Introduction to Computer Network

➢ Network: Interaction(Communication)between Users.

➢ Computer Networking: It’s a Collection of Interconnected

independent Computer Devices, that are connected using
multiple paths for the purpose of exchange(sending/receiving)
information or share the resources among them.

➢ Usage:
Resource Sharing
Enhanced Communication
Cost Reduction etc.
 Components of Computer Network
Host/Nodes:
➢ Its refers to the computers that are attached to a network and are seeking to
share the resources(disk space, folder)of the Network.
➢ (e.g.)PC, Laptops, Smartphones etc.
➢ If there were No Nodes /Host then it called as Workstations.

Servers:
➢ A Server is a computer or a program it provides services to the client.
➢ A Servers is responsible for performing the networking tasks.
➢ In other words a server handle networking tasks like sharing of data,
resource sharing (disk space, folder)etc.

Client: Its a Computer that requests for some services from a server.

Network Hardware:
Modem, Hub, Switch, Repeater, Router, Gateway, NIC(Network
Intermediate Card) etc.
Communication Channel:
Wired CC : Cables (twisted pair, coaxial, fiber)
➢ Twisted Pair: A Twisted pair is a pair of insulated wires that are twisted together to
improve electromagnetic capability and to reduce noise from outside sources.
➢ In twisted pair cable, transmission of signals happens via metallic conducting wire in
the electrical form.
➢ DateRate:CAT1,CAT2,CAT3,CAT4,CAT5,CAT6,CAT7. (1MB,4,16,20,100,250MB,1.2GB)
➢ A drain wire carries extraneous electrical noise to ground and away from the circuit or
system.
➢ Insulation protects conductors from corrosion as well insulates them from each.
➢ Cost of twisted pair cable is less as compared to coaxial cable.
➢ Twisted pair cable has low bandwidth.
➢ It has very high attenuation.
➢ Affected due to external magnetic field.
➢ Usede: In Telephone Line, LAN etc.
➢ Types: Shielded and Unshielded
➢ Coaxial Cable: This type of cable consists of a solid wire core surrounded by one
or more foil or wire shields, each separated by some kind of plastic insulator.
➢ In Coaxial Cable, transmission of signals happens via inner conductor of cable in
the electrical form.
➢ Date Rate: Up to 1GB.
➢ Co-axial cable has moderately high bandwidth.
➢ In co-axial cable has low attenuation.
➢ External magnetic field is less affected
➢ Used: In Cable TV Television, CCTV Camera, Networking.
➢ Types: Thicknet and Thinnet.
➢ Fiber Optics Cable: A Fiber Optical Fiber Cable consists of a bundle of glass
threads, each of which is capable of transmitting messages modulated onto light
waves. Carry light(long distance),
➢ In Fiber Optics Cable, transmission of signals happens via glass fiber in the
optical form.
➢ Date Rate: Up to 100GB, 500GB, 1TB.
➢ In optical fiber cable has very low attenuation.
➢ External magnetic field is not affected.
➢ Optical fiber cable has highest noise immunity.
➢ Used: Tele Communication, Defense(SONAR Wave),HD Videos, Medical(Laser
Surgeries),BMW use for Airbag.
➢ Cladding used for Lower Refractive Index.
➢ Types: Single Node and Multi-node.
Wireless Communication Channel:
Wireless Communication is a method of transmitting information from one
point to other, without using any connection like wires, cables or any physical
medium.
Broadcast (microwave, satellite, radio waves, infrared waves) etc.
Radio Link/Wave:

➢ Continuous sine waves, Electromagnetic with wavelength.

➢ Omni-directional in nature & Frequency Rate: 3 KHz to 1GHz.

➢ Television and Radio Program, Broadcasting, Mobile Phone Calls, Radar,

Communication with Satellites, Computer Networks and other navigation systems.

➢ Radio Wave can be classified by frequency&wavelength.

➢ Distance: 1 meter – 100,000 km.

➢ Wavelength: is the distance between identical points.

➢ When the frequency is higher than 3GHz it is named as Microwave.

Microwave Link/Wave:

➢ It’s a communications system which has high frequency waves that can be used
to transmit data wirelessly overlong long distances.

➢ Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging

from about one meter to one millimeter.

➢ Unidirectional in Nature.

➢ Point to Point Communication.

➢ Used in Microwave oven used for Heating Food, Cancer Treatment, Radars,
Sensor Systems, Radio Astronomy.

➢ Frequency Rate:1 GHz to 300 GHz. & Distance: 1 mm – 1 meter.

➢ Frequency describes the number of waves that pass a fixed place in a

specific period of time.
Satellite Link/Wave:
➢ Satellite Communication use the synchronous satellite to relay the radio
signal transmitted from ground station.
➢ It act as relay stations for communication signals.
➢ The high frequency radio waves used for satellite communication.
➢ Unidirectional in Nature.
➢ Orbits 22,300miles.

Infrared Link/Waves:
➢ Electromagnetic radiation with wavelength.
➢ Distance: 800nm to 1mm.
➢ Used to Find the Human and Animal body Heat Patterns.
➢ Used in Night-Vision Cameras.
➢ Unidirectional in Nature.
➢ Frequency Rate: 300 GHz to 400 GHz.
 Data Communication Terminologies
Channel: is a passageway, a means of access for a thing, a communication or an idea.
Bandwidth:
➢ The maximum amount of data transmitted over an internet connection in a specific period of
time.
➢ It is the potential of the data that is to be transferred in a specific period of time.
➢ It is the difference between the upper and lower frequencies in a continuous band of
frequencies.
➢ It is the number of bits per second that a link can send or receive & It refers to maximum
data transmission speed.
Types:
It is typically measured in Hertz(Hz)
KHz: Kilohertz. (1024 Hertz = 1 KHz)
MHz: Megahertz. (1024 Kilohertz = 1 MHz)
GHz: Gigahertz. (1024 Megahertz = 1 GHz)
Telephone Frequency Range:
CDMA:850 MHz
2G: 900 MHz, 1800 MHz
3G (WCDMA): 2100 MHz, 900 MHz
4G:1800 MHz, 850 MHz, 2300 MHz and 2500 MHz
 Data Communication Terminologies
FM Frequency Range: 88.5KHz to 108KHz
The Range of the Human Voice extends from: 80 Hz to 14 KHz
Voiceband or Narrowband Telephone Calls:
Audio Frequencies Range 300 Hz to 3.4 KHz

Data Transfer Rate:

➢ The data transfer rate (DTR) is the amount of digital data that is moved from one
network to another network in a specified time period.

➢ DTR is the speed of data transmission.

➢ It refers to the actual data transmission speed.

❑ Bps = Bits per Second. (8bits=1bytes)

❑ Kbps = Kilobits per Second. (1024bypes=1kilobytes)
❑ Mbps = Megabits per Second. (1024kilobytes=1megabytes)
❑ Gbps = Gigabits per Second. (1024megabytes=1gigabytes)
❑ Tbps = Terabits per Second. (1024gigabytes=1terabytes)
 Type of Networks:
Personal Area Network(PAN):
➢ A PAN is a computer network organized around an individual person within
a single building. This could be inside a small office or residence.
➢ Send a document to the printer in the office upstairs while you are sitting on
the couch with your laptop.
➢ Upload a photo from your cell phone to your desktop computer.
Local Area Network (LAN):
➢ It connects two or more computers that are confined to a localized area, like an
office, a building or a factory.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

➢ It connects two or more computers that are apart but be located in the same or
different cities.
➢ MAN is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity. Speeds of
MAN ranges in terms of Mbps.
➢ The data transfer rate and the propagation delay of MAN is moderate.

