University of Visvesvaraya

college of Engineering. Bengaluru

Dr. Hanumantharaju H.G

Professor
Department of Mechanical Engg.,
U.V.C.E., Bangalore

1
 UNIT : 3

MEASUREMENT OF STRAIN

2
Types of Strain Gauge

3
 Strain Gauge
⚫ A strain gauge is a measurement device that is used to quantify
the amount of deformation that a material undergoes when a
stress is applied to it.

− There are 3 types in strain gauges:

1)Mechanical Strain Gauge.
2)Optical Strain Gauge.
− 3)Electrical Strain Gauge.

4
 Mechanical Strain Gauges
⚫ These type of strain gauges involves
mechanical means for magnification.
Extensometer employing compound levers
having high magnifications are used. The
figure shows a simple mechanical strain
gauge. It consists of two gauge points
which will be seated on the specimen
whose strain is to be measured. One
gauge point is fixed while the second
gauge point is connected to a magnifying
lever, which in turn gives the input to a dial
indicator. The lever magnifies the
displacement and is indicated directly by a
calibrated dial indicator. This displacement
is used to calculate the strain value.

5
 Mechanical strain gauges are among the most straightforward in the
way of making and measuring.
The method of measurement consists of measuring the elongation of the
blades and reading this value on a scale magnified 1000 times, transmitted by
means of mechanical levers.
The following figure shows the Huggenberger mechanical strain
gauge, its construction consists of a movable, immovable blades, handles,
pointer, and scale.

Changing the deformation value activates the lever movement. The

Huggenberger strain gauge has a strain gauge base with values ranging from 5
- 100 mm.

6
Advantages Disadvantages
1)Limited only to static tests.
2)The high inertia of the gauge makes it
1)It has a self contained magnification unsuitable for dynamic measurements
system. and varying strains.
3)The response of the system is slow and
also there is no method of recording the
2)No auxiliary equipment is needed as in readings automatically.
the case of electrical strain gauges. 4)There should be sufficient surface area
on the test specimen and clearance
above it in order to accommodate the
gauge together with its mountings.

7
 Optical Strain Gauges
⚫ The most commonly used optical strain gauge was
developed by Tuckerman as shown in the figure. It
combines mechanical and optical systems consisting
of an extensometer and an autocollimator. The
nominal length of the gauge is the distance from a
knife edge to the point of contact of the lozenge. The
lozenge acts like a mirror. The distance between the
fixed knife edge and lozenge changes, due to loading.
Then, the lozenge rotates and if any light beam is
falling on it, it will be deflected. The function of
autocollimator is to send parallel rays of light and
receive back the reflected light beam from the
lozenge on the optical system. The relative movement
of the reflected light as viewed through the eye-piece
of the autocollimator is calibrated to measure the
strain directly. This gauge can be used for dynamic
measurements of up to 40Hz using a photographic
recorder, and strains as small as 2 μm/mcan be
resolved. Gauge lengths may vary from 6mm to
250mm.

8
Advantages Disadvantages

1)The position of autocollimator need not 1)Limited only for static measurements.
be fixed relative to the extensometer,
and reading can be taken by holding the 2)Large gauge lengths are required.
autocollimator in hand.
3)Cannot be used where large strain
gradients are encountered.

9
 Electrical Strain Gauges
In electrical strain gauges, a change in strain produces a change in some electrical characteristic. This
electrical output can be magnified by some electronic equipment.

The advantage of high sensitivity and ability to respond to dynamic strains. The electrical strain gauges
are classified as follows based on the particular electrical property affected by straining.

1) Capacitance gauges.

2) Inductance gauges.

3) Piezoelectric gauges.

4) Resistance gauges.

The resistance type strain gauge are by far the most popular, and they have advantages, primarily of
size and mass over the other types of electrical gauges. On the other hand, strain-sensitive gauging elements
used in calibrated devices for measuring other mechanical quantities are often of the inductive type, whereas the
capacitive kind is used more for special-purpose applications. Inductive and capacitive gauges are generally more
rugged than resistive one and better able to maintain calibration over long period of time. Inductive gauges are
used for permanent installations, such as rolling mill frames for the measurement of rolling loads. Piezoelectric
gauges are extremely sensitive to strain but have the disadvantages of non-linearity and relatively high
temperature sensitive. They are mainly used for studying dynamic inputs.

10
Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges
Electrical resistance strain gauges are very widely used for strain measurement. Its operation is
based on the principle that the electrical resistance of a conductor changes when it is subjected to a
mechanical deformation. Typically, an electrical conductor is bonded to the specimen with an
insulating cement under no-load conditions. A load is then applied, which produces a deformation in
both the specimen and resistance of an element as follows:
Resistance of a conductor, R = ρ L
A
where, L = Length of the electrical conductor.
A = Cross sectional area of the conductor.
ρ = Resistivity of the conductor material.

