNIFANCE OF RESEARCH IN THE FIELD OF LAW

Generally, law is prejudiced by the existing social values and ethos. Most of the times, law
also attempts to mould or change the existing social values and attitudes. Such as the Act
was passed to prevent women from becoming a sati, an Act to secure the untouchables, an
act to stop child marriages etc., all these and more can be cited as an example. Such a
complex nature of law and its function require systematic approach to the understanding of
law and its operational facets. A systematic investigation into these aspects of law helps in
knowing the existing and emerging legislative policies, laws, their social relevance and
efficacy, etc.

Legal research means research in that branch of knowledge which deals with the principles
of law and legal institution. There are three main sources of law, viz. legislation, precedent
and custom. Juristic writings are another important though secondary source of law and their
importance is depended on the fact whether it is given due recognition by courts or the
legislature or jurists in solving problems or not. The aim of law is to regulate the human
behaviour in the present-day society. Legal research must be directed to the study of the
relation between the world of the law and the world that the law purports to govern.

The purpose of legal research is to find “authority” that will aid in finding a solution to a
legal problem. Primary authorities are the rules of law that are binding upon the courts,
government and individuals. Examples are statues, regulations, court orders and court
decisions. They are generated by legislatures, courts and administrative agencies. Secondary
authorities are commentaries on the law that do not have binding effect but aid in explaining
what the law is or should be. The resources available to find legal authority are vast and
complicated leading many law schools to require students to take a class in legal research.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF LEGAL RESEARCH

Law may be termed as a behavioral science as it regulates human behavior. It is expressed

in words which are used in particular context. Whatever be the source of law, it can’t provide
remedy for all the situations and for all the time to come. Changes in society demand that
law should move with the time if it has to remain alive and active and it can remain alive,
active and useful. The object of legal research, therefore, is to find out deficiencies in the
existing laws and to suggest suitable measures to eliminate them. If there is an area for which
there is no law at all the objective of legal research would be to suggest suitable legislation
for that area; but if there is a law for that area but due to one reason or the other, it doesn’t
work, its aim would be to suggest reform in the existing law, so as to make it workable.
Thus, the significance of legal research lies in the submission of proposal for reform in the
existing law to be enacted, customary or judicial.

• The legal research deals with the social and behavioral phenomena. It studies
behavior of human beings as members of society and their feeling responses,
attitudes under different circumstances.

• The legal research is carried on both for discovering new legal facts and verification
of the old ones.

• The legal research tries to establish causal connection between various human
activities.

• The legal research tries to give solutions of legal problems.

SCOPE OF LEGAL RESEARCH

In modern times law has assumed much significance. It provides for and dominates almost
all activities of human beings; it has been accepted that law is perhaps most important of
social change. When an individual deals with his property or he enters into employment or
he causes injury to someone, he fails to pay his dues or he deals with his spouse and children
or the Government affects his property or his personal rights, he comes in contract with law
and either he or his opponent obtains remedy in accordance with the existing law and where
there is no law, according to the discretion of the Court. The scope of legal research may
base on justice, equity and good conscience, thus, be summed up as follows:

• It helps the Government in formulating suitable laws in pursue its economic and
social policies.
• It helps in solving various operational and planning problems pertaining to business
and industry and tax.
• It helps the Courts in solving the problem without much delay and in such a way that
the problem may not require at all or at least in near future.

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 • It helps the legal practitioner in taking a decision as to how he should tackle the
problem in hand.

WHAT IS RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research methodology serves as the backbone of any scientific investigation, providing
researchers with a systematic approach to collecting, analyzing, and interpreting the data. It
encompasses a wide range of techniques, tools, and frameworks that guide researchers
through the various stages of their study.

Understanding Research Methodology

1. Definition and Purpose: Research methodology refers to the systematic and

structured approach employed by researchers to investigate a specific research
question or problem. Its primary purpose is to enable researchers to gather empirical
evidence, draw meaningful conclusions, and contribute to the existing body of
knowledge within their field of study.

2. Importance of Research Methodology: Research methodology ensures the

reliability, validity, and generalizability of research findings. It allows researchers to
address their research questions effectively, design appropriate research instruments,
collect and analyze data, and draw reliable conclusions. By adhering to rigorous
methodologies, researchers can enhance the credibility and impact of their studies.

