Lab Report

Date: 4-4-2022

Group A4
Group members
(i) Muhammad Zeeshan Ayyub
(ii) Mian Muhammad Bilal
(iii) Muhammad Asad Saeed
(iv) Naeem u Din
 Experiment no. 1
Abstract
A rectangular shape is that which has equal parallel sides, 4 corners
and 4 right angles. We measure the length and width for calculating
area and perimeter.
Theory
The perimeter of a rectangle is defined as the sum of all the sides of a
rectangle. While area is defined as the product of length and width of
a rectangle. For any polygon, the perimeter formulas are the total
distance around its sides. In case of a rectangle, the opposite sides of a
rectangle are equal and so, the perimeter will be twice the width of the
rectangle plus twice the length of the rectangle and it is denoted by
the alphabet “p”. Let us derive the formula for its perimeter and area.
Suppose a rectangle has length and width as a and b, respectively.
a

b b

a
From the definition of the perimeter we know, the perimeter of a
rectangle, P = 2 (a + b) units
where
“a” is the length of the rectangle
“b” is the width of the rectangle

Derivation of Perimeter of Rectangle

Since the perimeter is equal to the sum of all the sides of the polygon.
Hence, in the case of a rectangle, the perimeter (P) is;
P = sum of all its four sides
P = a + b + a + b (Opposite sides of rectangle are equal)
P = 2(a + b)
Hence, derived.
Therefore,
Perimeter of a rectangle = 2(Length + Width) units
Now let us write the formula for the area of a rectangle, with respect
to same above given figure.
Area of a rectangle = Length × Width = a × b
Materials
Rectangular slab, meter rod, sheet and pencil for noting values.
Procedure
(i) We took a rectangular shaped slab.
(ii) We measured the length of slab with the help of meter rod.
(iii) We measured the length 4 times and then took the average
for accuracy.
(iv) Then we measured the width of the slab with the help of
meter rod.
(v) This process is also repeated 4 times and then we took the
average for accuracy.
Standard deviation = S =√(x ¿¿ 1−x )2+ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
s
Standard error = √ N

Observatio Length(cm) Width(cm)

n no.
1 93 31.8
2 93.1 31.8
3 92.9 31.9
4 92.9 31.9
Mean value 92.975 31.85
Area = l × w
=92.975× 31.85
= 2961.2537cm2
Perimeter = 2(l + w)
=2(92.975 + 31.85)
=249.65 cm
Calculation of standard deviation and error in length

Standard deviation =S =√(93−92.975)2 +¿ ¿ ¿

=
√ 0.0275
3

=0.09574 cm
S
Standard error = σ l = √ N
0.09574
= √4
=0.04877 cm
Calculation of standard deviation and error in width

Standard deviation = S =√(31.8−31.85)2+ ¿ ¿ ¿

=
√ 0.01
3

= 0.05773 cm
S
Standard error = σ w= √ N
0.05773
= √4
 =0.02886 cm

Law of propagation of uncertainty

Calculation for the uncertainty in area
σ A=
√( ) ( )
∂ A 2 2 ∂A 2 2
∂l
σl +
∂w
σw (i)

∂A ∂ ∂A ∂
=¿ ( l× w ) = (l× w)
∂l ∂l ∂w ∂w
∂ ∂
¿ w (l) ¿l (w )
∂l ∂w
¿w ¿l
¿ 31.85 ¿ 92.975

By putting all the values in first equation

σ A=√ 2.41+7.19

¿ 3.0983

Calculation for the uncertainty in perimeter

σ P=
√( ∂l) ( )
∂ P 2 2 ∂P 2 2
σl + σ
∂w w
(ii)

∂P ∂ ∂P ∂
=¿ ( 2l+2 w ) = (2 l+2 w)
∂l ∂l ∂w ∂w
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
¿ 2 ( l ) +2 (w) ¿2 (l)+2 ( w)
∂l ∂l ∂w ∂w
¿2 + 0 ¿ 0+2
¿2 ¿ 2

By putting all the values in second equation

σ P= √ 0.00916 +0.003329

¿ 0.11175
Results and conclusion
Hence, final values of Area and perimeter are:
Area = 2961.25 ± 3.098 cm2
Perimeter = 249.65 ± 0.111 cm
It is concluded that when we find the area and perimeter of
rectangular slab, we find the values with possible error.
Discussion
 The error that is find in the final values of area and perimeter
could be random or systematic (personal error) error.
 This error may be due to inexperience of us. Each person in the
group took values one by one at different sides of slab due to
which scale may not in proper position due to which reading of
length and width changes.

______________________________________

Experiment no. 2
Abstract
A Simple Pendulum is a piece of mass attached to a
thread and supported rigidly from one end. Simple pendulum
experiment is mainly carried out for calculating the time period of
an oscillation, when there is a change in the amplitude.

