Nature of Light

1. Corpuscular Nature
2. Wave nature

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 3

Kolhapur
 7.2.1 Explain corpuscular nature of light
1. This theory was proposed by Newton(1642-1726)
2. According to this theory light is made up of particles i.e. corpuscles
3. Corpuscles which are hard, elastic and massless
4. Corpuscles are emitted by the source of light and they travel along straight line in the absence of any external
force.
5. When corpuscles strikes on a reflecting surface, they undergo elastic collisions and as a result follow the laws of
reflection.
6. During refraction, it is the difference in the attractive force between the corpuscles and the particle of the
medium that causes a change in the direction of the corpuscles
7. A denser medium exerts a larger attractive force on light corpuscles to accelerate them along the normal to the
boundary
8. Thus newton's theory predicted that the speed of light in denser medium(vd) would be higher than the speed of
light in rarer medium(va)
9. Different colour of light are due to different sizes of corpuscles
10. Newton performed several experiment in optics. The study of optical phenomena under the assumption that it
travels in a straight line as a ray is called ray optics or geometrical optics as a geometry is used in this study.
11. The laws of reflection, laws of refraction and the formation of image can be studied by this theory. 4
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha,
Kolhapur
 7.4 Huygens wave theory of light

Q. Explain Huygens wave theory of light

The wave theory of light was proposed by Huygens in 1968

According to this theory

1. Light is propagated in the form of wave
2. Light waves emitted by source of light & they travel in a straight line
3. Different colours of light wave due to the different wavelength of light wav
4. When light waves enters our eyes we get sensation of light
5. Light travels through vacuum, hypothetical medium called ether is present everywhere but
ether is does not exist

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 5

Kolhapur
6. The phenomenon of light such as reflection, interference, diffraction & polarization of light can
be explained.
7. Cd < Ca
8. By using wave nature of light, wave optics can be explained.
9.Light waves do posses the property of bending round the opaque object placed their path and
explain the formation of shadow.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 6

Kolhapur
 7.2.3 Dual Nature of Light
1. Particle Nature
2. Wave Nature

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 7

Kolhapur
 7.3 Explain Light as wave
1. Light is an electro magnetic wave
2. Electro magnetic waves are transverse in nature
3. E.M.waves do not require material medium for propagation
4. These waves can travel through vacuum
5. The speed of light in material medium is depend upon R.I., permeability and permitivity of the medium
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑐
6. R.I.= =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑣
R.I. of vacuum is 1 & R.I. of air is approximated to be 1
7. Wavelength range smaller than femtometre (10-15 m) to larger than a kilometer
8. In order of increasing wavelength the waves are classified as 𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠, 𝑋 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠, Ultraviolet Rays,
visible rays, infrared rays, microwave and radio waves
9. Visible light having wavelength range ranging from 400-700 nm
10. In visible region, violet colour having shortest wavelength and red having longest wavelength
11. R.I. of a medium depends on wavelength of light used.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 8

Kolhapur
 7.4.1 Sources of Light
Q. what are primary and secondary sources of light?

Primary sources Secondary sources

● Those sources which emit light of their own, ● Those sources which do not produce
because of light of their own but receive light from
1. Their high temperature e.g.(sun the star ) some other source and either reflect or
2. The effect of current being passed through the scatter it around
e.g.(tubelight,TV etc.) ● Examples-the moon, the planet ,objects
3. Chemical or nuclear reactions e.g.(fire crackers, like humans ,animals ,plants etc.
nuclear energy generators.
Light originates in these sources are called
primary sources of light.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 9

Kolhapur
 7.4.2 Wavefront

Definition-
The locus of all points having the same phase as a given instant of time is called
a wave front.

Wavenormal
The direction of propagation of the wave is perpendicular to the wavefronts that is along the radii
of the circle is called wavenormal.
Thus a wavenormal is the same as a ray of light.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 10

Kolhapur
 Types of wave front

There are three types of wavefront

I. Spherical wavefront
II. Plane wavefront
III. Cylindrical wavefront

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 11

Kolhapur
 Spherical wavefront

The wavefronts are spherical surfaces passing through all points having the same distances from
the sources and having the same phase are called spherical wavefronts. The point sources produces
Spherical wavefront