Components of Research Methodology

1. Research Design: Research design outlines the overall plan or strategy for
conducting a study. It encompasses various elements such as the selection of research
approach (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods), identification of variables,
determination of sample size, and choice of data collection methods. The selection
of an appropriate research design depends on the research questions, objectives, and
available resources.

2. Data Collection Methods: Data collection methods involve gathering relevant

information or data to address the research questions. Common data collection
methods include surveys, interviews, observations, experiments, and document
analysis. Researchers should carefully select the most suitable method(s) based on
the research objectives, the nature of the phenomenon under study, and the target
population.

3. Sampling Techniques: Sampling techniques are used to select a subset of

individuals or elements from a larger population for study. Common sampling
techniques include random sampling, stratified sampling, convenience sampling, and

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 snowball sampling. The choice of sampling technique should consider
representativeness, generalizability, and feasibility.

4. Data Analysis: Data analysis involves organizing, summarizing, and interpreting the
collected data to derive meaningful insights and answer the research questions.
Depending on the research design and data type, researchers may use quantitative
techniques (such as statistical analysis) or qualitative techniques (such as thematic
analysis, content analysis, or grounded theory) to analyze the data.

5. Ethical Considerations: Researchers must adhere to ethical standards in their work.

This includes obtaining informed consent from participants, ensuring participant
confidentiality, and minimizing any potential harm.

6. Instrumentation: Researchers need to carefully select or develop tools (e.g.,

surveys, questionnaires, experiments) to collect data. The reliability and validity of
these instruments are critical for the accuracy of the findings.

7. Timeframe and Budget: Researchers need to establish a realistic timeline and

budget for their study. This involves planning the duration of data collection,
analysis, and reporting, as well as estimating the financial resources required.

8. Limitations and Delimitations: Researchers acknowledge the constraints and

boundaries of their study. This involves recognizing any factors that might limit the
generalizability of the findings or potential biases in the research design.

TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Types of research can be classified in many different ways. some major ways of classifying
research include the following:

1. Doctrinal
2. Non-Doctrinal
• Qualitative
• Quantitative
3. Empirical
4. Mix Method

1. DOCTRINAL RESEARCH/ LIBRARY RESEARCH OR

TRADITIONAL RESEARCH
• Definition: Analyzing legal principles and rules found in statutes, case laws,
and legal writings.

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Doctrinal research means research that has been carried out on a legal proposition by way
of analyzing the existing statutory provisions and case laws by applying logic and reasoning
power. It involves analysis of case law, arranging, ordering and systematizing legal
propositions and study of legal institutions, but it does more-it creates law and its major tool
through legal reasoning or rational deductions. In the opinion of Boomin, this kind of
research represents more a practical regulative ideal of how the judicial process ought to be
conceived by the judiciary than theoretical analysis of its actual structure and functioning.
If it is found to be unjust, it may be modified or changed to meet the present requirement.

This kind of research is carried on by all the Judges, Lawyers and law students.

The two most important examples of doctrinal research are the law of torts and
administrative law. These two areas of law have been developed by the Judges rather than
the theoretical researchers.

The secondary sources like text books on law, commentaries don’t possess as much authority
as the original sources possess. Hence, quality of doctrinal research depends upon the source
of material on which the researcher depends upon for his study. T

The doctrinal legal research attempts to verify the hypothesis by a first-hand study of
authoritative sources. A doctrinal researcher should know how to use a law library for the
major portion of his research methodology concerns with the identification of authoritative
sources and use the techniques to find them out.

Doctrinal research looks at the following issues:

• The aim of preferred values.

• The problems posed by the gap between the policy goal and the present state of
achievement.
• Availability of alternative choice for the implementation of goals.
• The predictions and consequences that were made.

Features of doctrinal research:

• The following are the essential features of doctrinal research;

• The scholar organizes his study around legal proposition;
• Appellate Court reports and other conventional legal materials are readily accessible.

Characteristics of Doctrinal Research:

• Propositions based study.

• Conventional legal theory and court decisions report are the sources for doctrinal
research.
• It includes the law as it is existing form.

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ADVANTAGES OF DOCTRINAL RESEARCH

• It provides lawyers, judges and others with the tools needed to reach decisions on
immense variety of problems within a limited time frame.
• It provides sound background for outstanding scholarship and it helps in smooth
functioning of the legal system of the society.
• The doctrinal research may provide appropriate guidance and hence it is of
informational value.
• There are certain concepts, e.g., ultra-virus doctrine which can be improved.
• It is more flexible in character.