Wide Area Network (WAN):

➢ Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large geographical
area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country.
 Network Devices:
MODEM:
➢ Modem is short for "Modulator-Demodulator." It is a hardware component
that allows a computer or another device, such as a router or switch, to
connect to the Internet.
➢ It converts or "modulates" an analog signal from a telephone and send
through cable wire as digital data (0s and 1s) that a computer can
recognize.
➢ Similarly, it converts digital data from a computer or other device into an
analog signal that can be sent over standard telephone lines.
➢ Modern modems are typically DSL(digital subscriber line) or cable
modems, which are considered "broadband" devices.
➢ This allows for higher data transfer rates than dial-up modems and enables
them to not interfere with phone calls.
➢ Cable modems send and receive data over standard cable television lines,
which are typically coaxial cables.
➢ Most modern cable modems support
DOCSIS
(Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification)
 Network Devices:
NIC (NETWORK INTERFACE CARD):
A NIC, or network interface card, is a small circuit board inside the
computer, which allows the computer to communicate with others that are on
the network.
Modem uses binary data and converts it to analog waves and back again;
Ethernet NICs convert digital data to digital signals.
Most motherboards nowadays come with NIC's built into them, and most of
the time they work well.
NIC is also called as Terminal Access Point (TAP) and Network Interface
Unit(NIU).
The NIC manufacture assigns a unique physical address to each NIC card,
this physical address is known as Media Access Control Address (MAC
Address).
(e.g.)
10:B5:03:63:2E:FC # 1st Three Codes are Manufacturer ID
# 2nd Three Codes are Card NO.
 *Network Devices:
*HUB:
➢ A HUB is a hardware device used to connect several computer together.
They are generally used to connect computers in a LAN.
➢ A hub has many Ports in it. A computer which intends to be connected to
the network is plugged in to one of these ports. Transmission Mode is Half
Duplex.
➢ Hub Act like intermediate. Active Hubs – Electrically Amplify (clean,
boost and relay the signal) Signal, Passive Hubs – Without any Change.
Hub is a broadcast type transmission. A Hub operates at the physical layer.
 Network Devices:
SWITCH:
➢ A switch is a device that is used to segment networks into different sub
networks called subnets or LAN segments. Transmission Mode is Full
Duplex.
➢ Segmenting the network into smaller subnets prevents traffic overloading
in a network. A switch operates at the data link layer.
➢ A switch is responsible for Packet Filtering & it uses switch table,
switching table contains MAC addresses and the switch ports
➢ Packet Filtering used to control network access by monitoring outgoing
and incoming packets and allowing them to pass
➢ Switch is smarter than hub to determine the target of the forwarding data.
➢ Switch is a Unicast, Multicast and Broadcast type transmission.
 *Network Devices:
*REPEATER
➢ A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the
same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted, so as to extend
the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network.
➢ An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the
signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and
regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2 port device
*BRIDGE:
➢ Bridge is a device that used for interconnecting two LAN Networks together
working on same protocol. Bridge focuses on MAC address . In bridge, routing
table is not used.
➢ Through bridge Data or information is not store and sent in the form of packet.
Bridge works in data link layer.
 Network Devices:
ROUTER:
➢ A Router also like a bridge, it forwards data from one networks to another networks.
Find and Provide the shortest path Communication, Secure and Fast Rate of
Transmission.
➢ A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses.
Router works in network layer.
➢ Through router, data or information is store and sent in the form of packet.
➢ Router is connect LANs and WANs together. Routing Table is used.
➢ Routing table is a data table stored in a router or a network host that lists the routes
to particular network destinations, and metrics (distances) associated with those
routes
 Network Devices:
GATEWAY:
➢ Gateway is a device that connect two different networks (dissimilar networks) and
transfer the packet across networks employing a completely of different protocol.
➢ While in gateway, format of packet is changed and it use router.

➢ Sending Message (SMTP), Receiving(POP,IMAP)

Wireless Access Points (WAP)/Access Point:
➢ we can send data directly between two devices using Wi-Fi provided that the devices
have compatible wireless NICs fitted.
➢ This is very useful if we wish create a temporary connection between the devices, but
it can prove difficult to manage as you try to connect more devices. star topology
 Network Devices:
Wi-Fi Card:
➢ Wi-Fi stands for Wireless Fidelity.
➢ Its either an internal or external Local Area Network Adapter with a Built in
Wireless radio and Antenna.
➢ A Wi-Fi connection is established using a wireless adapter to create hotspots.
➢ Wi-Fi antennas size small enough to be placed on a very small router.
➢ Wi-Fi is defined under IEEE 802.11x standards where x stands for various Wi-Fi
versions.