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 12

Kolhapur
 Spherical wave

Three dimensional waves like the sound waves produced by a source of light OR
light waves produced by a light sources, travel in all directions away from the
source and propagate in three dimensions such a wave is called a spherical wave
In fig. the wavefronts corresponds to diverging beam of light or the
wavefronts corresponding to converging beam of light. Such wavefront can be
produced after passing through a lens.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 13

Kolhapur
 Plane wave fronts
Let us consider a spherical wavefront which has travelled at a large distance away from the source
if we take a small portion of this spherical wavefront, it will appear to be a plane surface with the
direction of propagation perpendicular to it. In such a case wave is called plane wave and the wave
front is called plane wavefront.
As the sun is at a large distance from the earth, light from the sun reaches the earth in the
form of plane wave front.

Fig(b) Plane wavefronts corresponding to parallel beam of light. These are plane waves.

Cylindrical wave fronts

The wave front getting from the linear source of the light is called cylindrical wavefront

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 14

Kolhapur
 7.4.3 State Huygen’s principle:
Every point on a wavefront acts as a secondary source of light emmiting secondary light waves
called wavelets in all directions which travel with the speed of light in the medium. The new
wavefront can be obtained by taking the envelope of these secondary wavelets travelling in the
forward direction and is thus, the envelope of the secondary wavelets in the forward direction. The
wavelets travelling in the backward direction are ineffective.
1. Huygens construction of a plane wavefront

progress
Shri Swami of a plane wavefront
Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 15

Kolhapur
Progress of a spherical wavefront

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 16

Kolhapur
7.5 Laws of reflection of light using Huygen’s principle

Let,
AB=incident plane wavefront
MN=plane reflecting surface(mirror)
RA&QB= two parallel rays
AE=BC=VT
From figure <RAP=<i
RA⊥er to AB
PA ⊥er to AC
∴ < BAC =< I
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 17

Kolhapur
In Δ 𝐴𝐵𝐶& ΔAEC,
AC is common hypotenuse
AE = BC
<ABC = <AEC=900
∴ Δ 𝐴𝐵𝐶& ΔAEC are congruent
∴ 𝐴𝐶𝐸 = <BAC=i-----------------1
From fig.
<PAE = <r
As AE ⊥er to EC
and AP⊥er to AC
∴<ACE = <PAE = r---------------------2
From equation 1 & 2
We get
i = r-----------------------3

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 18

Kolhapur
Which is the law of reflection Thus the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Thus
the law of reflection is verified.
From fig. it is clear that the incident ray, normal and reflected ray are in the same plane of the
paper. This is the other law of reflection.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 19

Kolhapur
Refration of light at plane boundary between two media
Derive the laws of refraction of light using Huygens's principle

Let
AB= incident plane wavefront
MN=Plane boundary separating two uniform and optically transparent media.
V1 =speed of light in medium 1
V2 =speed of light in medium 2
BC= V1 T=distance travelled by wave from B to C
AE= V2 T=Radius of the secondary wavelet emitted from A to E
CE= refracted plane wavefront = tangent to the secondary wavelet emitted from A
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 20

Kolhapur
From fig.
<A1 AP = <BAC= The angle of incidence =i
<P1 AE = <ACE= The angle of reflection = r
From Δ ABC,
𝐵𝐶 V1T
Sin I = = ---------------------1
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
Also from Δ AEC,
𝐴𝐸 VT
Sin r = = 2 ------------------------2
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
From equation 1&2 we get,
sin 𝑖 V1T 𝐴𝐶 V1 (C/V2 ) n
= = = = 2
sin 𝑟 𝐴𝐶 X V2T V2 (𝐶/V1 𝑛1
)

sin 𝑖 n2
=
sin 𝑟 𝑛1

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 21

Kolhapur
n1 sin i = n2 sin r ---------------3
Here n1 &n2 are the absolute refractive indices of medium 1& 2 respectively
The equation (3) is the law of refraction and it also the called the snell’s law. Also it is clear from the
figure that the incident rays and refracted rays and the normal to the boundary surface are in the same
plane.
If V1 > V2 i.e. n1< n2 then i > r Thus ,during oblique incidence, the refracted ray will bend towards the
normal while going from an optically rarer to optically denser medium while ray of light travells from
optically denser to optically rarer medium, the refracted ray will be bend away from the normal

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 22

Kolhapur
Explain the dependence of wavelength on the refractive index of the medium ?