DISADVANTAGES OF DOCTRINAL RESEARCH

• It operates in society, therefore knowledge of social policy, facts and social value in
essential for the researcher.
• A doctrinal researcher faces difficulties in giving concrete shape to his work.
• A doctrinal researcher analyses legislations, case laws and customary principles to
draw his interferences.
• The language of law is difficult to understand and to interpret.

DATA IN RESEARCH
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on targeted variables
in an established systematic fashion, which then enables one to answer relevant questions
and evaluate outcomes. The goal for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that
allows analysis to lead to the formulation of convincing and credible answers to the
questions that have been posed.

Types of Data:

1. Primary Data: Primary data means original data that has been collected specially
for the purpose in mind. It means someone collected the data from the source first-
hand. Data collected this way is called primary data. The people who gather primary
data may be an authorized organization, investigator, or enumerator or they may be
just someone with a clipboard.

Primary data is collected by: • Observation method • Survey Method • Contact Method •
Experimental method

2. Secondary Data: Refers to data which is collected by someone who is someone

other than the user. Common sources of secondary data for social science include
censuses, information collected by government departments, organizational records
and data that was originally collected for other research purposes. Secondary data

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 analysis can save time that would otherwise be spent collecting data and, particularly
in the case of quantitative data, can provide larger and higher-quality databases that
would be unfeasible for any individual researcher to collect on their own.

PILOT TESTING
“A small scale-study conducted prior to conducting an actual experiment; designed to test
and refine procedures.”

Examples:

1. Checking to see if the designed tool works

2. Asking people to complete a survey to find out whether a question results in the
requested information

3. Testing the intervention with four people before trying it with 60 people

4. Asking people to complete your survey and then revising the questions based on their
responses

5. Revising the study after analyzing preliminary data and determining that the data do
not address their research question

6. Student researcher designs questionnaire for their study’s target population, asks the
population to try out the questionnaire, and the questions are revised based on the
responses

Scenario:

A researcher planning to conduct interviews regarding landowner perspectives of land use

regulations conducts interviews with 5 people to test the questions and see if they get
answers that make sense. The researchers may revise their interview guides based on the
initial data collected.

2. NON-DOCTRINAL RESEARCH/ SOCIO-LEGAL RESEARCH

QUALITATIVE METHOD
Examines the opinions, behaviours, and experiences of people. It collects and analyzes words
and textual data. This research methodology requires fewer participants but is still more time-
consuming because the time spent per participant is quite large. This method is used in
exploratory research where the research problem being investigated is not clearly defined.

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Qualitative Research Data Collection
• One-on-one-interviews: Helps the interviewers understand a respondent’s
subjective opinion and experience about a specific topic or event
• Document study/literature review/record keeping: Researchers’ review of already
existing written materials such as archives, annual reports, research articles,
guidelines, policy documents, etc.
• Focus groups: Constructive discussions that usually include a small sample of
about 6-10 people and a moderator, to understand the participants’ opinions on a
given topic.
• Qualitative observation: Researchers collect data using their five senses (sight,
smell, touch, taste, and hearing).

QUESTIONNAIRE

Questionnaire method is one of the most suitable methods for investigation of socio-legal
problems. We use the tools of questionnaire for collecting data from large, diverse, varied
and scattered persons from different places. Questionnaire is a list of questions to be
answered by a group of people, especially to get facts or information about their views. It is
used to obtain knowledge about facts known to the informant.

Questionnaire is a printed list of questions sent through mail to respondents to be returned

by respondents after filling up the questionnaire. Questionnaire method of data collection is
quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being adopted by private individuals,
research workers, private and public organizations and even by Government departments.
In this method a questionnaire is sent to the persons concerned with a request to answer the
questions and return the questionnaire. Quite often questionnaire is considered as heart of a
survey operation. Hence it should be very carefully constructed.

If it is not properly set up, then the survey is bound to fail. This fact requires studying the
main aspects of a questionnaire such as the general form, question formulation and wording.
The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the
questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire
itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.

The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most

extensively employed in various economic and business surveys. The merits claimed on
behalf of this method are as follows:

• It is free from the bias of the interviewer. Answers are in respondent’s own words.

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 • Respondents have enough time to give answers.
• It easily to reach to the respondents.
• The results can be made more dependable and reliable.

Types of questions:

• Open- end questions.