Ethernet Card:
➢ It is a standard communication protocol used in wired local area network.
➢ Ethernet adapter is a card that plugs into a slot on the motherboard and enables a
computer to access an Ethernet network (LAN).
 Network Devices:
RJ45:
➢ Registered Jack-45 (RJ45) is an eight-wire connector used to connect
computers on local area networks.
➢ They were initially used as a telephone-only standard, but have since been
applied to high-speed modems and other computer networks.
➢ The T568A and T568B standard types.
 Network Topologies:
Star Topology:
➢ In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub
through a cable.
➢ This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to
the central node.
➢ Robust, if one link fails, other links will work just fine.
➢ Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.
➢ If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can
work without hub.
 Network Topologies:
Bus Topology:
➢ Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and
network device is connected to single main cable through drop lines.
➢ There is a limit of drop lines and the distance a main cable can have
➢ It transmits the data from one end to another in single direction. No
bi-directional feature is in bus topology.
➢ Less cables required than Mesh and star topology, Difficultly in
fault detection.
 Network Topologies:
Tree Topology:
➢ Tree topology is a type of network topology in which the nodes are
organized in the design of a tree.
➢ Tree topology consists of the root node from which the branching cable
starts and the branching cable connects the root node with all other nodes
in hierarchical manner.
➢ Tree topology is also called as hierarchical topology. If the central hub
gets fails the entire system fails.
➢ Cost & Security of Tree topology is less as compared to mesh topology.
 *Network Topologies:
*Mesh Topology:
➢ In mesh topology, every device is connected to another device on the network
through particular channel (dedicated point-to-point) link.
➢ (i.e.) N(N-1)/2. In the Figure, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence
total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
➢ Fault is diagnosed easily. Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point
link thus unauthorized access is not possible.
➢ Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices through dedicated
channels or links. Installation and configuration is difficult, Cost of maintenance
is high.
 *Network Topologies:
*Ring Topology:
➢ In this topology, it forms a ring connecting a devices with its exactly two
neighboring devices.
➢ The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
➢ Cheap to install, Managing is easier as to expand(add) or remove a device
from the topology.
➢ A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal will not travel
forward due to failure. Data traffic issues, since all the data is circulating
in a ring.
Network Protocols: are a set of rules governing exchange of information in
an easy, reliable and secure way.
➢ Before we discuss the most common protocols used to transmit and
receive data over a network, we need to understand how a network is
logically organized or designed.
➢ The most popular model used to establish open communication
between two systems is the Open Systems Interface (OSI) model proposed
by ISO.
ARPANET – The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (1969)
(ARPANET)was the first wide-area packet-switching network with distributed
control and the first network to implement the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Characteristics of ARPANET:
➢ It is basically a type of WAN.
➢ It used concept of Packet Switching Network.
➢ It used Interface Message Processors(IMPs) for sub-netting.
➢ ARPANETs software was split into two parts- a host and a subnet.
➢ It was used for collaborations through E-Mails.
INTERNET:
➢ The Internet is the network of networks and the network allows to exchange of
the data between two or more computers.
➢ The Internet is a way of transporting information between devices.
➢ The Internet is a Global Wide Area Network that connects billions of
computers and other electronic devices across the world using the Internet
Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices.
These layers are as follows:
Application Layer (highest) – concerned with the data(URL, Type, etc.). This is
where HTTP, HTTPS, etc., comes in.
Transport Layer – responsible for end-to-end communication over a network.
Network Layer – provides data route.
It consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks
of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical
networking technologies.
➢ With the Internet, it's possible to access almost any information, communicate with
anyone else in the world, and do much more.
➢ INTERNET: stands for Interconnected Network that is a network system that
connects millions of web servers.
➢ It includes several High-bandwidth Data Lines that comprise the Internet
"Backbone."
➢ Most ISP (Internet Service Providers) offer broadband Internet access via a cable,
DSL, or fiber connection.
CIRCUIT SWITCHING PACKET SWITCHING
In circuit switching there are 3 phases:
i) Connection Establishment.
In Packet switching directly data transfer takes place .
ii) Data Transfer.
iii) Connection Released.
In Packet switching, each data unit just know the final
In circuit switching, each data unit know the entire
destination address intermediate path is decided by the
path address which is provided by the source.
routers.
In Circuit switching, data is processed at source system In Packet switching, data is processed at all
only intermediate node including source system.
Delay between data units in circuit switching is Delay between data units in packet switching is not
uniform. uniform.
Resource reservation is the feature of circuit switching There is no resource reservation because bandwidth is
because path is fixed for data transmission. shared among users.
Circuit switching is more reliable. Packet switching is less reliable.
Less wastage of resources as compared to Circuit
Wastage of resources are more in Circuit Switching
Switching
It is not a store and forward technique. It is a store and forward technique.
Transmission of the data is done not only by the source,
Transmission of the data is done by the source.
but also by the intermediate routers.
Congestion can occur during connection establishment
Congestion can occur during data transfer phase, large
time, there might be a case will requesting for channel the
number of packets comes in no time.
channel is already occupied.
In Circuit switching, charge depend on time and distance, In Packet switching, charge is based on the number of
not on traffic in the network. bytes and connection time.

Recording of packet is never possible in circuit switching. While recording of packet is possible in packet switching.
 Network Protocol
IP – Internet Protocol Address is unique numerical label as a string of numbers
separated by dots, used to identify a device on the internet and performing routing.
(e.g.) 192.168.12.24

Currently, Internet fully supports()Types

➢ TCP/IP version 4(IPv4) has the address format x. x. x. x and must be a
decimal value (octet value) between 0 and 255
➢ 192.162.40.25
➢ 32bit Address and Maximum: 255.255.255.255
➢ TCP/IP version 6(IPv6) has the address format y:y:y:y:y:y:y:y and it have
eight segments and hexadecimal value between 0 to FFFF.
➢ 2001:db8:3333:4444:0ab9:5555:0102:C0A8
➢ 128bit Address
Maximum: 0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000
to to to to to to to to
ffff: ffff: ffff: ffff: ffff: ffff: ffff: ffff
TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol is a primary or sole
communication protocol and also connection-oriented communications
protocol on nearly all new computer network installations.
(e.g.) Google Search
➢ Its an acknowledgement based protocol.
➢ Retransmission of lost packets is Possible.
➢ It doesn’t supports broadcasting.
➢ TCP is used by HTTP, HTTPs, FTP, SMTP and Telnet.
➢ Checksums is used for Error Checking in TCP.
*UDP – User Datagram Protocol, connectionless communications protocol.
➢ It supports broadcasting.
➢ No Retransmission of lost packets.
➢ UDP is used by DNS, VoIP, SNMP, RIP, DHCP, TFTP.
➢ Basic error checking used here.
(e.g.) Live Video Broadcast.

FTP – File Transfer Protocol, is a client/server protocol used for transferring files to
or exchanging files(upload & download files) with a host computer (e.g.) Google Drive.
➢ FTP is a standard for exchange of files.
➢ SFTP Provides Security to File Transfer.
➢ It is a part of TCP/IP protocol and establishes the connection under TCP protocol.
➢ It’s a potent and popular way to share the information over the internet.
➢ It provides Multiple Access Methods and Control for File Transfer.
➢ FTP provides an ability to resume the interrupted file transfer.
➢ To encourage indirect or implicit use of remote computers & promote sharing of files
➢ Like HTTP, it runs on the top of TCP.
PPP - Point-to-Point Protocol is a communication protocol of the data link layer
that is used to transmit multiprotocol data between two directly connected (point-
to-point) computers.
It is a byte - oriented protocol.
(e.g.) Originally, PPP was often used for dial-up connections.
➢ It contains error checking for each PPP frame.
➢ It also has the ability to transport several protocols on a single serial connection.
➢ PPP uses the High-Level Data-Link Control (HDLC) protocol as the basis to
encapsulate its data during transmission.
➢ PPP uses the Link Control Protocol (LCP) to establish, test, and configure the
data link connection.
➢ Various Network Control Protocols (NCPs) are used to configure the different
communications protocols. This system enables the use of different protocols,
such as TCP/IP and IPX, over the same line simultaneously.
HTTP – Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It is an application level protocol with
the lightness and speed necessary for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia
information systems.
➢ The communication between client and server takes place using the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
➢ HTTP is part of the Internet protocol suite and defines commands and
services used for transmitting webpage data.
➢ HTTP protocol consists of two fairly distinct items: The set of requests
from browsers to servers and the set of responses going back to the other
way.
➢ HTTPs - Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure.
➢ Messages are passed to HTTP in a format similar to that used by Internet
Mail and Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME).
➢ HTTP is the backbone of World Wide Web (WWW). It defines the
format of messages through which Web Browsers (like Firefox, Chrome)
and Web Servers communicate, whilst also defining how a web browser
should respond to a particular web browser request.
➢ The Port Number of HTTP is 80.
Basic Features that make HTTP a simple but Powerful Protocol:

➢ HTTP is Connectionless: The HTTP client, i.e., a browser initiates an HTTP

request and after a request is made, the client waits for the response. The server
processes the request and sends a response back after which client disconnect the
connection. So client and server knows about each other during current request and
response only.
➢ HTTP is Media Independent: It means, any type of data can be sent by HTTP as
long as both the client and the server know how to handle the data content. It is
required for the client as well as the server to specify the content type using
appropriate MIME-type.
➢ HTTP is Stateless: As mentioned above, HTTP is connectionless and it is a direct
result of HTTP being a stateless protocol. The server and client are aware of each
other only during a current request. Afterwards, both of them forget about each other.
Due to this nature of the protocol, neither the client nor the browser can retain
information between different requests across the web pages.