1.Consider monochromatic light incident normally on a boundary between a rarer medium and
dancer medium is as shown in a fig.a

2.Let PQ be the boundary between the two surfaces

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 23

Kolhapur
3. Let 3 successive wave front AB,CD&EF are separated by a distance ⋋1, Let ⋋1 be the
wavelength of light in the first medium after refraction the three wave fronts are indicated by A 1B1
,C1 D1 and E1 F1
4.Assumins the second medium will be denser, the speed of light will be smaller in that medium
and hence wavefront will move slower and will able to cover less distance that covered in the same
time in the first medium. Therefore they will be more closely spaced than in the first medium The
distance between any two wavefronts is ⋋2 , equal to the wavelength of light in the second medium
Thus ⋋2 < ⋋1

Fig.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 24

Kolhapur
 Let the wavefront AB reach the boundary surface at time t=0 & next wavefront CD which is at
5.

a distance a ⋋1 from AB, reach PQ at time t=T

Let V1 be the speed of the wave in medium 1
& T be the time period , In medium 1
⋋
∴T = V1 -----------------1
1
In medium 2,
⋋
T= V2 -----------------2
2
From equation 1&2 we get
⋋1 ⋋
= 2
V1 V2
V n
∴ ⋋2 = ⋋1 1 = ⋋1 1------------------------3
V2 𝑛2
If medium 1 is vacuum where the wavelength of light is ⋋0 and n is the refractive index of the
medium 2 then the wavelength of the light in medium 2 is ⋋ is given by
⋋= ⋋ 𝑉2 ⋋0
0 = ---------------------4
𝐶 𝑛

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 25

Kolhapur
The ratio of fxquencies 𝜈1and 𝜈2 is given by,

𝜈1
𝜈2
v / ⋋) /(v2 / ⋋) =1
=( 1
This demonstrates that
When ray of light travels from one medium to another medium, the frequency of wave remains
unchanged.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 26

Kolhapur
7.7 Polarization
Light is an electromagnetic wave and its magnetic field and electric field is perpendicular to each other and to
the direction propagation.
Light emitted by atoms along one direction suppose x-axis then its electric field may be along y-axis and
magnetic field will be along the z-axis.
Thus the electric of waves emitted along the x-axis by a light source like the sun, star or light bulb will be all
possible directions in y-z plane and corresponding magnetic fields will be perpendicular to their electric fields
such light is called unpolarized light. Shown by double headed arrows in fig.7.6a. In other hand the light is
constrained its electric field restricted along the one particular direction is called plane polarized light in
fig.7.6b.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 27

Kolhapur
There are certain materials which allow only those light waves having electric field along a particular
direction to pass through and block all other waves which have electric field in other directions. These
materials called polarizers (Polaroid).

The electric field of emergent wave is oriented in particular direction is called polarizing axis. The plane
A,B,C,D is called plane of vibration and perpendicular (Horizontal) plane is called plane of polarization.

The component of electric field of the polarized light in the direction of the polarizing axis of the second
polarizer can pass through it. The intensity of light reduces. As shown in fig. below.

If ω is angular frequency of unpolarized light. The wave vector is

along the x-direction. The magnitude of electric field is given by,
𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin(𝑘𝑥 − ωt)
Where, E0 is the amplitude of the wave.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 28

Kolhapur
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 29

Kolhapur
Intensity of wave is directly proportional to |E0|2 . The direction of electric field in the y-z plane the wave
polarizes as in fig. below.
Let electric field at an angel ф to the axis of the polarizer. The component 𝐸0 cos ф will pass through first
polarizer and the normal component 𝐸0 sin ф will be obstructed. The intensity of polarizer will be proportional
to square of its amplitude i.e | 𝐸0 cos ф |2 . the values of ф from 0 to 1800 .
For unpolarized light also same angle and amplitude is | 𝐸0 cos ф |2
The average value of cos 2фis 1/2.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 30

Kolhapur
Hence intensity will be proportional to ½ |E0|2 i.e intensity of an unpolarized wave reduces by half after passing
through a polarizer.
Consider linearly polarized wave its electric field along y-direction is

Where, E10 is the amplitude of polarized wave.

The intensity is,

The second polarizer it makes an angle ϴ with the y-direction only the component 𝐸10 cos 𝜃 will pass through
it.
The amplitude of (say E20) is now 𝐸10 cos 𝜃 and intensity will be

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 31

Kolhapur
This is called Malus law. It gives the intensity of a linearly polarized wave after it passes through a polarizer.