• Structured questions.
• Dichotomous questions.
• Multiple choice questions.
• Leading questions.

Questions to be avoided:

• Long questions.
• Complex questions.
• Personal questions.
• Suspicious questions.
• Embracing questions.
• Subject matter of enquiry questions.
• Inaccurate responsible questions.

ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRE

• It is more economical in terms of money, when the resources are limited.

• It minimizes bias and maximizes the evidence collected.
• Surveys can be conducted quickly through questionnaire.
• It ensures anonymity.
• It places less pressure on the respondents.
• There is no need to go and see the respondents.
• The questionnaire is an impersonal document.
• It provides ample freedom and time to the respondent.
• They provided the valid information.
• They are useful in collecting all types of data- objective, quantitative and qualitative
nature of data.

DISADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRE

• Low rate of return of the dully filled in questionnaires.

• It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
• The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
• There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies.
• It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.

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MAIL QUESTIONNAIRES
Advantage
• Can be used to collect large amounts of information at a low cost per respondent.
• Respondents may give more honest answers to personal questions on a mail
questionnaire.
• No interviewer is involved to bias the respondent ‘s answers.
• Convenient for respondents who can answer when they have time.
• A good way to reach people who often travel.
Limitations
• Not flexible.
• Take longer to complete than a telephone or personal interview.
• The response rate is often very low.
• The researcher has no control over who answers.

PILOTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE

The questionnaire before being finalized should be cross-checked with peers, managers etc.
Thereafter questionnaire must be piloted i.e., it should be tested to see if it is obtaining the
results as per objectives or not. This is done by asking people to read it through and see if there
are any ambiguities which you have not noticed. They should also be asked to comment on the
length, structure and wording of the questionnaire. Alter the questions accordingly.

Even after the researcher has proceeded along the lines suggested, the draft questionnaire is a
product evolved by one or two minds only. Until it has actually been used in interviews and
with respondents, it is impossible to say whether it is going to achieve the desired results. For
this reason, it is necessary to pre-test the questionnaire before it is used in a full-scale survey,
to identify any mistakes that need correcting. The purpose of pretesting the questionnaire is to
determine:
• whether the questions as they are worded will achieve the desired results
• whether the questions have been placed in the best order
• whether the questions are understood by all classes of respondent
• whether additional or specifying questions are needed or whether some questions
should be eliminated

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 • whether the instructions to interviewers are adequate.
Usually, a small number of respondents are selected for the pre-test. The respondents selected
for the pilot survey should be broadly representative of the type of respondent to be
interviewed in the main survey.

THE INTERVIEW METHOD

Personal Interviewing
It is very flexible and can also be used to collect large amounts of information. Skilled
interviewers can keep the respondent attentive and clarify difficult questions in case of doubt.
They can guide interviews, explore issues, and probe as the situation demands. Personal
interviews can be used in any type of questionnaire and can be conducted fairly quickly. The
responses, behaviour and reactions can be put on record by the interviewer by making the
products readily available, displays at convenient locations, and by use of advertisements and
packaging.

a. Personal interview method requires a person in a face-to-face contact.

b. In the case of direct personal investigation, the interviewer has to collect the
information.
c. There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure
questions.
d. Observation method can be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions.
e. Personal information can be obtained easily.
f. Samples can be controlled more effectively.
g. The interviewer can usually control persons, who answer the questions.
h. The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard.
i. The language of the interview can be adapted to the ability of the person interviewed.
j. The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s
personal character.
Telephone Interviewing
Advantages
• Quick method
• More flexible as interviewer can explain questions not understood by the respondent
• Depending on respondent ‘s answer they can skip some Qs and probe more on others
• Allows greater sample control
• Response rate tends to be higher than mail

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Limitations
• Cost per respondent is higher
• Some people may not want to discuss personal Qs with the interviewer
• Interviewer ‘s manner of speaking may affect the respondent ‘s answers
• Different interviewers may interpret and record responses in a variety of ways
• Under time pressure, data may be entered without actually interviewing

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Advantages of qualitative research
• Explores attitudes and behaviour in-depth
Explores attitudes and behaviour in-depth as it’s more on a personal level and can delve in
detail to gain a better understanding of their views and actions to generate or examine a
hypothesis in more detail.
• Encourages discussion
Encourages discussion as it’s more in an open manner instead of strictly following a fixed set
of questions. In this way, it gives the research some context rather than just numbers.
• Flexibility
Flexibility, where the interviewer can probe and is able to ask any questions around the subject
matter, they feel is relevant or had not thought of before during the discussions and can even
change the setting.