➢ It build on the discipline of reference provided by the Uniform Resource

Identifier(URI),as a location(URL) or name(URN),for indicating the resource on
which a method is to be applied.
➢ HTTP is also used as a generic protocol for communication between user
agents and proxies/gateways to other Internet Protocols, such as SMTP, NNTP,
FTP,WAIS and Gopher, allowing basic hypermedia access to resources available
from diverse applications and simplifying the implementation of user agents.
*HTTP Basic Architecture
SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is used for sending emails across the
Internet. It is a communication protocol for electronic mail transmission.
➢ It is a MTA (Message Transfer Agent) for sending the message to the receiver.
➢ SMTP is also known as PUSH protocol.
➢ It is implied between sender mail server and receiver mail server.
➢ Port 25- the default, SMTP non-encrypted port(unsecure).
➢ Port 465 - encrypted port(secure communication).
POP - Post Office Protocol are used to retrieve messages from a mail server.
➢ Post Office Protocol 3(POP3), is the third version of a widespread method of
receiving email.
➢ The Port Number of POP3 is 110.
➢ It is MAA (Message Access Agent) for accessing the messages from mail box.
➢ POP3 is also known as POP protocol.
➢ It is implied between receiver and receiver mail server.
➢ In POP3 the mail can only be accessed from a single device at a time.
➢ A user can not search & view the content of mail before downloading to the local
system in POP3.
➢ The user can not create, delete or rename email on the mail server in POP3.
*IMAP - (Internet Message Access Protocol)
➢ IMAP protocols are used to retrieve messages from a mail server.
➢ It is MAA (Message Access Agent) for accessing the messages from mail box.
➢ The IMAP server listens on Port 143, and the IMAP with SSL secure(IMAPDS)
server listens on Port 993.
➢ Messages can be accessed across multiple devices.
➢ A user can search & view the content of mail for specific string before
downloading in IMAP.
➢ The user can create, delete or rename email on the mail server in IMAP.
➢ E-Mail is a message that may contain text, files, images, or other attachments sent
through a network to a specified individual or group of individuals.
TELNET:
➢ Telnet is a network protocol used to virtually access a computer and to
provide a two-way, collaborative and text-based communication channel
between two machines.
➢ It follows a user command Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) networking protocol for creating remote sessions.
➢ Telnet utility allows users to test connectivity to remote machines and issue
commands through the use of a keyboard.
➢ Though most users opt to work with graphical interfaces, Telnet is one of the
simplest ways to check connectivity on certain ports.

➢ TELNET stands for TELecommunication NETwork.

➢ TELNET is also used for chat operation.
➢ The Port number in which TELNET is work is 23.
➢ TELNET uses only one connection for data transfer.
➢ Remote Login is necessary in TELNET.
➢ It does not provide high security, it provides only general security.
➢ It is a connection oriented protocol.
VoIP
➢ Voice over IP is a technology that allows you to make voice calls using
a broadband Internet connection instead of a regular (or analog) phone
line.
➢ It use a fixed electrical path carry voice signals through a series of
switches to a destination.

➢ Online Chat may refer to any kind of communication over the Internet
that offers a real-time transmission of text messages from sender to receiver.
Chat messages are generally short in order to enable other participants to
respond quickly.
➢ Online chat may address point-to-point communications as well as
multicast communications from one sender to many receivers and voice and
video chat, or may be a feature of a web conferencing service.
➢ The major protocols that have been used or are being used for video
conferencing are the H.323 Protocol and the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP).
➢ Video Chat is an online Face-to-Face, Visual Communication
Performed with other Internet users by using a webcam and dedicated software.

➢ (e.g.) WhatsApp, Facebook's Skype, Apple's iSight, Google Duo,

Facebook Messenger ,Telegram, Line, Viber Messenger etc.
 WIFI WIMAX

WiMax is defined under IEEE 802.16y

Wifi is defined under IEEE 802.11x standards
standards where y stands for various WiMax
where x stands for various WiFi versions.
versions.

WiFi is for LAN (Local Area Network) WiMax is for MAN (Metropolitan Area
applications. Network) applications.

WiFi does not guarantee any Quality of Service

WiMax guarantee Quality of Service (Qos).
(Qos).

WiFi network range is around 100 meters. WiMax network can reach about 50-90 km.

WiFi MAC layer uses CSMA/CA protocol

WiMax is connection oriented in nature.
which is not connection oriented.

WiFi is short range technology. WiMax is long range technology.

WiMax connection can transmit upto 70

WiFi connection can transmit upto 54 mbps.
mbps.
WIFI Stands for Wireless Fidelity.
Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology that WiMax Stands for Worldwide
allows computers and other devices to Interoperability for Microwave Access.
communicate over a wireless signal.
 *E-Mail
➢ Electronic Mail (Email or E-Mail) is a message that may contain text, files,
images, or other attachments sent through a network to a specified individual
or group of individuals.

➢ Email uses multiple protocols within the TCP/IP suite. For example, SMTP
(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used to send messages, while the POP (Post
Office Protocol) (or) IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) protocols are
used to retrieve messages from a mail server.

➢ Electronic Mail (email or e-mail) is a method of exchanging messages (“Mail")

between people.

➢ The first E-Mail was sent by Ray Tomlinson in 1971.

➢ Tomlinson sent the E-Mail to himself as a text e-mail message, the text content is
“Something Like QWERTYUIOP”.

(e.g.) Gmail.Com, iCloud.Com, YahooMail.Com, Outlook.Com, Redifffmail.Com,

ZohoMail.Com, AOLMail.Com, AmazonWorkMail.Com, Mail.com, Tutanota.Com,
GMX.Com, Fastmail.Com
*
➢ As mentioned earlier, an E-Mail must have a username followed by @
(the at sign) which is followed by the domain name with a domain
suffix.

➢ The username cannot be longer than 64 characters long, and the domain
name cannot be longer than 254 characters.

➢ There should be only one @ sign in an e-mail address.

➢ The space and special characters: ( ) , : ; < > \ [ ] are allowed.

Occasionally, a space, backslash, and quotation mark work but must be
preceded with a forward slash.
GPS:
GPS, or the Global Positioning System, is a global navigation satellite
system that provides location, velocity and time information. GPS helps you get
where you are going, from point A to point B.

➢ There are 3 or more than 3 stations required in GPS.

➢ Its main objective is to afford stand or locate services.
➢ GPS can be utilize anywhere.
➢ GPS is publicized with many satellites.
➢ GPS is costlier than GPRS
➢ GPS can work with various technologies such as GSM, LTE, WiMAX, etc.
➢ Applications of GPS are in exploration, surveying, mapping, etc.

These days doctors, scientists, farmers, soldiers, pilots, hikers, delivery

drivers, sailors, fishermen, dispatchers, athletes, and people from many other walks
of life are using GPS systems in ways that make their work more productive, safer,
and easier.
GPRS:
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a packet oriented mobile data
standard on the 2G and 3G cellular communication network's global system for
mobile communications (GSM).
➢ Its main objective is to grant data as well as voice in mobile phones.
➢ GPRS is less expensive.
➢ There is one station required in GPRS.
➢ It can’t be utilize anywhere, it is only utilize in land in limited range.
➢ It is publicized with terrestrial tower.
➢ The GPRS system is an integrated part of the GSM network switching.
➢ Applications of GPRS are in accessing emails, text & multimedia messages,
broadcasting, voice & video calls, etc.