Note – if ϴ is zero – the polarization axes of the two polarizers are parallel, the intensity remains unchanged.

If ϴ=900 , cos 2𝜃=0 and no light pass through it .

There is parallel and cross settings of the two polarizers.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 32

Kolhapur
Polarization by reflection : Brewster’s law
When light is incident at angle on a boundary between two transparent media of refractive index n 1 and n2 ,
part of its refracted and the rest of reflected. When unpolarized light incident from medium n 1 on boundary
perpendicular to the plane of paper in fig.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 33

Kolhapur
The electric field is in the plane perpendicular to the direction of incidence and resolved into two components,
one parallel to plane of paper(↔) and other perpendicular to the plane of paper(●). Both have equal
magnitude.

The reflected and refracted rays do not have equal magnitudes of two components hence, they are partially
polarized through angle ϴB is called the Brewster’s angle. The refracted and reflected rays are perpendicular to
each other. ϴr angle of refraction.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 34

Kolhapur
Polarization by scattering
When sun light strikes air molecules or dust particles in the atmosphere it changes its direction called as
scattering.

The sky see blue due to scattering of blue light. If there is no scattering in the sky would not look at the sun
and we see stars even during the day. The sunlight scattered gets partially due to reflection of light. The
degree of polarization depends on the angle of scattering i.e the angle between the direction of light incident
on molecule or dust particle and the direction of scattered light. If the angle is 90 0 the scattered light plane
polarized. The scattering of light from different directions in the sky is polarized to different degrees.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 35

Kolhapur
Interference
When two or more waves overlap the resultant displacement of a particle of medium at a given point is the
sum of displacement of the particle produced by individual wave.

The crest or troughs of the two waves coincides will have large displacement. While the crest of one wave
coincide with the other trough the displacement is minimum.

For water waves S1 and S2 are sources of water waves of same amplitude and wavelength are in phase. The
crest are shown by continuous circles while troughs are dashed circles. The crest of the one wave
coincides with crest of other wave and the trough of one wave coincides with trough of other wave the
displacement is maximum and pattern is constructive interference pattern shown by blue dots.

When crest of one wave is coincide with the trough of other wave or vice versa, the displacement is
minimum (zero) and pattern is destructive interference shown by red dots.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 36

Kolhapur
Coherent sources of light
Two sources which emits waves of the same frequency having a constant phase difference, independent of time
are called coherent sources.
If two different sources emit waves of different frequencies and they are not in phase the interference pattern
changes every instant of time and no pattern is formed. The interference pattern obtains by two secondary source
from sameShri
primary source.
Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 37

Kolhapur
7.8.2 Young’s double slit experiment

A plane wavefront is incident on screen AB having two similar narrow slits S 1 and S2. A linear source S away
from the screen at the focus of a convex lense kept close to the AB.The rays coming out of the lens will be
parallel and the wavefront is plane wavefront. The slits have their lens perpendicular to plane of the paper,
about 2-4 mm apart from each other. The screen PQ is placed behind of AB. The slits S1 and S2 are equidistant
from the S and they are in phase. 38
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha,
Kolhapur
The slits act as secondary sources of light emitting cylindrical wavefront. The crests/troughs of the
secondary wavelets superpose and interfere constructively along straight lines joining the blue dots having
intensity high and bright. The red dots along which crest of one wave coincide with the trough of other
causing zero intensity and producing dark images on the screen. The dark and bright regions are called
fringes and whole pattern is called interference pattern.

Theory of interference band

Consider two sources S1 and S2 separated by distance d and that between o and o’ be the distance D about a
meter. The point o’ on the screen is equidistance from the source S1 and S2. The two waves will be in phase
at o’ resulting in constructive interference. There will be bright spot at o’ and bright fringe at the center of
the screen and perpendicular to the plane of paper.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 39

Kolhapur
To determine the positions of other bright fringes on the screen at P. If the path difference (∆𝑙) between S1P
and S2P is an integral multiple of , there is constructive interference and bright fringe at P.
If the path difference between is half integral multiple of , there will be destructive interference and dark
fringe at P.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 40

Kolhapur
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 41

Kolhapur
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 42

Kolhapur
Thus both dark and bright fringes are equidistant and have equal width

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 43

Kolhapur
Intensity distribution

If there is constructive interference at the center of the bright fringe the intensity is proportional to the
square of the amplitude. At the center of dark fringes the intensity is zero says I 0. in between points the
intensity gradually changes from zero to 4 I0 and vice versa. The fringes are equally bright and equally
spaced. For wide slits the intensity pattern changes in blurred interference pattern with poor contrast.