Disadvantages of qualitative research

The sample size can be an issue
The sample size can be an issue if you are taking the opinion of 5 people out of 300 of your
customers or subscribers as a generalisation.
Bias in the sample selection
Bias in the sample selection, meaning the people you are selecting to take part in the qualitative
research may all have a certain opinion of the subject matter rather than a group of people with
mixed views, which is more valuable particularly if they are debating with opposing views
during focus groups.
Lack of privacy
Lack of privacy, if you are covering sensitive topics then people taking part may not be
comfortable in sharing their thoughts and opinions of the subject with others.
Whether you are using a skilled moderator or not
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It is of vital importance; the moderator is skilled and experienced in managing the
conversations of groups as well as being knowledgeable enough of the subject matter to ask
relevant questions that may have not been thought of.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD

This method focuses on measuring and testing numerical data. This approach is good for
reaching a large number of people in a short amount of time. This type of research helps in
testing the causal relationships between variables, making predictions, and generalizing results
to wider populations. Quantitative research involves a deductive method for data analysis
where hypotheses are developed at the beginning of the research and precise measurement is
required. The methods include statistical analysis applications to analyze numerical data and
are grouped into two categories descriptive and inferential.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTION
• Sampling: The most common type is probability sampling.
• Observations: Structured observations are most commonly used in quantitative
research. In this method, researchers make observations about specific behaviors of
individuals in a structured setting.
• Surveys and questionnaires: Surveys can be administered both online and offline
depending on the requirement and sample size.
SURVEY METHOD: This approach is most suited for gathering descriptive information.
Survey research generally involves a large audience to collect a large amount of data. This is a
quantitative method having a predetermined set of closed questions which are pretty easy to
answer. Because of the simplicity of such a method, high responses are achieved. It is one of
the most commonly used methods for all kinds of research in today’s world.
• Structured Surveys: Using formal lists of questions asked to all respondents in an identical
set.
• Unstructured Surveys: The interviewer probes the respondents and guides the interview
according to their answers. E.g., Debates on political issues on Television Channels.
• Direct Approach: The researcher asks direct questions about behaviors and thoughts. e.g.
Why don ‘t you eat at MacDonald's?
• Indirect Approach: The researcher might ask: What kind of people eat at MacDonald ‘s?
From the response, the researcher may be able to discover why the consumer avoids
MacDonald ‘s. It may suggest factors of which the consumer is not consciously aware.

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ADVANTAGES
• Can be used to collect different kinds of information at the same time.
• Quick and low cost as compared to observation and experimental methods.

LIMITATIONS
• Respondent ‘s reluctance to answer questions asked by unknown interviewers about
things they consider private.
• Respondents may refuse to share time showing to be busy.
• Respondents may try to please only by sharing positive responses.
• Respondents may be unable to answer because they cannot remember or never give a
thought to what they do and why.
• Respondents may answer to look smart or well-informed.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Advantages of quantitative research
Larger sample sizes
Larger sample sizes allowing for robust analysis of the results, so you are able to make more
generalizations of your target audience.
Impartiality and accuracy of data
Impartiality and accuracy of the data as it based on the survey questions for screening, grouping
and other hard number facts.
Faster and easier to run
Faster and easier to run particularly online and mobile surveys, where you can see the results
in real time.
Data is anonymous
Data is anonymous especially with sensitive topics through self-completion exercises like
online surveys.
Offers reliable and continuous information
Offers reliable and continuous information where you can repeat the survey again and again
weekly, monthly, quarterly, yearly to gain consistent trend data to help you plan ahead or
investigate and address issues.
Disadvantages of quantitative research
Limited by the set answers on a survey

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Limited by the set answers on a survey, so you are unable to go beyond that in delving in more
detail the behaviours, attitudes and reasons as you do with qualitative research. This is
particularly true with self-completion surveys (online), where there is no interviewer probing
you even if you include a couple of open-ended questions.
Research is not carried out in their normal environment
Research is not carried out in their normal environment, so can seem artificial and controlled.
Answers given by participants are claimed and may not be their actual behaviour in real life.
Unable to follow-up any answers given following completion of survey
Unable to follow-up any answers given after they have completed the survey due to the
anonymity of the participants. This is especially true for validity of the findings if the results
are inconclusive. Although you can ask at the end of the survey if they would like to do a
follow-up survey but not all participants may agree to do so.
PROS AND CONS OD QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Pros Pros

