Understanding Social Problems of Indian

Society
Communalism, Regionalism and Terrorism
Recommended Readings
1. Ram Ahuja (2016, 4th ed.), Social Problems, Rawat Publications, New Delhi.
Communalism
Chapter 5

• Communalism refers to a social phenomenon where people identify strongly with their own religious or ethnic community,
often leading to tensions, discrimination, or conflict with other communities.
• Involves a heightened sense of identity based on religion, language, or ethnicity, which becomes the primary basis for
political and social mobilization.
• It manifests as a mobilization of religious identities, linguistic and regional identities for political purposes, resulting in
social fragmentation and communal strife.
Examples:
https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/how-to/manipur-violence-who-are-meiteis-and-kukis-what-are-they-fighting-over/
articleshow/100038719.cms?from=mdr (relative deprivation)
https://thewire.in/communalism/hatred-and-violence-against-muslims-have-spread-like-an-epidemic-in-india
• According to Ram Ahuja, communalism is a belief that is characterised by strong antagonism practiced by the members of
one community against the people of other community.
• According to Prabha Dixit, communalism is a political doctrine that makes use of religious and cultural differences to
garner political gains.
Communalism: Definition
Chapter 5

• The rising trend of communalism and the accompanying violence have created a feeling of insecurity among the religious
minorities and ethnic groups.
• Communalism can be considered an ideology which states that society is divided into religious communities whose interests
differ and are, at times, even opposed to each other
• The antagonism practised by members of one community against the people of another communities and religion can be
termed 'communalism.’
• This antagonism goes to the extent of falsely accusing, harming and deliberately insulting a particular community and
extends to looting, burning down the homes and shops of the helpless and the weak, dishonouring women, and even killing
persons. https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/bilkis-bano-case-timeline-key-milestones-9099716/
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Jahangirpuri_violence
• Communal persons' are those persons who practise politics through religion.
• Thus, a communal is not one who is a man of religion but one who practices politics by linking it with region.
Communalism: Definition
Chapter 5

• T.K. Ooman (1989) has suggested six dimensions of communalism: assimilationist, welfarist, retreatist, retaliatory, separatist, and
secessionist.
• Assimilationist communalism is one in which small religious groups are assimilated/integrated into big religious groups. Such communalism
claims that Scheduled Tribes are Hindus or that Jains, Sikhs, and Buddhists are covered by the Hindu Marriage Act.
• Welfarist communalism aims at the welfare of a particular community, such as, improving living standard and providing for education and
health; for example, Christian associations working for the betterment of Christians, or Parsi associations working for the upliftment of the
Parsis.
• Retreatist communalism is one in which a small religious community keeps itself away from politics, for example, Bahai community, which
proscribes its members from participating in political activities.
• Retaliatory communalism attempts to harm, hurt, and injure the members of other religious communities.
• Separatist communalism is one in which one religious group wants to maintain its cultural specificity and demands a separate territorial state
within the country; for example, the demand of some Mizos and Nagas in the North-east India or Bodos in Assam, of Jharkhand tribals in
Bihar. For example: The United Liberation Front of Assam is an armed militant organisation operating in the Northeast Indian state of Assam.
It seeks to establish an independent sovereign nation state of Assam for the indigenous Assamese people through an armed struggle in the
Assam conflict.
• Secessionist communalism is one in which a religious community wants a separate political identity and demands an independent state. A
very small militant section of the Sikh population demanding Khalistan is engaged in practising this type of communalism.
Of these six types of communalism, the last three create problems engendering agitations, communal riots, terrorism, and insurgency.
Communalism: Characteristics
Chapter 5

• Identity Politics: Communalism often arises from a sense of identity tied to religion or ethnicity, which can overshadow
broader national or societal interests.
• Based on orthodox principles and intolerance: Communalism fosters intolerance towards other communities and
viewpoints.
• Group Solidarity: Communalism fosters a sense of solidarity within the group, promoting collective interests while
marginalizing those outside the community.
• Promotes the formation of a “Us versus Them” mentality.
• Promotes exclusivity and segregation among different sections of the society, leading to social distrust and polarization.
• Communalism often leads to conflicts between different groups, resulting in violence and riots.
• Communal riots are based mainly on hatred, enmity and revenge.
• Communal violence is a type of collective violence.
Communalism: Characteristics
Chapter 5

• Political Manipulation: Political actors may exploit communal sentiments to gain support or distract from
pressing issues, exacerbating divisions.
• Communal riots are more politically motivated than fuelled by religion.
• Historical grievances and perceived injustices can be an aiding factor in communalism.
Communal Riots
Communalism: Causes
Chapter 5