General packet radio service (GPRS) is a packet-based wireless data

communication service designed to replace the current circuit-switched services
available on the second-generation global system for mobile communications
(GSM) and time division multiple access (TDMA) IS-136 networks.

Protocols supported:
➢ Internet Protocol (IP)
➢ Point-To-Point Protocol (PPP)
Wireless Local Loop(WLL):
➢ The wireless local loop (WLL) which uses wireless links rather than copper
wires to connect subscribers to the local central office(LCO).
➢ Use Radio Signals instead of copper wires.
➢ In a Telephone Network a Wireless Local Loop is a generic term for an access
system that uses a wireless link to connects subscribes to the local telephone
station in place of conventional copper wire.
➢ The Function of a WLL is to make primary access to Local Telephone
Station using wireless link.
➢ In Fixed Wireless Access Systems the WLL is Popular.
➢ It is the use of a wireless communication link as the ”last mile/first mile”
connection for delivering plain old telephone service(POTS) or Internet access
to telecommunication customers.
➢ But the implementation of local loop of wires is risky for the operators,
especially in rural and remote areas due to less number of users and increased
cost of installation.
➢ Low cost due to no use of conventional copper wires.
➢ Highly scalable as it doesn’t require the installation of more wires for scaling it.
➢ Much more secure due to digital encryption techniques used in wireless
communication.
➢ Narrowband WLL – offers a replacement of existing telephone services.
➢ Broadband WLL – provides high speed two way voice and data services.
➢ LMDS - Local Multipoint Distribution Services.
➢ MMDS – Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Services.
Mobile Telecommunication Technologies:

1G - First Generation:
➢ This was the first generation of Cell Phone Technology . The very first generation
of commercial cellular network was introduced in the late 70's with fully implemented
standards being established throughout the 80’s.
➢ It was introduced in 1987 by Telecom (known today as Telstra), Australia received
its first cellular mobile phone network utilizing a 1G analog system.
➢ 1G is an analog technology and the phones generally had poor battery life and
voice quality was large without much security, and would sometimes
experience Dropped Calls.
➢ These are the analog telecommunications standards that were introduced in the
1980s and continued until being replaced by 2G digital telecommunications. The
maximum speed of 1G is 2.4 Kbps .
2G - Second Generation:
➢ Cell phones received their first major upgrade when they went from 1G to 2G.
The main difference between the two mobile telephone systems (1G and 2G), is that
the radio signals used by 1G network are analog, while 2G networks are digital .
➢ Main motive of this generation was to provide secure and reliable communication
channel. It implemented the concept of CDMA and GSM .
➢ Provided small data service like SMS and MMS. Second generation 2G cellular
telecom networks were commercially launched on the GSM standard in Finland by
Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj) in 1991.
➢ 2G capabilities are achieved by allowing multiple users on a single channel via
multiplexing. During 2G Cellular phones are used for data also along with voice. The
advance in technology from 1G to 2G introduced many of the fundamental services that
we still use today, such as SMS, internal roaming , conference calls, call hold and
billing based on services e.g. charges based on long distance calls and real time billing.
➢ The max speed of 2G with General Packet Radio Service ( GPRS ) is 50 Kbps or
1 Mbps with Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution ( EDGE ).
➢ Before making the major leap from 2G to 3G wireless networks, the lesser-known
2.5G and 2.75G was an interim standard that bridged the gap.
3G - Third Generation:
➢ This generation set the standards for most of the wireless technology we have come to
know and love. Web browsing, email, video downloading, picture sharing and
other Smartphone technology were introduced in the third generation. Introduced
commercially in 2001, the goals set out for third generation mobile communication were
to facilitate greater voice and data capacity, support a wider range of applications, and
increase data transmission at a lower cost .
➢ The 3G standard utilizes a new technology called UMTS as its core network architecture
- Universal Mobile Telecommunications System. This network combines aspects of the
2G network with some new technology and protocols to deliver a significantly faster data
rate. Based on a set of standards used for mobile devices and mobile telecommunications
use services and networks that comply with the International Mobile
Telecommunications-2000 ( IMT-2000 ) specifications by the International
Telecommunication Union. One of requirements set by IMT-2000 was that speed should
be at least 200Kbps to call it as 3G service.
➢ 3G has Multimedia services support along with streaming are more popular. The UN's
International Telecommunications Union IMT-2000 standard requires stationary speeds
of 2Mbps and mobile speeds of 384kbps for a "true" 3G. The theoretical max speed
for HSPA+ is 21.6 Mbps.
➢ Like 2G, 3G evolved into 3.5G and 3.75G as more features were introduced in order to
bring about 4G. A 3G phone cannot communicate through a 4G network , but newer
generations of phones are practically always designed to be backward compatible, so a
4G phone can communicate through a 3G or even 2G network .
4G - Fourth Generation
➢ 4G is a very different technology as compared to 3G and was made possible practically
only because of the advancements in the technology in the last 10 years. Its purpose is to
provide high speed , high quality and high capacity to users while improving security
and lower the cost of voice and data services, multimedia and internet over IP. Potential
and current applications include amended mobile web access, IP telephony , gaming
services, high-definition mobile TV, video conferencing, 3D television, and cloud
computing.
➢ The key technologies that have made this possible are MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple
Output) and OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing). The two important
4G standards are WiMAX (has now fizzled out) and LTE (has seen widespread
deployment). LTE (Long Term Evolution) is a series of upgrades to existing UMTS
technology and will be rolled out on Telstra's existing 1800MHz frequency band. The
max speed of a 4G network when the device is moving is 300 Mbps or 1 Gbps. 4G is not
the same as 4G LTE which is very close to meeting the criteria of the standards. To
download a new game or stream a TV show in HD, you can do it without buffering .
➢ Newer generations of phones are usually designed to be backward-compatible , so a 4G
phone can communicate through a 3G or even 2G network. OFDM is a type of digital
modulation in which a signal is split into several narrowband channels at different
frequencies. There are a significant amount of infrastructure changes needed to be
implemented by service providers in order to supply because voice calls
in GSM , UMTS and CDMA2000 are circuit switched, so with the adoption of LTE,
carriers will have to re-engineer their voice call network. And again, we have the
fractional parts: 4.5G and 4.9G marking the transition of LTE (in the stage called LTE-
Advanced Pro) getting us more MIMO, more D2D on the way to IMT-2020 and the
requirements of 5G .
5G - Fifth Generation
➢ 5G promises significantly faster data rates, higher connection density, much lower latency, among
other improvements. Some of the plans for 5G include device-to-device communication, better
battery consumption, and improved overall wireless coverage.
➢ The max speed of 5G is aimed at being as fast as 35.46 Gbps , which is over 20-35 times faster than
4G.
➢ Key technologies to look out for: Massive MIMO , Millimeter Wave Mobile Communications etc.
➢ Massive MIMO, millimeter wave, small cells, Li-Fi all the new technologies from the previous
decade could be used to give 10Gb/s to a user, with an unseen low latency, and allow connections
for at least 100 billion devices .
➢ Different estimations have been made for the date of commercial introduction of 5G networks. Next
Generation Mobile Networks Alliance feel that 5G should be rolled out by 2020 to meet business
and consumer demands.