Explores attitudes and behaviour in- Larger sample sizes

depth

Encourages discussion Impartiality and accuracy

Flexibility Faster and easier

Data is anonymous

Offers reliable and continuous information

Cons Cons

The sample size can be an issue Limited by the set answers on a survey

Bias in the sample selection Research is not carried out in their normal
environment

Lack of privacy Unable to follow-up any answers given

Whether you are using a skilled

moderator or not

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METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS

The data analysis brings answer of the basic questions raised in the problem statement.

Quantitative data analysis:

Quantitative research focuses on measurement and testing using numerical data.

Quantitative methodology to be used when the research aims and objectives are
confirmatory in nature. Quantitative methodology can be used to measure the relationship
between two variables.

Quantitative data are obtained from primary and secondary sources. The data analyses are
based on data type using Excel, SPSS 20.0, Office Word and other tools. The data analysis
focuses on numerical/quantitative data analysis. Respondents’ answers are coded and data
analyses are made. Data are coded to SPSS 20.0 software which is obtained from
questionnaires. It identifies, classifies and assigns a numeric symbol to data. It is done in
only one way pre-coded. In this way all of the responses are preceded. All the collected data
are entered to a statistical analysis software package SPSS version 20.0 on Windows 10 for
the next step. The data analyses, exploration of data is made with descriptive statistics and
graphical analysis. The data analysis explores the relationship between variables and
comparing groups. This is done using cross tabulation, chi-square, correlation and factor
analysis and using nonparametric statistic.

Popular data analysis methods in quantitative research include:

• Descriptive statistics (mean, median, mode).

• Inferential statistics (correlation, regression, structural equation modeling).

Qualitative data analysis:

Qualitative data analysis is used for triangulation of the quantitative data analysis. The
interview, observation and report records are used to support findings. The data analysis is
incorporated with the quantitative discussion results in the data analysis parts. Qualitative
research refers to focus on collecting and analyzing words (written or spoken) and textual
data. Qualitative analysis can focus on other softer data points such as body language and
visual elements. Qualitative methodology to be used when the research aims and objectives
are exploratory in nature. Qualitative methodology can be used to understand peoples’
perceptions about an event that took place. Qualitative data analysis begins with data coding
after one or more analysis technique is applied.

Data analysis software: The data are entered using SPSS 20.0 on Windows 10 and analyzed
carefully. The analysis is supported with SPSS software to find out the gap. The software

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analyzes and compares the results of different variables used in the research questions. Excel
is also used to draw the pictures and calculate some analytical solutions.

3. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge
from actual experience rather than from theory or belief. Empirical research is defined as any
study whose conclusions are exclusively derived from concrete, verifiable evidence. The
term empirical means that it is guided by scientific experimentation and/or evidence. Likewise,
a study is empirical when it uses real-world evidence in investigating its assertions. This
research type is founded on the view that direct observation of phenomena is a proper way to
measure reality and generate truth about the world. By its name, it is methodology research that
observes the rules of empiricism and uses quantitative and qualitative methods for gathering
evidence.
4. MIXED RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Mixed methods research combines both quantitative and qualitative approaches, providing
a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem. Researchers employing
mixed methods designs collect, analyze, and integrate both numerical and non-numerical
data to gain a deeper insight into the research question.

DEDUCTIVE METHOD

Deductive is that method of logical reasoning that goes from the general premises assumed
to be true to a specific conclusion. In other words, deductive is the process of deriving
conclusion from the premises that are assumed to be true. Deductive is the most common
type of logic. The basic aim of deductive is to start with some assumption or premise and
reach to a logical conclusion. Deductive arguments assert that the conclusion is arrived at,
necessarily from the truth of the premises. Deductive method is the opposite of Inductive
method. The researcher is required to proceed from general to particular, from abstract to
concrete and from formulae to examples. The procedure mostly consists of telling a formula
and solving problems through these formulas. After the researcher finds a number of
relevant problems being solved, he accepts the formula.

e.g. Human beings are mortal 1. All animals are mortal (Major Premise)

A is a human being 2. Dog is an animal (Minor Premise)

Therefore, A is mortal. 3. Therefore, dog will die (Conclusion)

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INDUCTIVE METHOD

Inductive method is a scientific method. It is a method of arriving at a particular formula

with help of sufficient number of concrete examples. Inductive method leads from concrete
to abstract, from particular to general and from example to general rules. Thus, it implies
that it is based on induction which means providing on universal truth by showing if it is
truth for a particular case. Thus, it is a logical way of approach where by the researcher is
induced to go on with reasoning.