• The Marxist school attributes the cause to economic deprivation and to the clash
between the haves and have-nots.
• The multifactor approach points at different factors:
• Social factors include social traditions, caste and class ego; inequality, narrow
and dogmatic religious views; use of religion for political gains and
communal ideology of religious leaders;
• Political factors include religion-based politics, religion-dominated political
organisations, political interferences, political justification of communal
violence, failure of political leadership, etc.
• Economic factors include economic exploitation, unequal development,
competitive economy, displacement, influence of foreign money in provoking
religious conflicts etc.
Communalism: Causes
Chapter 5

• The Marxist school attributes the cause to economic deprivation and to the clash
between the haves and have-nots.
• The multifactor approach points at different factors:
• Social factors include social traditions, caste and class ego; inequality, narrow
and dogmatic religious views; use of religion for political gains and
communal ideology of religious leaders;
• Political factors include religion-based politics, religion-dominated political
organisations, political interferences, political justification of communal
violence, failure of political leadership, etc.
• Economic factors include economic exploitation, unequal development,
competitive economy, displacement, influence of foreign money in provoking
religious conflicts etc.
Communalism: Causes
Chapter 5

• Legal factors include the absence of civil code, special provisions and concession for certain communities,
special status for certain states, reservation policy, etc.
• Psychological factors include social prejudices, stereotyped attitudes, distrust, hostility against another
community, misinformation by the mass media, etc.
• Administrative features involve biased investigative agencies, police excesses, lack of coordination between
different government agencies, ill-trained police personnel, etc.
• Historical factors involve alien invasions, damage to religious institutions, past communal riots, partition
trauma, divide and rule policy of the British, old land disputes over temples, mosques, etc.
• Local factors include religious processions, slogan raising, rumours, local disputes, group rivalries, etc.
• International factors include training and financial support from other countries, external influences to weaken
and hamper the unity of India.
Communalism and its Evolution in India
Chapter 5

• The British colonial administration played a crucial role in shaping and institutionalizing communalism in India.
• They used a “divide and rule” strategy to maintain control over the diverse population.
• The introduction of separate electorates for Muslims with the Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms)
reinforced political divisions based on religion.
The Morley-Minto Reforms, also known as the Indian Councils Act of 1909, were introduced during British rule in India by
John Morley, the Secretary of State for India, and Lord Minto, the Viceroy of India. These reforms aimed at increasing Indian
participation in the governance of British India and introducing limited political reforms to address rising demands for
self-governance.
One of the most significant and controversial aspects of the reforms was the introduction of separate electorates for Muslims.
This allowed Muslims to elect their own representatives to legislative councils, separate from the Hindu electorate. Muslims
could only vote for Muslim candidates, and the same applied to Hindus.
By providing separate electorates for Muslims, the British institutionalized and formalized the division between Hindus and
Muslims in the political sphere. This move was seen by many as a strategy of "Divide and Rule", ensuring that the two
communities would not form a unified front against British rule.
Communalism and its Evolution in India
Chapter 5

• Organizations like the Arya Samaj and the Aligarh Movement emerged in the 19th century, initially aimed at
social and educational reform but also contributing to the rising consciousness of religious identities.
• The formation of communal organizations such as the Muslim League (1906) and the Hindu Mahasabha
(1915) worked to protect and promote the interests of their respective religious communities.
• The partition of Bengal in 1905 by the British, based on religious lines, heightened communal tensions.

• The Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, advocated for a separate Muslim state, eventually leading
to the demand for Pakistan.
• The rise of the Hindutva ideology, championed by organizations like the RSS and BJP, has emphasized Hindu
identity and sometimes clashed with minority groups.
 Cases of Communal Riots
Source: National
Year Communal riots Caste conflict Crimes Record
Bureau
2022 272

2021 378

2020 857 736

2019 438 492

2018 512 656

https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/rioting-cases-dipped-in-assam-uttar-pradesh-rose-in-chhattisgarh-in-last-5-ye
ars/articleshow/105738632.cms
 Cases of Communal Riots

Source:
https://theprint.in/india/have-communal-killings-gone-up-or-down-ncrb-data-show-12-fall-in-toll-from-2006-13-to-2014-21/1707
687/
Instances of Communal Riots in India

• Bombay Riots (1992-1993): Following the demolition of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya by Hindu nationalists, communal
riots broke out in Bombay between Hindus and Muslims.
• Over 900 people were killed, and thousands were injured and displaced.
• Gujarat Riots (2002): Violence erupted after the Godhra train burning incident, where a train carrying Hindu pilgrims was
set on fire, killing 59 people. Riots followed, targeting the Muslim community across Gujarat.
• Official reports cite over 1,000 deaths, with independent estimates going higher. Tens of thousands of people, mostly
Muslims, were displaced.
• Muzaffarnagar Riots (2013): Tensions escalated in Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, following a dispute between Hindu Jats
and Muslims over an incident involving harassment and murder.
• Over 60 people were killed, and more than 50,000 were displaced from their homes, many of whom lived in relief
camps for extended periods.
• Delhi Riots (2022)
• Of the 53 people killed, two-thirds were Muslims who were shot, slashed with repeated blows, or set on fire. The
dead also included over a dozen Hindus who were shot or assaulted
Communalism: Prescriptive Measures

• The solution is both politico-psychological as well as administrative-economic.