In other words, when the conductor is stretched, its length (L) will increase, cross sectional area (A)
will decrease and hence the resistance (R) will increase. Similarly, when the conductor is
compressed resistance (R) will decrease.
The electrical resistance strain gauges are classified as follows:
1) Unbonded type strain gauge.
2) Bonded type strain gauge.
(a) Wire type.
(b) Foil type.
3) Semi conductor or Piezo-resistive strain gauge.

11
Selection and Installation

12
 Principles of selecting Strain
Gauges
⚫ There are four basic principles that should be
considered in selecting the strain gauges and
they are as follows
− Suitability for the operating and environmental
conditions.
− Accurate and reliable measurements.
− Easy to install
− Minimum cost

13
 Strain Gauge Parameters

⚫ Parameters for choosing strain gauges are

summarized as follows:
− Gauge length
− Gauge pattern
− Gauge resistance
− Gauge material
− Optical features

14
 ⚫ Gauge length
− Accuracy requirements
− Strain gradients
− Maximum strain(elongation)
− Installation(easiness)
− Heat dissipation
⚫ Gauge pattern
− Uniaxial, biaxial or multiaxial
− Strain gradients
− Installation(space and easiness)
− Heat dissipation

15
⚫ Gauge resistance
− Signal noise ratio
− Heat dissipation
− Lead wire desensitization
⚫ Gauge material
− Gauge wire sensitivity
− Backing(carrier)
− Adhesive
− Self temperature compensation
⚫ Optical features
− Installation(easiness and speed)

16
 Installation of Strain Gauge

⚫ The installation of a strain gauge is a critical stage in

strain measurement. While a perfectly installed,
improper installation may seriously degrade or mess
up the validity of a test. The quality and success of
strain gage installation are greatly influenced by the
precision of the installation process and the choice of
connecting technique. Two basic methods hat are
mainly used to install a strain gauge are
− Bonding
− Welding

17
⚫ Both of these methods involve using a material
to attach the strain gauge to the measurement
object in order to facilitate the transfer of the
objects deformation of the strain gauge without
loss. The choice between these two
approaches depends upon the factors
concerning the application and the environment.

18
Gauge Factor

19
 Gauge Factor
⚫ Gauge factor is the measure of the amount of resistance change for a given
strain and therefore serves as an index of the strain sensitivity of the gauge.
⚫ Mathematically, it is expressed as follows:

Here, G – Gauge factor

- Change in resistance
- Change in length
R – Initial resistance
L – Initial length

20
Let us consider a long straight metallic wire of length L circular cross section
with diameter d .When this wire is subjected to a force applied at the two ends,
a strain will be generated and as a result, the dimension will change. Now the
resistance of the wire:
where is the resistivity.

From the above expression, the change in resistance due to strain is given by

21
 Now, for a circular cross section, ; from which
Alternatively,

Hence,

Now the Poisson’s ratio is defined as,

The Poisson’s ratio is the property of the material and does not depend on the dimension.
So ,

Hence,

22
If the change in the value of resistivity of a material when strained is neglected, the gauge factor is:

A higher gauge factor makes the gauge more sensitive and the electrical output obtained from
indication and recording purposes will be greater. The gauge factor is normally supplied by the
manufacturer and may range from 1.7 to 4 , depending on the length of the gauge. Although a
higher gauge factor increases sensitivity, in case of metallic gauges it is limited owing to the
relatively low resistivity of the metals. This limitation can be overcome by using semiconductor
strain gauges, which have gauge factors of the order of 100 or more.

23
 Temperature
Compensation

24
 Temperature Compensation

⚫ The strain gauge would change its resistance

with respect to the temperature.
⚫ Gauge resistance is affected by many reasons
in which temperature plays an important role.
⚫ Total indicated strain = Mechanical Strain +
Apparent Strain

25
When temperature increases
Gauge grid will elongate ∆𝑙 /𝑙 = 𝖺.∆𝑇
Base material mounted on gauge will elongate
∆𝑙 /𝑙 =β.∆𝑇
Resistance of the gauge will increase
∆𝑅 /𝑅 =γ.∆𝑇

26
The combined effect of these three factors will produce a
temperature induced change in resistance of the gauge as
∆𝑅 /𝑅 = (𝛽−𝛼) ∆𝑇.𝐹 + 𝛾∆𝑇
α=Thermal coefficient of expansion of the gauge
material.
β= Thermal coefficient of base material.
γ= Thermal coefficient of gauge material.
F= Gauge factor.