Francis Bacon introduced the concept of inductive. Inductive is the process of taking data,
a number of instances from experience, appeals to signs, evidence or authority and causal
relationship, classifying them into categories and then determining logically from them one
or more generally applicable rules. In other words, inductive is a method of logical reasoning
that goes from specific set of premises based mainly on experience or experimental evidence
to a general conclusion. Inductive arguments assert that the conclusion is arrived at not
necessarily, but probably from the truth of the premises.

e.g. A is a human being

A is mortal

Therefore, human beings are mortal.

SNOWBALL SAMPLING

Snowball sampling or chain-referral sampling is defined as a non-probability sampling

technique in which the samples have traits that are rare to find. This is a sampling technique,
in which existing subjects provide referrals to recruit samples required for a research study.
For example, while collecting feedback about a sensitive topic like AIDS, respondents aren’t
forthcoming with information. In this case, the researcher can recruit people with an
understanding or knowledge of such people and collect information from them or ask them
to collect information.

BEST PRACTICES IN RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. Clearly Define Research Objectives: Formulate precise and well-defined research

objectives to guide the entire research process. Clear objectives ensure that the
research remains focused and facilitates the selection of appropriate research
methodologies.

2. Literature Review: Conduct a thorough literature review to identify gaps in existing

knowledge and understand the theoretical foundations of the research topic. This step
helps researchers situate their study within the broader academic context and informs
their research design and methodology choices.

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3. Ethical Considerations: Ensure ethical considerations are addressed throughout the
research process. Obtain necessary approvals from relevant ethical review boards,
obtain informed consent from participants, and protect participants' privacy and
confidentiality. Adhering to ethical guidelines is essential to maintain the integrity
and trustworthiness of the research.

4. Pilot Study: Consider conducting a pilot study before the main research to test
research instruments, assess feasibility, and identify any potential issues. A pilot
study helps refine the research design, ensure the reliability and validity of
measurement tools, and make necessary adjustments before commencing the actual
data collection.

5. Data Quality and Reliability: Maintain data quality and reliability by using
standardized data collection instruments, establishing clear operational definitions,
and employing appropriate measurement techniques. This includes ensuring inter-
rater reliability, conducting reliability tests, and implementing quality control
measures throughout the data collection process.

6. Data Interpretation and Reporting: Thoroughly analyze the collected data using
appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis techniques. Interpret the findings in the
context of the research objectives, existing theories, and relevant literature. Ensure
the reporting of results is clear, concise, and transparent, including limitations and
potential areas for future research.

7. Replicability and Reproducibility: Strive to make research findings replicable and

reproducible. Provide detailed information about the research methodology, data
collection procedures, and analysis techniques to enable other researchers to
replicate the study. This promotes transparency, fosters scientific progress, and
strengthens the credibility of the research.

8. Continuous Learning and Improvement: Engage in continuous learning and

improvement by staying updated with advancements in research methodologies and
relevant literature. Reflect on the research process and outcomes to identify areas for
improvement and to enhance future research endeavours.

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COMPARISON BETWEEN DOCTRINAL AND NON-DOCTRINAL RESEARCH

• Doctrinal research is theoretical research, while on the other hand, non-doctrinal

research is more practical.

• Doctrinal research has its roots in the analytical or positivist school of thought. But
non-doctrinal research comes from the realist school of thought.

• Doctrinal research is based on secondary sources of information, like articles,

commentaries, textbooks, etc. But non-doctrinal research is based on primary
sources like surveys and case studies.

• Non-doctrinal research includes fieldwork but doctrinal research is library-based

arm-chair research that does not involve going to the field.

• Doctrinal research is more concerned with the question “What is law” and studying
law exclusively. But non-doctrinal research studies law in connection with society
and various non-legal aspects that affect the law. It is socio-legal research.

• The scope of doctrinal research is narrower concerning the law in isolation. But non-
doctrinal research has a wider scope and studies law in comprehensive terms.

COMPLIED BY: GHULAM RASOOL KASSAR (PART V, SECTION A)

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