• De-communalizing the people at all levels.
• Preventing communalization of state and the political elite in power: A country that prides itself on the secular
character of its policies has to be wary of politicians who speak only for their own religious community. Stopping
communally minded politicians and debarring them from contesting elections
• Giving deterrent punishment to religious fanatics
• Adopting corrective measures like keeping the police department free from the politicians' control, strengthening the
police intelligence section, restructuring the police force, gearing the police administration to be more sensitive
• Checking the communalization of civil society.
• Imparting value-oriented education
• Role of media
• Initiation of peace committees
• Even economic development and industrialization: It is necessary to look at the real problems of communities in
terms of employment and literacy and getting them a fair share of representation in every field.
Secularism
 Secularism
• Secularism is the principle of separating religion from the state and ensuring that all religions are treated equally within a
country.
• It aims to create a society where religious beliefs are a personal matter and do not influence or interfere with state policies,
laws, and governance.
• In practice, secularism can vary across countries, shaped by their historical, cultural, and social contexts.
• India after its independence, adopted a ‘secular’ constitution, which means:
• Separation of Religion and State: The government does not favour, endorse, or fund any religion. State institutions
operate independently of religious bodies.
• Freedom of Religion: Individuals are free to practice, change, or not follow any religion without state interference.
This ensures religious diversity and personal liberty.
• Equal Treatment of All Religions: Secularism promotes impartiality and neutrality of the state towards all religions,
preventing any one group from having special privileges or facing discrimination
Secularism
• Indian secularism aims to ensure that the state is neutral and impartial in matters of religion, promoting
harmony among various religious groups.
• It is based on the principle of “sarva dharma sambhava” (equal respect for all religions).
• Key aspects of Indian secularism:
• Constitutional Guarantee: The Indian Constitution enshrines secularism, ensuring freedom of religion
and prohibiting discrimination on religious grounds (Articles 25-28).
• Protection of Minority Rights: The state protects religious and cultural rights of minorities, giving them
autonomy over their educational and religious institutions.
• State Involvement: While the Indian state does not endorse any religion, it may intervene in religious
matters to ensure social justice, such as banning practices like untouchability or intervening in temple
management.
Secularism
• The term ‘Secular’ was added to the preamble by the forty-second constitution Amendment Act of 1976, (India is a
sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic, republic).

• It emphasise the fact that constitutionally, India is a secular country which has no State religion. And that the state
shall recognise and accept all religions, not favour or patronize any particular religion.

• While Article 14 grants equality before the law and equal protection of the laws to all, Article 15 enlarges the concept of
secularism to the widest possible extent by prohibiting discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of
birth.
• Article 25 provides ‘Freedom of Conscience’, that is, all persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right
to freely profess, practise and propagate religion.
• As per Article 26, every religious group or individual has the right to establish and maintain institutions for religious and
charitable purposes and to manage its own affairs in matters of religion.
Secularism: Challenges
• Increase of Communalism: India has witnessed significant increase in the number of communal violence and
tensions which has posed a threat to the secular fabric of the country.
• Religious Fundamentalism and Extremism: The emergence of fundamentalist groups advocating for a
religious state challenges the secular nature of India.
• Politicization of Religion: Political parties fuel communal sentiments and use for political mileage.
• Media and Social Media Manipulation: Various religious groups use social media platforms to spread
extremist ideologies, target minorities, or mobilize people based on religious lines, further weakening secular
values.
• Societal Attitudes: Deep-rooted social attitudes and prejudices can challenge the implementation of secular
principles.
• State Intervention in Religious Affairs: State interventions, often aimed at social justice or economic
regulation, can be perceived as biased or unfair by certain religious groups, leading to accusations of
favouritism or state interference in religion.
Secularism: Challenges
• Judicial and Legal Challenges: At times, law enforcement agencies and the judiciary are criticized for
showing biases based on religion, which undermines the principle of secularism.