➢ 1G(2.4Kbps) < 2G GPRS(114Kbps) < EGDE (368Kbps) < 3G(3.1Mbps) < HSDPA(14Mbps) <
HSPA(21.6Mbps) < HSPA+(3.5G) (168Mbps) < 4G/LTE(299.6Mbps) <5G (35.46Gbps)

➢ FDMA – Frequency Division Multiple Access

➢ TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access
➢ CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access
➢ BDMA – Beam Division Multiple Access
➢ OFDM – Orthogonal Division Multiple Access
 Introduction to Web Services
What is a URL?
URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator (Web Address), and
is used to specify addresses on the World Wide Web. A URL is the
fundamental network identification for any resource connected to the
web. (e.g., hypertext pages, images, video and sound files).

➢ A URL is a form of URI and a standardized naming convention for

addressing documents accessible over the Internet and Intranet.

➢ The most used service on the Internet is the World Wide Web (which is
also called the "Web" or “WWW”).

(e.g.) https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_intro.asp
 World Wide Web(WWW)/ WEB
➢ The World Wide Web (WWW), commonly known as the Web, is an
information system where documents and other web resources are identified
by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs, such as https://www.w3schools.com/),
which may be interlinked by hypertext, and are accessible over the Internet.
➢ The World Wide Web (WWW) is combination of all resources and users on the
Internet that are using online content(documents) that is formatted in HTML
(Hyper Text Markup Language) that supports links to other documents, as well as
graphics, audio, and video files that can be accessed over the Internet and
accessed via HTTP(Hypertext Transfer Protocol).
➢ The Web is a only way to access information through the Internet. It’s a system of
Internet servers that support specially formatted documents.
➢ The documents are formatted in a markup language called HTML, or
“Hyper Text Markup Language”, which supports a number of features
including links and multimedia. These documents are interlinked using
hypertext links and are accessible via the Internet.

To link hypertext to the Internet, we need:

1. The markup language, i.e., HTML.
2. The transfer protocol, e.g., HTTP.
3. Uniform Resource Locator (URL), the address of the resource.
HTML:
➢ HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language
➢ HTML is the standard markup language for creating Web pages.
➢ HTML describes the structure of a Web page.
➢ HTML was designed to display data - with focus on how data looks.
➢ HTML elements tell the browser how to display the content.
➢ HTML consists of a series of elements.
➢ HTML elements label pieces of content such as "this is a heading", "this is a
paragraph", "this is a link", etc.
➢ HTML has predefined tags.
➢ HTML5 is the latest evolution of the standard that defines HTML.
XML:
➢ XML stands for eXtensible Markup Language.
➢ XML is a markup language much like HTML.
➢ XML was designed to store and transport data.
➢ XML was designed to be self-descriptive
➢ XML was designed to carry data - with focus on what data is.
➢ XML tags are not predefined like HTML tags are.
DNS(Domain Name System)
➢ DNS - Translate Domain Name to IP Address, Humans access
information online through domain names, like espn.com

➢ DNS is a host name to IP address translation service. DNS is a

distributed database implemented in a hierarchy of name servers. It
is an application layer protocol for message exchange between clients
and servers.

There are various kinds of DOMAIN :

➢ Generic Domain: .com(commercial) .edu(educational) .mil(military)

.org(non profit organization) .net(similar to commercial) all these are
generic domain.
➢ Country Domain: .in (india) .us .uk .au .cn .ae .jp
(e.g.)amazon.us
 Introduction to Website
➢ A Website (also written as web site) is a collection of Web Pages and
related content that is identified by a common domain name and
published on at least one web server.

➢ Websites are typically dedicated to a particular topic or purpose, such as

News, Education, E-Commerce, Medical, Government, Entertainment,
Online Sale & Social Networking etc.

➢ The collection of web pages, images, scripts and multimedia files

(combination of videos, audios), hosted on one or multiple servers visible
on the Internet is called a website (web site).

➢ A Website is also known as a Web Presence.

➢ The first website was built at CERN by Tim Berners-Lee and launched on
August 6, 1991. (i.e.) http://info.cern.ch
 *Web Page
➢ A Web Page (or webpage) is a specific collection of information
provided by a website and displayed to a user in a web browser.

➢ These documents are written in HTML (hypertext markup language) and

are translated by your Web browser. A web page may contain text, audio,
video graphics, and hyperlinks to other web pages and files.
(e.g.) https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_intro.asp
https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_list.asp

➢ Web pages can either be Static or Dynamic.

➢ Static Pages show the same content each time they are viewed.
➢ Static Pages are typically written in languages such as HTML,CSS,JS.
➢ Dynamic pages have content that can change each time they are accessed.
➢ The scripts in the pages run functions on the server that return things like
the date and time, and database information.
➢ Dynamic Pages are typically written in scripting languages such as PHP,
Perl, ASP, or JSP.
 Web Server
➢ A Web Server is server software, or hardware dedicated to running this
software, that can Satisfy Client Requests on the World Wide Web.

➢ A web server processes incoming network requests over HTTP and several other
related protocols. The primary function of a web server is to store, process and
deliver web pages to clients. The communication between client and server takes
place using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

➢ When anyone requests for a website by adding the URL/Web address on a web
browser’s (like Chrome or Firefox) address bar (like www.economictimes.com), the
browser sends a request to the Internet for viewing the corresponding web page for
that address.

➢ A Domain Name Server (DNS) converts this URL to an IP Address (For example
192.168.216.245), which in turn points to a Web Server. All websites on the Internet
have a unique identifier in terms of an IP address.

➢ This Internet Protocol address is used to communicate between different servers

across the Internet.
 Types of Server
Apache HTTP Server:

➢ Apache web server is an open source software and can be installed on almost
all operating systems including Linux, UNIX, Windows, FreeBSD, Mac OS
X and more. About 70% of the web server machines run the Apache Web
Server.

Internet Information Services (IIS):

➢ The Internet Information Server (IIS) is a high performance Web Server

from Microsoft. This web server runs on Windows NT/2000 and 2003
platforms, and New Platforms is IIS 10.0 based on Windows 10 Operating
System, Because IIS is tightly integrated with the operating system so it is
relatively easy to administer it.
 Hosting of a Website

➢ Web Hosting is an online service that enables you to publish your

website or web application on the Internet.

➢ When you sign up for a web hosting service, you basically rent some space
on a physical server where you can store all the files and data necessary for
your website to work properly.
Types of Web Hosting:
Shared Hosting:
➢ With this type of hosting, you’re sharing one server with other clients.

VPS Hosting:
➢ Virtual Private Server this means you get a dedicated server space and
a reserved amount of resources and memory.
Cloud Hosting:
➢ Cloud hosting, your host provides you with a cluster of servers your files and
resources are replicated on each server.

Dedicated Hosting:
➢ Dedicated hosting means that you have your own physical server that’s
dedicated uniquely to your web site. Therefore, you’re given incredible
flexibility over how you want to manage your website.

➢ You can configure your server as you wish, choose the operating
system and software you want to use, and set up the whole hosting
environment according to your own needs.
 *Web Browser
➢ A Web Browser (commonly referred to as a browser) is a software application
for accessing information on the World Wide Web.