27
In order to prevent significant errors due to “Temperature
Compensation” current available methods are:

⚫ Compensating dummy gauge

⚫ Self temperature compensated gauge
⚫ Compensation by Dissimilar gauge
⚫ Compensation by Similar gauge
⚫ Compensation by Computation

28
 Self temperature compensated gauge

⚫ The term temperature compensated denotes that change is

resistance due to temperature is zero.
⚫ This method is successful only when materials having specific
value of thermal expansion coefficient.
⚫ It must be 0-25 ppm/◦ C

29
⚫ This can be achieved by two methods:
In First method- Self temperature Compensation is
created by altering the temperature coefficient of
grid material. So that when mounted on materials
having a certain thermal expansion coefficient
thermal expansion will be low.
⚫ The Second method includes forming a grid with
two different lengths of gauge wires in series so
that resultant apparent strain is zero.

30
Measuring Tensile,
Bending Strains
and Stresses

31
 Tensile Stress

⚫ Tensile tests are used to determine how

materials will behave under tension load.

⚫ Material properties are often expressed in terms

of stress (force per unit area, σ) and strain
(percent change in length, ε).

32
⚫ Tensile tests use
plots of stress vs
strain to display
results.

33
⚫ Elastic Deformation: Elastic deformation is the
region on the stress-strain curve where
deformation can be reversed by removing
stress.
⚫ Young’s Modulus:Young’s modulus, also
known as the elastic modulus, is the constant
which relates the proportion of stress (σ) to
strain (ε) under elastic deformation.

34
⚫ Plastic Deformation: Strain beyond the material’s
yield point induces strain hardening, which
permanently deforms the material and causes
changes to its mechanical properties.
⚫ Yield Point: The yield point marks the end of the
elastic deformation region and the beginning of the
plastic deformation region.
⚫ Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS): The ultimate
tensile strength is the maximum amount of stress a
material can withstand before failure. This is the
maximum value on the stress-strain curve.

35
 Quarter Bridge System

⚫ If strain gauge is bonded on a

surface of rectangular section of
a cantilever of which one side
end is fixed and load w is applied
to another end the surface stress
which the bonded strain gauge
will detect is as follows:
Ω=E•€
Strain €is obtained by the following
equation

36
 Half-Bridge (Adjacent-leg Bridge
connection)
⚫ Strain gages bonded symmetrically on
the front and rear surface of the
cantilever output positive and negative
signal, respectively. With an equal
absolute value if these 2 gages are
connected to adjacent legs of the bridge,
the output of the bridge corresponding to
the bending strain is doubled and the
surface stress Ωat the strain gage
bonding site is obtained by the following
equation Ω=€•E/2
⚫ The adjacent legs active half bridge
system cancel out the output of the
strain gage corresponding to the force
applied in axial direction of the cantilever

37
Applications

38
⚫ Strain gauges are extensively used in the field of geotechnical
monitoring to keep a constant check on structures such as
dams, tunnels and buildings so that the mishaps can be
avoided well on time. The applications of strain gauges include:

− Aerospace industry
− Cable bridges
− Rail monitoring
− Torque and power measurements in rotating equipment

39
 Aerospace industry
⚫ Strain gauges are fixed to the
structural load-bearing components to
measure stresses along load paths for
wing deflection or deformation in an
airplane.
⚫ The strain gauges are wired into the
Wheatstone Bridge circuits and, its
application areas include onboard
signal conditioning units, excitation
power supplies, and the telemetry
necessary to read in site
measurements.

40
 Cable bridges

⚫ Instrumentation of bridges is done to

verify design parameters, evaluate the
performance of new technologies used in
the construction of bridges, to verify and
control the construction process and for
subsequent performance monitoring.
⚫ It becomes necessary to monitor the
bridges regularly for any kind of
deformation as it might lead to fatal
accidents. Strain gauge technology is
used in the real-time monitoring of huge
bridges, making the inspections precise.

41
 Rail monitoring

⚫ Strain Gauges have a long

history in the safety of rails. It is
used to measure stress and
strain on rails. Strain gauges
measure axial tension or
compression with no impact on
the rails. In case of an
emergency, the strain gauges
can generate a warning so
maintenance can be done early
to minimize the impact on rail
traffic.