• Example: In India, the principle of secularism enshrined in the Constitution calls for equal treatment of all
religions by the state. However, there have been instances where law enforcement agencies and the judiciary
have been criticized for showing biases based on religion, which undermines the secular fabric of the country

• The rise of Hindu Nationalism in recent years has resulted in mob lynching on mere suspicion of slaughtering
cows and consuming beef.
• In addition with this, forced closure of slaughterhouses, campaigns against ‘love jihad’, reconversion or
gharwapsi (Muslims being forced to convert to Hinduism), etc. reinforces communal tendencies in society.
Secularism: Way forward
• Educational Reforms: Incorporate secularism and religious tolerance into school curricula to promote understanding from
an early age.
• Encourage critical thinking and discussions around religious diversity and pluralism.
• Legal and Constitutional Safeguards: Strengthen the enforcement of laws that protect the rights of religious minorities and
prevent discrimination.
• Media Responsibility: Promote responsible journalism that avoids sensationalizing religious issues and instead encourages
balanced reporting.
• Encouraging Interfaith Dialogue: Facilitate platforms for interfaith dialogue and collaboration, allowing communities to
interact and understand one another.
• Promoting Inclusive Policies: Ensure that government policies are inclusive and do not favour any particular religion.
• Civil Society Engagement: Support civil society organizations that work towards communal harmony and secular values.
• Political Accountability: Advocate for political leaders and parties to adhere to secular principles in their rhetoric and
actions.
• Discourage the politicization of religion and hold accountable those who incite communal tensions for political gain.
• Judicial Independence: Ensure that the judiciary remains impartial and protects the state's secular character by upholding
constitutional values.
Regionalism
Regionalism
• Regionalism refers to the political, economic, social, and cultural consciousness of people living in a particular geographical
area who identify as a distinct group, often based on language, ethnicity, history, or shared interests.
• It can manifest as a sense of loyalty, attachment, or pride in one's region, and it may lead to the demand for greater
autonomy, recognition, or rights within a nation-state.
• Regionalism in India is a significant socio-political phenomenon shaped by the country's vast linguistic, cultural, ethnic, and
economic diversity.
• Given India's historical, geographical, and demographic complexities, regional identities have often coexisted alongside
national identity, sometimes complementing it and other times challenging it.
• Examples: The Dravidian Movement in Tamil Nadu, The Telangana Movement, Insurgencies in the North-east.
• The history of the Telangana movement refers to the political and social conditions under which the Telangana region was
merged with Andhra State to form the state of Andhra Pradesh and the subsequent demands to reverse the merger to form a
new state of Telangana from united Andhra Pradesh which eventually happened in 2014.
• Dravidian Nationalism: This idea was popularized during the 1930s to 1950s by a series of widespread and popular
movements and organizations that contended that the South Indians formed a racial and a cultural entity that was different
from the North Indians. They demanded an independent Dravidian State which included all four Dravidian speaking states.
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_attacks_on_Uttar_Pradeshi_and_Bihari_migrants_in_Maharashtra
 Regionalism in India: Factors
• Linguistic Diversity: India's regions are often defined by linguistic differences.
• The demand for linguistic states led to the reorganization of Indian states in the 1950s, starting with the formation of
Andhra Pradesh based on Telugu-speaking people.
• Cultural and Ethnic Identities: India's regions have distinct cultures, traditions, and ethnic compositions, which foster a
strong sense of regional identity.
• Economic Disparities: Economic imbalances between regions fuel regionalism.
• States or regions that feel underdeveloped compared to others often demand greater resources, development
opportunities, and political attention.
• Political Mobilization and Regional Parties: Regional political parties play a crucial role in Indian politics, advocating for
the interests of their respective states. E.g.: DMK and AIADMK (Tamil Nadu), TRS (Telangana).
• Historical Factors and Regional Legacy: The historical evolution of different regions, including the impact of princely
states, colonial rule, and local governance systems, has contributed to regional identities.
• Cultural assertiveness and regionalism are closely linked, as many regional movements are driven by a desire to protect
and promote the unique cultural identities of their respective regions. Some examples include the Telangana region of
erstwhile Andhra Pradesh, Bodoland in Assam, etc.
 Regionalism in India: Factors
• Ethnic and Tribal Identity: Ethnic and tribal identities are a significant cause of regionalism, especially in states with large
tribal populations.
• Tribal communities often seek autonomy and protection of their cultural and land rights within India’s framework.
• Jharkhand, the 28th state of India, was formed on November 15 2000, after a long-standing tribal movement for
statehood.
• Geographical Factors: Geography plays a role in regionalism, as physical distance and geographical barriers often isolate
regions from the political and economic centres of power (Northeastern states).
• The creation of a separate state of Chhattisgarh was aimed at ensuring better governance and administration by
decentralizing power
• Perception of Central Neglect: The perception that the central government prioritizes some regions over others in terms of
economic investment, infrastructure development, and political influence can lead to regionalism.
• Colonial Legacy: The British colonial administration's policies of divide and rule have resulted in the creation of distinct
regional identities. (Inner Line Permit)
 Regionalism: Types of Regional Movement
• Supra-state regionalism: This type of regionalism involves a group of states that come together based on a common
interest or issue, often against another group of states or the union. The Northeastern states of India are an example of
supra-state regionalism where the states have formed a common front due to their shared historical and socio-cultural
background and their perception of being neglected by the government.
• Inter-state regionalism: This type of regionalism involves the identities of one or more states. It is also issue-specific and
often results in disputes, such as the conflicts between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over the distribution of Kaveri water. Or
the Satlej-Yamuna Link Canal Dispute between Haryana and Punjab.
• Intra-state regionalism: This type of regionalism refers to a part of a state that strives for self-identity and development. For
example, in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, there is often a feeling of regionalism within specific coastal and western regions.