➢ When a user requests a web page from a particular website, the web browser
retrieves the necessary content from a web server and then displays the page on
a screen.

➢ You run a web client on your computer called a web browser such as Microsoft's
Internet Explorer or Firefox. That client contacts a web server and requests
information or resources. The web server locates and then sends the information to
the web browser, which displays the results.

➢ The first web browser, World Wide Web, was developed in 1990 by Tim Berners-
Lee for the NeXT Computer.

➢ In 1992, Tony Johnson released the Midas WWW browser. Erwise was the first
browser with a graphical user interface,1992. Netscape released its
flagship Navigator product in October 1994.
 *Commonly Used Browser
Google Chrome:
➢ Today, Google Chrome has become the most used web browsers in the world.
Google Chrome was released in the year 2008 as a freeware that was written in C++.
The browser is known for its performance, ease of use, syncing with Google
database, security, great support for Web Kit, HTML5, CSS3, and other latest web
standards. Google Chrome has a usage percentage of close to 78 percent.
Firefox
➢ Firefox is the second most popular web browser in the world with a usage
percentage of more than 9 percent. Firefox is a freeware from Mozilla organization
that was released in the year 2002 by the name “Phoenix”.. Mozilla Firefox is
supported on OS such as Windows, Android, and iOS, Linux, Firefox OS and OS X.
Safari
➢ Safari is the default web browser in Mac computers and in OS X and iOS
Operating Systems. Safari was released in the year 2003. A version of the browser is
available for Windows Operating System as well. Today, Safari is popular because of
Apple products usage percentage of more than 5.
*Internet Explorer(IE) & Edge:
As Windows Operating System is the most popular desktop Operating System
in the world, Internet Explorer or simply IE is the default browser in Windows making
this browser the fourth most popular and used browser in the world. This browser is not
free as it requires a Windows license to use. The Internet Explorer today has added new
features to support the latest web technologies, usage percentage is 5.

Opera Browser:
Opera web browser is one of the oldest web browsers which was released by
Opera Software in the year 1995. The freeware browser was written in C++ that is
available in more than 40 languages. Opera browser is available for Windows, UNIX and
OS X. Opera browser uses the Blink layout engine, usage percentage is 3.

UC Browser:
UC Browser is a creation of a Chinese internet company named UC Web that
was established in the year 2004. UC Browser is a mobile browser that was originally
launched as J2me-only application and today it is available for Android, iOS, BlackBerry,
Symbian, Windows Phone and Java ME. UC Browser has a huge market share in India
and China.
 Network Security Concepts
Virus:
A computer virus is a malicious software program or piece of code loaded
onto a user's computer without the user's knowledge and performs malicious actions and
also it damage entire system. It can self-replicate, inserting itself onto other programs
or files, infecting them in the process.
Trojan Horse:
It is one of the most complicated threats when compared to others. On an
analysis and observation, most of the banking threats come from Trojan family itself.
They are able to hide from antivirus software and their primary purpose is to steal vital
banking information which ultimately compromises your bank account and
transactions.
Worms:
It is considered to be one of the harmless threat to the computer system. But it
replicates itself and has a chance of spreading from one computer to another
computer within the network systems. Further, it will eat up the entire hard disk
space as it replicates itself.
Spam:
Spam is any kind of unwanted, unsolicited digital communication, often an
email, that gets sent out in bulk. Spam is a huge waste of time and resources. It is
electronic junk mail or junk newsgroup or forum postings. Spam can also be found on
Internet forums, text messages, blog comments, and social media.
 Cookies
➢ Cookies are a small piece of data sent from a website and stored on the user's
computer by the user's web browser while the user is browsing. These files typically
contain information about your visit to the web page.
➢ Cookies as you must have come to know till now, saves your information to your
machine. This information is highly personal to you and should only be retrieved by
the server which saved it.
We may use the cookies for the following purposes:
➢ To recognize your computer when you visit the website.
➢ To improve the website's usability
➢ To analyze the use of the website
➢ To personalize the website for you, including targeting advertisements which may be
of particular interest to you.
Does it possess any security threats? Fortunately no. The following things should be
kept in mind:
➢ A cookie cannot be used by any other server as the id saved in your cookie is directly
mapped to the website’s database.
➢ A cookie can never be used to access any information saved in your system, browser
or hard disk.
➢ A cookie cannot be used to deliver viruses or any other threats.
 Types of Cookies
Session Cookies:
➢ Session cookies, also known as 'temporary cookies', help websites recognize users and the
information provided when they navigate through a website. Session cookies only retain
information about a user's activities for as long as they are on the website. Once the web
browser is closed, the cookies are deleted. These are commonly used on shopping
websites or e-commerce websites.
Permanent Cookies:
➢ Permanent cookies, also known as 'persistent cookies', remain in operation even after the
web browser has closed. For example they can remember login details and passwords so
web users don't need to re-enter them every time they use a site. The law states that
permanent cookies must be deleted after 12 months.
Third-Party Cookies:
➢ Third-party cookies are installed by third-parties with the aim of collecting certain
information from web users to carry out research into, for example, behavior,
demographics or spending habits.
Flash Cookies:
➢ Flash cookies, also known as 'super cookies', are independent from the web browser. They
are designed to be permanently stored on a user's computer. These types of cookies remain
on a user's device even after all cookies have been deleted from their web browser.
Zombie Cookies:
➢ Zombie cookies are a type of flash cookie that are automatically re-created after a user has
deleted them. This means they are difficult to detect or manage. They are often used in
online games to prevent users from cheating, but have also been used to install malicious
software onto a user's device.
Firewall:
❑ Firewall is a network security system that monitors and controls
incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security
rules, it accepts, rejects or drops that specific traffic.
❑ Firewall is the specified version of router. In this all data packets are
entering or leaving the network pass through firewall and after examine
firewall decide whether to allow or not.
❑ In firewall all traffic must pass through it and only authorized traffic
should be allow to pass. Firewall should be strong.
➢ Firewall is implemented in both hardware and software.
➢ Firewall deals with external threats only.
➢ In firewall counter attacks are possible such as IP Spoofing and routing attacks.
➢ Firewall works on monitoring and filtering.
➢ Firewall checks the threat from incoming packets.
➢ Firewall saves the system from all kinds of threats to the system.
➢ Firewall’s programming is complex than antivirus.
HTTPs:
➢ HTTPs Stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure.
HTTP Secure (HTTPS), could be a combination of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol
with the SSL/TLS convention to supply encrypted communication and secure
distinguishing proof of a arrange web server.
➢ HTTPS is more secure than HTTP because HTTPS is certified by the
SSL(Secure Socket Layer).
➢ If a website has an SSL certificate installed then the URL of that website will
be HTTPS that website will completely secure.
➢ It Encrypt the code while data transfer so no one can access it.
➢ It use separate socket layer to encrypt the code.
Secure Socket Layer (SSL) is an encryption security protocol. Transport Layer
Security, or TLS, has replaced SSL. It provide security to the data that is transferred
between web browser and server.
➢ SSL encrypt the link between a web server and a browser which ensures that
all data passed between them remain private and free from attack.
➢ Here the sender and receiver ca understand code they can decipher code and
fetch the message.
➢ HTTPs use the Port Number 443.
➢ It requires validation like domain verification.
CYBERCRIME:
➢ Cybercrime is defined as a crime in which a computer is the object of
the crime (hacking, phishing, spamming) or is used as a tool to commit an
offence (child pornography, hate crimes)
➢ Any Criminal offense that is facilitated by, or involves the use of, electronic
communications or information systems, including any electronic device,
computer, or the internet is referred to as Cyber Crime.
➢ Cybercrime may also be referred to as computer crime.
➢ Cybercriminals may use computer technology to access personal
information, business trade secrets or use the internet for exploitative or
malicious.
Cybercrime Activities:
1. Crimes that target computer networks or devices. These types of crimes
include viruses and denial of service (DoS)attacks.
2. Crimes that use computer networks to advance other criminal activities.
These types of crimes include cyberstalking, phishing and fraud or identity theft.
Hacking:
➢ Hacking is the process of gaining unauthorized access to a computing
device or a group of computer systems.
➢ To crack passwords or to steal data? No, it is much more than that. Ethical
hacking is to scan vulnerabilities and to find potential threats on a computer or
networks.
➢ An ethical hacker finds the weak points or loopholes in a computer,
web applications or network and reports them to the organization.
These are various types of hackers:
(1) White Hat Hackers (Cyber-Security Hacker)
(2) Black Hat Hackers (Cracker)
(3) Gray Hat Hackers (Both)