Theory
A simple pendulum may be described ideally as a
point mass suspended by a massless string from some point about
which it is allowed to swing back and forth in a place. A simple
pendulum can be approximated by a small metal sphere which has a
small radius and a large mass when compared relatively to the length
and mass of the light string from which it is suspended. If a pendulum
is set in motion so that is swings back and forth, its motion will be
periodic. The time that it takes to make one complete oscillation is
defined as the period T. Another useful quantity used to describe
periodic motion is the frequency of oscillation. The frequency f of the
oscillations is the number of oscillations that occur per unit time and
is the inverse of the period, f = 1/T. Similarly, the period is the inverse
of the frequency, T = l/f. The maximum distance that the mass is
displaced from its equilibrium position is defined as the amplitude of
the oscillation.
When a simple pendulum is displaced from its equilibrium position,
there will be a restoring force that moves the pendulum back towards
its equilibrium position. As the motion of the pendulum carries it past
the equilibrium position, the restoring force changes its direction so
that it is still directed towards the equilibrium position. If the restoring
force F opposite and directly related to acceleration
F=-kl (i)
Where k is constant and x is displacement
As we know that, for mass spring system;

√
T = 2π m
k
(ii)
When we displace the bob at extreme position and resolve the weight
into its component (when angle is with vertical) we see that Fsinθ act
as restoring force and bring the weight toward mean position/
F= -mgsin θ
Negative indicate that force and x are opposite.
For small amplitude sinθ=θ
F= -mgθ
As θ is arc length over length
 x
F=-mg l
From (i)
mg
K= l
Put value of k in (ii)

√
m
T=2 π mg
l
T=
√
2 π gl
Time period depend only on length of pendulum and acceleration due
to gravity.

Materials
Strand, meter rod, string, bob, stopwatch

Procedure
(i) We took a stand.
(ii) We took a string and a small bob.
(iii) The string is tied from one end of the strand and other end
tied with the hook of bob.
(iv) First we measured the length of pendulum.
(v) Length is measured from top of string to the center of
gravity of bob with the help of meter rod.
(vi) Then we measured the time period.
(vii) For measurement of time period we took the bob to the
extreme position, released it.
(viii) When we released it we on the stop watch and noted time
for ten vibration.
(ix) For measuring the time period of one vibration we divide
the time of stopwatch with ten.
(x) This process is repeated 3 to 4 (for both length and time
period) times for obtaining and took the average for more
accuracy.
Data analysis

Observatio Length(cm) Time period (10 Time period (1

n no. cycles) cycle)
1 35.1 12.00 1.2
2 35.3 12.14 1.214
3 35.1 12.22 1.222
4 35.2 12.25 1.225
Mean value 35.17 12.15 1.215

2 l
g = 4π T
2

35.175
g = 4× 9.85× 1.476
cm
g = 938.95 s
2

Calculation of standard deviation and error of length of

pendulum
Standard deviation = S =√(l1−l )2+ ¿ ¿ ¿
¿ √ (35.1−35.17)2+ ¿¿ ¿

¿
√ 0.0343
3

¿ 0.0971cm

s
Standard error ¿ σ l= √ N
0.0971
¿
2
¿ 0.0485 cm

Calculation for the standard deviation and error of time

period of pendulum
Standard deviation = S =√(T 1−T )2 +¿ ¿ ¿
¿ √ ( 1.2−1,215 ) +¿ ¿ ¿
2

¿
√ 0.000375
3

¿0.01118 s

s
Standard error ¿ σ T= √ N
0.01118
¿
2
¿ 0.00559 s

Law of propagation of uncertainty

Calculation for the uncertainty in gravitational acceleration

σ g=
√( ∂l ) ( )
∂g 2 2 ∂g 2 2
σl +
∂T
σT (i)

∂g
∂l
=¿
∂
∂l
2 l
4π 2
T ( ) ∂g
=
∂T ∂T
∂ 2 l
4π 2
T ( )
1 ∂ l
¿4 π
2
( l ) ¿ 4 × 9.85 ¿4 π l
2 ∂
( T −2 ) ¿−8 π 2 3
T
2
∂ l 1.476 ∂T T

¿ 26.7470
¿− ( 8 × 9.851.793×35.17 ) ¿−1548.44
By putting all the values in first equation
σ g=√ 1.682+74.922

cm
¿ 8.45 2
s

Result and conclusion

Hence the final value of gravitational acceleration is:
cm
g= 938.95 ± 8.45 s
2

It is concluded that final value of g has possible error.

Discussion
 The error could be random or systemic error (personal error)
 The error may be due to ours inexperience.
 The length and time period are measured by 4 different people
during measurement of length the scale may be not in proper
position.
 During measurement of time period some took the bob at
maximum extreme position and some did not take bob to
maximum extreme due to which difference occur in time period
and error occur in final value.