Examples: the intra-state economic and developmental disparities led to the formation of new states of Uttarakhand from Uttar
Pradesh, Jharkhand from Bihar, Chhattisgarh from Madhya Pradesh and Telangana from Andhra Pradesh.
Regionalism: Positive and Negative Impact
• Positive Aspects:
• Can strengthen democracy by promoting decentralization and giving voice to local communities. Greater political
empowerment may result from regionalism as people with a strong sense of regional identity are more likely to
organize and advocate for their interests, which can ensure that their needs are represented in the political process.
• Promotes cultural diversity and protects minority identities.
• May lead to balanced regional development through focused policies.

• Negative Aspects:
• Can result in conflicts or secessionist movements if regions feel neglected or oppressed.
• May lead to fragmentation or undermine national unity if regional identities overshadow national interests.
• Can foster economic imbalances or competition among regions.
• Can result in inter-state disputes over issues related to borders and the sharing of resources.
• Political parties or leaders may use regional identities to create divisive politics, which can lead to a lack of
cooperation and consensus at the national level, ultimately hindering progress and development. It also can lead
to Identity-based-politics.
Regionalism: Legal Measures
• Indian constitution gave for federalism which accommodates regional aspirations.
• Schedule 5 and Schedule 6 for Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas.
• Special provisions under Article 371 for the state of Maharashtra and Gujarat for Vidarbha and Saurashtra region,
respectively.
• Similarly, Article 371A makes a special provision for Nagaland to protect the rights of the tribal population. Also, there
is Article 371B for Assam, Article 371C for Manipur, etc.
• Inter-state council to promote harmony and coordination among the states.
Ways Forward to Manage Regionalism in India
• Strengthening Federalism: Promoting cooperative federalism where states have greater devolution of powers
and resources to address their specific needs and demands.
• Balanced Regional Development: Focusing on reducing economic disparities by investing in underdeveloped
regions and providing special economic packages.
• Promoting Inter-State Cooperation: Encourage inter-state dialogue and cooperation on shared resources like
rivers to prevent conflicts.
• Preserving Cultural Diversity: Recognize and celebrate the cultural and linguistic diversity of India through
policies that protect and promote regional identities while fostering a sense of national unity.
Terrorism
Chapter 15
 Terrorism: Definition
• Terrorism has pushed the world into a perilous new age of insecurity.
• Has affected both developing and developed countries.
• Terrorism is broadly defined as the violent behaviour designed to generate fear in the community, or a substantial segment
of it, for political purposes
• It is also defined as ‘a method whereby an organised group or party seeks to achieve its avowed aims chiefly through the
systematic use of violence‘
• UN General Assembly Resolution 49/60 describes terrorism “Criminal acts intended to or calculated to provoke a state of
terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance
unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other
nature that may be invoked to justify them.”
• The United Nations Security Council, in its resolution 1566 of October 2004, elaborates the definition of terrorism as
criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury, or taking
of hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular
persons, intimidate a population or compel a government or an international organization to do or to abstain from
doing any act.
 Terrorism: Components
• Six basic definitional components of terrorism.
(1) terror purpose (that is, creating fear in the minds of the primary target),
(2) Instrumental or immediate victims,
(3) Primary targets (population or broad groups and others),
(4) An outcome of death to instrumental targets and damage to or destruction of property,
(5) Violence, and
(6) Political purpose
Difference Between Terrorism and Insurgency
 Terrorism: Characteristics
Terrorism is characterised by a technique of perpetrating random and brutal intimidation, coercion, or destruction of human
lives and property and used intentionally. The main characteristics of terrorism are:
∙ It is against the state or community.
∙ It has a political purpose.
∙ It is illegal and unlawful.
∙ It aims at intimidating and creating an impact of fear and panic not only for the victim but also for the people at large,
caused for the purpose of coercing or subduing
∙ It is accompanied by a feeling of impotence and helplessness on the part of the masses.
∙ It stops rational thinking.
∙ It leads to reaction of fight or flight.
• It contains arbitrariness in violence as victims’ selection is random or indiscriminate
 Terrorism: Objectives
• The goals of terrorists may vary from movement to movement but the main objectives of terrorism are same
in all terrorist movements
• These are:
• cause the regime to react and also to overreact
• mobilize mass support and urge potential sympathizers to greater militancy or increase the involvement
of more people
• eliminate opponents and informers and remove danger to the movement and also ensure obedience of
the followers
• give publicity or magnify their cause and strength
• to break internal stability and check growth
• to disrupt and destroy the military and psychological strength of the regime
 Terrorism: Evolution
• The term terrorism itself originates from the French word terreur, referring to the "Reign of Terror"
(1793-1794) during the French Revolution.
• The concept of terrorism, at this point, was linked with the state rather than non-state actors.
• Groups in colonized regions, such as the Irish Republican Brotherhood in Ireland started using terrorism as a
tool for liberation from colonial or imperial powers.
• Changes in the 20th century- Trans-national character; Attainment of self-sufficiency in terms of strategies;
Use of technology; State-Sponsored Terrorism during the Cold War.
• Emergence of religious and ethnic groups: Hezbollah and al-Qaeda, LTTE, Lashkar-e-Taiba, ISIS etc.
• Modern terrorism often leverages technology, media, and global networks to spread fear and propagate
ideology.
 Terrorism in the
World
• The Global Terrorism Index (GTI) is a
comprehensive study analysing the impact of
terrorism for 163 countries covering 99.7 per
cent of the world’s population.
• GTI is a composite measure made up of four
indicators: incidents, fatalities, injuries and
hostages.
• Deaths caused by terrorism increased by 22%
to 8,352, the highest level since 2017.
• Terrorism deaths are down 9%, although this
is attributed to the Taliban’s transition from
terror group to state actor
• Islamic State (IS) and its affiliates remained
the world’s deadliest terrorist group in 2022
for the eighth consecutive year, with attacks
https://www.visionofhumanity.org/maps/global-terrorism-index/# in 21 countries.