We can calculate the intensity at a point P and the phase difference is ф.

We can write the equation of two waves coming from S1 and S2 at the point P on the screen.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 44

Kolhapur
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 45

Kolhapur
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 46

Kolhapur
7.8.3 Conditions for obtaining well defined and steady interference
pattern
1. The two sources of light should be coherent .
The coherent sources are always in phase or have a constant phase difference between
them at all times.
2. The two sources of light must be monochromatic.
3. The interfering waves must have same amplitude
If the amplitudes are equal ,the intensity of dark fringes is zero and bright fringes will be
maximum.
4. The separation between the two slits must be small in comparison to the distance
between the plane containing the slits and the observing screen.
5. The two slit should be narrow.
If the slits are broad causes blurring of the interference pattern.
6. The two waves should be in the same state of polarization. 47
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha,
Kolhapur
Methods for obtaining coherent sources
1. Lloyds' mirror

The light is incident at a grazing angle on a plane mirror the blue lines in the fig. and some light falls after
reflection shown by red lines. The reflected light appears to come from a virtual source and we get two
sources. They are derived from a single source and hence they are coherent. They interfere and its pattern is
obtained as shown in fig. below. Reflected rays by blue and red lines the light is monochromatic having a
single wavelength.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 48

Kolhapur
2. Fresnel biprism
A biprism is a prism with vertex angle of nearly 1800. It has two prism with very small refracting angle from
30I to 10 joined at their bases. The refracting edge of the biprism is kept parallel to the length of the slit.
Monochromatic light pass through narrow slit S as shown in fig. below and fall on the biprism.

The two halves of the biprism from virtual images S1 and S2. These are coherent sources from a single
secondary source S. The two waves coming from S1 and S2 interfere and form interference fringes.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 49

Kolhapur
7.8.5 Optical path
If ω is the angular frequency and k is wave vector then equation of light wave is (kx-ωt) in x direction but k=
ω/v, v is the speed of wave in vacuum c. If the light wave travels a distance ∆𝑥,

phase changes ∆∅ = 𝑘∆x =ω∆x/v.

𝜔
The wave travel in vacuum k=ω/c and ∆∅=ω∆x/c. Refractive index of medium ‘n’ then k’=ω/v= ,
𝑐/𝑛
The wave travels a distance ∆x in medium the phase difference will be,

A path length of ∆x in a medium of refractive index n is equivalent to a path length of n∆x in vacuum. n∆x is
called the optical path, is equal to actual path travelled n=1.
Optical path in vacuum the light travels in the same time in medium.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 50

Kolhapur
A distance d travelled in a medium index n.
path difference = 𝑛𝑑 − 𝑑 = 𝑑(𝑛 − 1)
Two waves interfere constructively when their optical path lengths are equal or differe by integral
multiplies of the wavelength.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 51

Kolhapur
7.9 Diffraction of Light-
The phenomenon of bending of light waves around corners and their spreading
into the region of the geometrical shadow of an object is called diffraction. But,
light actually does not bend around edges in diffraction, but is able to reach the
shadow region due to the emission by the secondary sources of light on the
edge of the obstacle.

52
Types of Diffraction-
A) Fraunhofer diffraction :-
Diffraction pattern in which the source of light and the screen are at very large
distance from the diffracting system is called Fraunhofer diffraction.

B) Fresnel diffraction :-
Diffraction pattern in which source of light and screen are kept at finite distance
from the slit is called Fresnel diffraction.

53
7.9.3 Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit
Experimental setup for fraunhofer diffraction-

A monochromatic source of light S is placed at the focus of a convex lens. The

emerging beam will consist of plane parallel rays resulting in plane wavefront.

54
 When a plane wavefront is
incident on a slit AB of width a, each
slit element becomes the secondary
source of cylindrical wavefronts
responsible for diffraction in all
possible directions. A lens kept next to
the slit converges the emergent beams
on the screen kept at the focus.
The formation of diffraction can
be explained as below..