White Hat Hackers:

➢ Here, we look for bugs and ethically report it to the organization. We are
authorized as a user to test for bugs in a website or network and report it to them.
White hat hackers generally get all the needed information about the
application or network to test for, from the organization itself.
➢ They use their skills to test it before the website goes live or attacked by
malicious hackers.
Black Hat Hackers:
➢ Here, the organization doesn’t allow the user to test it.
➢ They unethically enter inside the website and steal data from the admin
panel or manipulate the data.
➢ They only focus on themselves and the advantages they will get from the
personal data for personal financial gain.
➢ They can cause major damage to the company by altering the functions
which lead to the loss of the company at a much higher extent.
➢ This can even lead you to extreme consequences.

Grey Hat Hackers:

➢ They sometimes access to the data and violates the law.
➢ But never have the same intention as Black hat hackers, they often operate
for the common good.
➢ The main difference is that they exploit vulnerability publicly whereas
white hat hackers do it privately for the company.
Cyber Law and IT ACT:
➢ Cyberlaw is a generic term which refers to all the legal and regulatory
aspects of Internet and the World Wide Web.

➢ All regulatory mechanisms and legal infrastructures come within the

domain of Cyberlaw.

➢ Cyberlaw is important because it touches almost all aspects of

transaction and activities on and concerning the Internet, the World Wide
Web and Cyberspace.

➢ Anything concerned with or related to or emanating from any legal aspects or

issues concerning any activity of netizens and other, in Cyberspace comes within
the ambit of Cyberlaw.

➢ The growth of Electronic Commerce has propelled the need for vibrant and
effective regulatory mechanisms which would further strengthen the legal
infrastructure, so crucial to the success of Electronic Commerce.
India’s IT ACT and IT(Amendment) ACT,2008
➢ In India the cyberlaws are enforced through Information Technology
Act,2000(IT ACT 2000) which was notified on 17 October 2000. It is based on the
United Nation’s Commission for International Trade related laws(UNCITRAL)model
law.
➢ IT ACT 2000’ prime purpose was to provide legal recognition to electronic
commerce and to facilitate filing of electronic records with Government, i.e., to
provide the legal infrastructure for E-Commerce in India.
➢ The ACT was later amended in December 2008 through the IT(Amendment)
ACT,2008.It provided additional focus on Information Security. It has added several
new sections on offences including Cyber Terrorism and Data Protection. The
Information Technology Amendment ACT,2008(IT ACT 2008) came into force
October 27,2009onwards.
Major Amendment of ACT,2008(IT ACT 2008) included:
➢ Digital Signature: Authentication of electronic records by digital signatures
gets legal recognition.
➢ Electronic Governance: E-Documents get legal recognition.
➢ Offences and Penalties: The maximum penalty for any damage to computers
or computer systems is a fine up to 1 Crore Indian money.
➢ Amendments to others law: Indian Penal Code,1860, Indian Evidence Act,1872,The
Bankers; Books EvidenceAct,1891,The Reserve bank of IndiaAct,1934,etc.
Intellectual Property Rights:
➢ IPS are the rights of the owner of information to decide how much
information is to be exchanged, shared or distributed.
➢ Also it gives the owner a right to decide the price for doing
(exchanging/sharing/distributing)so.
➢ The Creator/Producer of the information is the Real owner of the information
and the Owner has every right to protect his/her intellectual property.
➢ To protect one’s IPS one can get information copyrighted or patented or use
trademarks.
➢ The ethical issue involved with it is that information must not be exchanged
without the consent of its owner.

The IPS must be protected, for it:

➢ Encourages individuals & businesses to create new software and
new software applications, as well as improving existing applications.
➢ Ensures new ideas and technologies are widely distributed.
➢ Promotes investments in the national economy.
 *LICENSING AND COPYRIGHT:
*COPYRIGHT:
➢ Copyright is the right that enable you to prevent unauthorized copying or
selling of your work.

➢ Copyrights protects your original ideas from others access, Copyright is all
about granting individual permission.

➢ Suppose you made a movie, now if anyone else wants to make its sequel, he
must buy copyright from you.

➢ It is denoted by ©.

➢ Copyrights protects your original ideas from others access.

➢ License valid minimum 70 Years and maximum lifetime of author.

*Pattern:
➢ Patent is an official document giving its owner sole right to make, use or sell the
invention/idea and preventing others from using it or copying it. It is an invention that is legally
protected.
➢ License valid up to 20 Years .
Types of Patent:
Utility Patent :
It is a patent which applies to the creation of a new or improved product or process.
Example: Nail cutter, washing machine, process of making steel etc.
Design Patent :
It is a patent which applies to the shape of any material, the shape must be new and original. Design
Patent is given for the aesthetic of material not for utility.
Example: cut of a dress, shape of an automobile etc.
Plant Patent :
It is a patent which is given to the new variety of plants that are asexually reproduced. A plant is
asexually reproduced if it is reproduced by a method such as cutting or grafting instead of using
seeds.
Example: A golden color flower created through grafting.
Advantages of Patent:
➢ It gives you a right to prevent imitating, manufacturing or selling of your invention without your
consent.
➢ It provides a legal protection to the invention.
➢ It gives you a way of generating income through licensing.
➢ It encourages new invention and promotes growth in the society.
➢ It gives credits to the owner of invention and higher return of investment.
*Trademark:
➢ Trademarks are the marks that are external to the goods to make the public
identify a certain quality and image related with that product or service.
➢ It is an important way of promoting goodwill of the company or
organization with its clients or customers.
➢ License valid up to 5-10 Years .
➢ It has a legal protection to prevent others from using it. Few examples of
trademarks are Tata, Godrej, IIM etc.
➢ It protects a name, word, slogan, symbol, design and/or image identifying a
business or brand.
Advantage:
➢ It provides additional revenue stream to the owner’s through licensing.
➢ It provides increased customer recognition to the brands.
➢ It provides legal protection to the company using a particular trademark.
➢ It promotes the goodwill of the brand.
➢ It encourages participation from other brands through co-branding, brand
extension.
Thank You