/
 Terrorism in India
• Terrorism in India is Political in nature

• Four types
• Militant/ Cross-border terrorism in Kashmir
• Khalistan-oriented terrorism in Punjab- Blue Star Operation
• Naxalite terrorism/ insurgency
• ULFA movement in the North East
• Important terror attacks
• On February 14 2019, a suicide bomber from the terror group JeM (Jaish-e-Mohammed),
killed 40 Indian soldiers from the Central Reserve Police Force in Pulwama, in the state of
Jammu and Kashmir.
Terrorism in India

• 1993 Bombay Serial Blasts

• The 1993 Bombay Terror Attack took

place on March 12, 1993 with 12
explosions across Mumbai; it resulted in
257 casualties and more than 700 people
were injured.

• The attacks were coordinated by Dawood

Ibrahim
Terrorism in India

• 1998 Coimbatore Bombings

• This attack was carried out by the Islamist

outfit Al Ummah; there were 12 bomb
blasts in 11 places of Coimbatore and it
resulted in 58 casualties and injured more
than 200 people
• The bombings were apparently in
retaliation to the 1997 Coimbatore
riots during November – December the
previous year, when Hindu
fundamentalists groups killed 18 Muslims
and 2 Hindus
Terrorism in India

• 2001 Parliament Attack

• The 2001 Indian Parliament attack was a
terrorist attack on the Parliament of India
in New Delhi, India on 13 December
2001. The attack was carried out by five
armed assailants that resulted in the deaths
of six Delhi Police personnel, two
Parliament Security Service personnel,
and a gardener.
• Indian authorities
accused Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT)
and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) – two
terrorist groups operating from Pakistan –
of perpetrating the attack
Terrorism in
India
• 2002 Akshardham Temple Attack
• This happened in the Akshardham
Temple Complex of Gandhinagar,
Gujarat when two armed terrorists of
LeT and JeM opened fire on Sept 24,
2002 and killed 30 people; more than
80 were injured.
•
Terrorism in
India
• 2005 Delhi serial bomb blast
• Another serial bomb blast, it
happened two days before Diwali on
Oct 29, 2005 in shopping hubs of
Paharganj, Govindpuri and Sarojini
Nagar by Lashkar-e-Taiba; three
explosions killed 62 people and
injured at least 210 others.
Terrorism in India