55
A) Position of central maxima:-

Rays parallel to the axis from all points from A to B are focused at the
central point P0.Thus,all these rays must behaving equal optical paths.
Hence path difference between them is zero. So at P0 we get central maxima.

B) Position of minima:-
Consider point P on the screen at distance y from central maxima. This
point will be maximum or minimum intensity depends upon path difference
BC.
∴Path Difference= BC= ABsin𝛉= asin𝛉
Let path difference between the extreme rays is 𝝺.

56
 1 λ
Let K is the mid point of AC. ∴OK= (BC) =
2 2

Assume that the wavefront is divided into two equal parts AO and OB. Then
λ
path difference between the secondary waves from AO to reach P is and from
2
λ
OB to reach P is Hence all such pair of points between AO and OB will
.
2
produce destructive interference at point P and we get first minima.Thus the
points on the screen having path differences 2𝝺,3𝝺,...,n𝝺 between the extreme
rays reaching them are gives positions of dark fringes.

∴The condition to get destructive interference(secondary minima) is

asin𝛉= ±n𝝺 (where n=1,2,3….)

57
C) Position of Maxima:-

We assume that the maxima are in between the respective minima,

∴Path difference between extreme rays at the nth maxima is

1
asinθ = ± [ n + 2 ] λ ( where n = 1,2,3,4, …….)

Thus diffraction due to single slit consists of central maxima at P0 followed by

alternate secondary minima and maxima on both sides of P0.

58
Distance of minima and maxima from the
central bright point.
𝑦
From figure sin𝛉 ≅ tanθ = 𝐷 as 𝛉 is very small then sin𝛉= 𝛉
𝑦
∴𝛉 = 𝐷 ….(i)

Where y is distance between the first secondary minima from point P0.
We have condition for secondary minima is asin𝛉 = n𝝺, for 1st minima n= 1

λ
∴𝛉 = 𝑎 ….(ii)

λ𝐷
∴y = 𝑎
….(iii)

59
 ∴for nth dark point at distance y from central maxima is
λ𝐷
ynd = n( 𝑎 )= nW
∴for nth bright point at distance y from central maxima is
1 λ𝐷 1
ynb = ( n+ ) ( ) = [n+( )]W
2 𝑎 2
The width of central bright fringe is the distance between the centres of first
dark fringe on either side
λ𝐷
∴Width of central bright fringe= 2y= 2( 𝑎 )

q in degrees 60
7.9.4 Double slit diffraction pattern :- I

In this case the pattern will be decided by the diffraction pattern of the
individual slits, as well as by the interference between them. The pattern is shown
in Fig. There are narrow interference fringes similar to those in Young’s double
slit experiment, but of varying brightness and the shape of their envelope is that of
the single slit diffraction pattern.

q in degrees 61
Comparison Between Interference and Diffraction Patterns-

62
7.10 Resolving Power-

● The ability to distinguish two separated objects as two distinct objects is

known as the resolving power of an optical instrument.
● The minimum visual angle between two objects that can be resolved by
that instrument. This minimum angle is called limit of resolution.
● Reciprocal of the limit of resolution is called the resolving power.

63
7.10.1 Rayleigh’s Criterion For Limit of Resolution

A) Unresolved Condition:-

If the separation between the central

maxima of the two objects is less than the
distance between the central maxima and first
minima of any of two objects.

64
B) Just Resolved Condition:-
Two objects are just resolved when the
first minimum of the diffraction pattern of one
source coincides with the central maximum of
the diffraction pattern of the other source, and
vice versa.

C) Well Resolved Condition:-

If the separation between the central

maxima of two objects is greater than the
distance between the central maxima and the
first minima of any of the two objects.

65
A) Two linear objects:-

Consider the two self luminous objects(slits). According to Rayleigh’s, the first
minima of diffraction patterns of one of the source should coincide with the
central maxima of the other.
λ
∴The limit of resolution, d𝛉 = 𝑎

Minimum separation between the two linear objects are just resolved at a
distance D from the instrument is
λ𝐷
∴y = D(d𝛉)=
𝑎

It is the distance of the first minimum from the centre.

66
B) Pair of Point objects:-

The diffraction pattern of two point objects consists of a central bright disc
surrounded by concentric rings, called Airy disc and rings.