42
Torque and power measurements in
rotating equipment
⚫ Strain gauges can measure the torque applied by a motor, turbine, or
engine to fans, generators, wheels, or propellers. Such equipment is
found in power plants, ships, refineries, automobiles and industries.
⚫ Strain gauges can be connected to the shaft in at least three ways:
⚫ a) By direct connection
⚫ b) By wireless telemetry
⚫ c) By use of slip rings

43
⚫ By direct connection: When a shaft rotates
slowly, direct connections may be made
between the strain gauges and the measuring
system.
⚫ By wireless telemetry: The strain gauge
information is transmitted using a radio
frequency transmitter mounted on the shaft
and the signal is picked up by a receiver
placed nearby.
⚫ By use of slip rings: It is the most common
method for obtaining strain gauge information
from rotating shafts. Factors such as ring and
brush wear and changing contact
temperatures make it imperative that a full
bridge be used at the test point and that the
slip rings be introduced externally to the
bridge as shown in the figure.

44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
LOAD CELLS
Load cells are the most popular devices used for measurement of weights.
Examples
▪Strain gauge type load cell
▪Hydraulic type load cell
▪Diaphragm type load cell
▪Spool type load cell
▪Ring type load cell.
STRAIN GAUGE TYPE LOAD CELL
❑It is also known as a electrical load cell which we use to measure the force or weight.
❑It gives output in terms of an electrical resist which is proportional to the weight Being
supported by the load Cells.
❑ It can be designed to operate either in tension or compression Strain gauge is mounted on
metal member cell depends upon a dameterical change of the of these metal member to
produce a proportional change in string gauge which is connected into wheat stone Bridge
circuit Where changes in it's resistance or accurately measured by an indicating or recording
instrument.
PROVING RING
❑A proving ring is a device used to measure force.
❑ It consists of an elastic ring in which the deflection of the ring when loaded
along a diameter is measured by means of a micrometer screw and a vibrating
reed.
TORQUE MEASURING / POWER MEASURING TORQUE / TWISTING
MOMENT / TORSION
Torsion is a power that a shaft transmits per Radian per second of ration also it is called turning
effect or a couple.
T=force *perpendicular distance
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑃 = 60∗1000 in KW
The important reason for measuring a torque is to obtain load/force information necessary for
stress or deflection analysis.

Torque measuring devices are called dynamometers basically they are three types :

1)Absorption dynamometer (mechanical dynamometer):

They absorb the mechanical energy as a torque is measured and hence a particularly useful
for measuring power or torque developed by a power sources such as engines or electric
motors example: prony brakes etc..,
2) Driving dynamometers(Electrical Dynamometers):
These dynamometers measure power or torque and as well as provide energy to
operate the devices to be tested.They are useful in determining performance
charcteristics of the devices Such as Pumps,compressors example:eddy
current,AC motors and generators.

3) Transmission dynamometer( torque meter):

These are passive devices placed at on appropriate location within a machine or
in between machines to sense the torque at that location the neither add nor
subtract the transmitted energy/power called torque meters.
MECHANICAL DYNAMOMETERS

(I) PRONY BRAKE DYNAMOMETER

Pony Brake is one of the simplest dynamometers for measuring power output
(brake power).
It is to attempt to stop the engine using a brake on the flywheel and measure the
weight which an arm attached to the brake will support, as it tries to rotate with
the flywheel.

Prony brake dynamometer power measurement

The Prony brake shown in the above consists of a wooden block, frame, rope,
brake shoes and flywheel. It works on the principle of converting power into
heat by dry friction. Spring-loaded bolts are provided to increase the friction by
tightening the wooden block.
The whole of the power absorbed is converted into heat and hence this type of
dynamometer must the cooled.
The brake power is given by the formula Brake Power
(Pb) = 2πNT
Where T = Weight applied (W) × distance (l) = W×l
(II) ROPE BRAKE DYNAMOMETER
The rope brake as shown in below figure is another device for measuring brake
power of an engine.
It consists of some turns of rope wound around the rotating drum attached to the
output shaft.
One side of the rope is connected to a spring balance and the other side to a
loading device.
The power is absorbed in friction between the rope and the drum.
Therefore drum in rope brake requires cooling.

Rope brake dynamometer for power measurement

Rope brake dynamometers are cheap and can be constructed quickly but brake
power can’t be measured accurately because of change in the friction coefficient
of the rope with a change in temperature.
The brake power is given by the formula
Brake Power ,
(Pb) = πDN (W − S)
Where,
D is the brake drum diameter,
W is the weight of the load and
S is the spring balance reading.
GAUGE DYNAMOMETERS

❑This type of gauges are widely used because mechanical methods for
measurement strain are not very reliable.
❑ It is an electro-mechanical technique and the dynamometer used in process
can be termed as electro-mechanical dynamometer.
❑Wheatstone bridge circuit is commonly used in connection with electrical
strain gauges.
THANK YOU