• 2006 Bombay train blast

• A series of seven blasts took place on July
11, 2006 in the Mumbai Local Trains;
bombs were set off in pressure cookers.
209 people were killed and more than 700
were injured.
• They took place over a period of 11
minutes on the Suburban
Railway in Mumbai, All the bombs had
been placed in the first-class "general"
compartments of several trains running
from Churchgate
• On 14 July, Lashkar-e-Qahhar, a terrorist
organisation front linked
to Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), claimed
responsibility for the bombings.
Terrorism in India

• 26/11 Mumbai attacks 2008

• Another major terrorist attack in Mumbai
is the 26/11 attack that took place on
November 26 and lasted till November
29; ten terrorists in the Maharashtra
capital killed 164 people and gravely
injured more than 300 others
• 10 members of Lashkar-e-Taiba, carried
out 12 shooting and bombing attacks
lasting four days across Mumbai
Terrorism in
India
• 2008 Assam bombings
• The serial blasts that took place on
October 30, 2008; 18 explosions took
place in Guwahati, Barpeta Road,
Bongaigaon and Kokrajhar; 81 people
died and 479 were injured.
Terrorism in
India
• The 2010 Pune bombing, also known as the
German bakery blast, occurred on 13 February
2010 in Pune, when a bomb exploded at
a German Bakery in Koregaon Park. The blast
killed 18 people and injured at least 60 more
• Two Islamist groups, Lashkar-e-Taiba and
the Indian Mujahideen (Students' Islamic
Movement of India), claimed responsibility for
the bombing
 Terrorism in India: Laws
1. The Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA) was a controversial law passed in 1971 by the Indian Parliament to
combat political and civil unrest, terrorism, and foreign-inspired threats to national security. The law gave the government
and law enforcement agencies broad powers, including: indefinite preventive detention, search and seizure of property
without warrants, and wiretapping

2. The Preventive Detention Act of 1950 was an act in India that allowed for the detention of people for preventive reasons,
such as to prevent a person from committing a crime in the future, not to punish them for a past offence. This was done for
the maintenance of public order, national security, or the defence of India
• Preventive detention means the detention of a person without trial and conviction by a court. Its purpose is not to punish a
person for a past offence but to prevent him from committing an offence in the near future.

3. An Indian law that allows the government to detain people without trial for up to a year. The law was passed in 1980 during
the Indira Gandhi government. The act gives the government the power to detain people if they believe that the person's
actions could harm: India's defence, Foreign relations, National security, and Public order
 Terrorism in India: TADA, 1987
The Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act (TADA) was an anti-terrorism law enacted in India in
1985 and subsequently amended in 1987.

• It was designed to combat terrorism and maintain national security, especially in the context of insurgencies
and separatist movements in regions like Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir during that time.
• It included provisions for arrest and prosecution of individuals involved in terrorist activities or those
suspected of aiding terrorist groups.
• The Act allowed for the establishment of special courts to expedite trials related to terrorism, bypassing
regular judicial procedures for faster adjudication.
• If a person is found to be a terrorist then he will be punishable and get imprisoned for at least 5 years or
lifetime imprisonment with a liable fine or death penalty.
• One of the most controversial aspects of TADA was the power it granted law enforcement to detain
individuals without a formal charge for up to 180 days.
• TADA prohibited bail and shifted the burden of proof onto the accused persons.
 Terrorism in India: TADA
• Confessions made to police officers, which are typically inadmissible in regular criminal cases, were allowed as evidence
under TADA.
• TADA also empowered the government to ban organizations suspected of promoting or engaging in terrorist activities,
granting authorities the right to arrest members of such organizations.
• Controversies and Repeal
• The Act faced widespread criticism for its potential for misuse and human rights violations.
• Argued that TADA was used disproportionately against minority communities and political dissidents, leading to
arbitrary detentions and abuse.
• Lack of Accountability: The broad powers granted under TADA often lacked checks and balances, leading to
instances where people were detained for prolonged periods without sufficient evidence.
• Low conviction rates- less than 2 per cent
• TADA was allowed to lapse in 1995 and was later replaced by the Prevention of Terrorism Act (POTA) in 2002.
 Terrorism in India: POTA, 2002
The Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002 (POTA) was passed by the Parliament of India in 2002 to strengthen
anti-terrorism operations.
• It was introduced in the context of increasing terrorist activities and incidents, including the 2001 Parliament
attack in India.
• POTA provided a comprehensive definition of terrorism, including any act intended to threaten the unity,
integrity, security, or sovereignty of India.
• The law targeted not just those directly involved in terrorism but also those financing, supporting, or
harboring terrorists.
• It imposed severe penalties (minimum 5 years) for terrorism-related offenses, including death sentences and
life imprisonment for certain cases involving fatalities.
• It allowed for the freezing of assets and financial resources of individuals or organizations suspected of
financing terrorism.
 Terrorism in India: POTA, 2002
• POTA granted police officers the power to arrest individuals based on suspicion of terrorism, and those detained could be
held for up to 180 days without filing formal charges.
• POTA allowed the establishment of special courts to expedite terrorism-related cases and conduct trials confidentially when
necessary.

• Controversies and Criticism:

• Like TADA, POTA faced allegations of misuse, especially against minorities and marginalized groups, political
opponents, journalists, and activists.
• Human rights organizations and activists argued that the broad powers of arrest and detention granted by POTA
infringed on fundamental rights, leading to calls for its repeal.
• The admissibility of confessions made to police officers raised concerns about the possibility of forced confessions
and torture.
• The law was subject to numerous legal challenges, and several provisions were scrutinized for their constitutionality.
• In response to the increasing criticism and allegations of abuse, the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government,
led by the Indian National Congress, repealed POTA in 2004.
 Terrorism in India: UAPA, 1967
• The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) is an anti-terrorism legislation enacted by the Government
of India in 1967 to prevent unlawful activities associated with terrorism and to ensure national security.
• UAPA defines "unlawful activities" as actions that threaten the integrity, security, or sovereignty of India and
includes activities related to terrorism, secessionist movements, and promoting enmity between different
groups.
• UAPA allows law enforcement agencies to arrest individuals without a warrant if they are suspected of
engaging in unlawful activities.
• The Act permits confessions made to police officers to be admissible in court, which deviates from standard
legal practices in India where such confessions are typically inadmissible.
• UAPA provides for the establishment of special courts to expedite the trial of cases related to unlawful
activities and terrorism.
• The Act allows the government to impose a ban on organizations that are believed to be involved in terrorist
activities
• https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/uapa-growing-crisis-judicial-credibility-india
 Terrorism in India: UAPA, 1967
• It imposed severe penalties (minimum 5 years) for terrorism-related offenses, including death sentences and
life imprisonment for certain cases involving fatalities.
• Under the UAPA, the investigating agency can file a charge sheet in maximum 180 days after the arrests and
the duration can be extended further after intimating the court.
• The Act empowers the Director General of National Investigation Agency (NIA) to grant approval of seizure
or attachment of property.
• Criticisms:
• Undermines Individual Liberty
• Lack of accountability- Inadequate means for challenge or appeal, which goes against the principles of
natural justice.
• Vagueness: The definitions of “terrorist acts” under the UAPA are broad and vague.
• Restrictions on bail: The burden of proof falls on the accused to show that the individual is not guilty.
• Disproportionate and excessive punishments
• Low conviction rate of 2.4 per cent
• Like POTA and TADA, UAPA has been criticized for its potential for abuse, particularly with respect to
targeting political dissenters and human rights activists. Many international human rights organizations
have expressed concerns about the law's ambiguity and its impact on civil liberties
 National Security/Personal Liberty
• Clear and Precise Definitions- Clearly defining what constitutes terrorism will prevent the misuse of laws to
target dissent or legitimate political activity, safeguarding democratic principles and civil liberties.
• Judicial Oversight and Review Mechanisms- Requiring judicial approval for actions such as surveillance,
detention, and arrests can prevent potential abuse and uphold the rule of law.
• Transparency and Accountability Measures- Implementing transparent procedures and establishing
accountability mechanisms are essential to build public trust and maintain the legitimacy of anti-terrorism
laws.
• Periodic Review and Amendments- Anti-terrorism laws should be subject to periodic review and evaluation to
assess their effectiveness and impact on civil liberties.
• Protection of Freedom of Expression and Privacy- Laws should contain explicit safeguards that protect lawful
dissent, protest, and criticism of the government from being classified as terrorism.
 National Security/Personal Liberty
• Training for Law Enforcement and Security Agencies- Law enforcement and intelligence personnel should be
provided with training on human rights and ethical conduct in the application of anti-terrorism laws.
• Public Consultation and Engagement- To develop balanced and effective anti-terrorism policies, the
government should engage in consultation with civil society, human rights organizations, and legal experts.
• Support for Legal Representation and Fair Trial Guarantees: Individuals detained under anti-terrorism laws
must have access to legal representation and fair trial guarantees.
• Monitoring and Addressing Bias: Anti-terrorism measures should be closely monitored to prevent bias against
particular communities or groups. Ensuring that the laws are applied uniformly and fairly across all sections
of society reinforces trust in the legal system and prevents alienation or discrimination.