According to Lord Rayleigh, for the two point objects are just resolved. If the
minimum separation between the images on the screen is radius of the first
dark ring.

67
7.10.2 Resolving Power of Microscope-

Consider two point objects O and O’ separated by a distance a.Angular

separation between the objects, at the objective is 2𝛂. I and I’ be their images
formed by objective AB of microscope, and are surrounded by alternate dark
and bright airy rings.
68
From the geometry of figure,
The path difference= DO’+O’C= 2asin𝛂 ….(i)
a) Microscope with a pair of non-luminous objects(dark objects):-

These non-luminous objects are illuminated by some external source obliquely.

The eyepiece is filled with some transparent material(oil) of R.I.n.
λ
∴The wavelength of light in this material is, 𝝺n= 𝑛
λ
∴The path difference at the first dark ring is, 𝝺n= 𝑛 ….(ii)
λ
∴2asin𝛂 = 𝑛
λ λ
∴a = =
2nsin𝛂 2( N.A.
)
Where nsin𝛂 is called numerical aperture(N.A).

1 2nsin𝛂 2( 𝑁.𝐴. )
∴R.P. of microscope = 𝑎 = =
𝝺 𝝺 69
B) Microscope with self luminous point objects:-

Applying Abbe’s theory of Airy discs and rings to Fraunhofer diffraction due to
a pair of self luminous point objects, the path difference between the extreme
rays, at the first dark ring is 1.22𝝺.

Thus, for the requirement of just resolution, 2asin𝛂 = 1.22𝝺n

1.22λ𝑛
∴a =
2sin𝛂
1.22λ 0.61λ 0.61λ
∴a = = =
2nsin𝛂 nsin𝛂 ( N.A.)

1 ( N.A.)
∴ R.P. = 𝑎 = 0.61λ
70
Resolving Power of Telescope-
Resolving power of a telescope is
then defined as the reciprocal of the
least angular separation between the
objects that are just resolved.
According to Rayleigh’s criterion,
the minimum separation between the
images I and I’ must be equal to the
radius of the first dark Airy ring.

71
According to Airy’s theory applied to fraunhofer diffraction of a pair of point
objects, the path difference between the extreme rays at the first dark ring is
1.22𝝺.

∴BI’-AI’= 1.22𝝺
If D is aperture(diameter AB of objective) of the telescope, then
∴BI’-AI’= D𝛉 = 1.22𝝺
1.22𝝺
∴𝛉 = D
1
∴R.P. of Telescope =
𝛉
𝐷
= 1.22λ
72
Radio Telescope-

Radio telescope consists of specialized antenna and radio receiver used to

receive radio waves from astronomical radio sources in the sky.

Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (GMRT) located at Narayangaon, near

Pune, Maharashtra uses such an array consisting of 30 dishes of 45 m
diameter each, spread over 25 km. It is the largest distance between two of its
antennae.

73
 Numeral's on wave optics

solution: λa1=400nm=400 x 10-9 m solution: - 𝑥1 = 3𝑐𝑚, 𝑛1 = 1.6, 𝑛2 = 1.25

𝑥2 =?
λa2=700nm=700 x 10-9 m ∅1 = ∅2
an =1.55
g optical path, ∅ = ∆𝑥 ∗ 𝑛
𝑥 𝑛
according to snell’s law 𝑥1 𝑛1 = 𝑥2 𝑛2 , 𝑥2 = 1 1
𝑛2
an =λ𝑎 , λg= λ𝑎 𝑥2 =
3∗1.6
= 3.84 𝑐𝑚
g λ𝑔 an 1.25
g

λ𝑎1 400∗10−9
λg1 = an = = 258.06nm
g 1.55

Shri Swami 74
λ𝑎2 Vivekanand
700∗10−9 Shikshan Sanstha,
λ =
Kolhapur
g2 an = = 451.61nm.
g 1.55
Sol:
𝜆1 = 589 𝑛𝑚 = 589 ∗ 10−9 Sol:
𝜃1 = 0.20 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒, 𝜃2 =? , n=1.33 𝑑 = 100𝜆, 𝑛 = 1, 𝜃 =, 𝑦 =? .
𝑛𝜆1 𝑛𝜆2
𝜃1 = , 𝜃2 = 𝑛𝜆 1∗𝜆
𝑑 𝑑
1. 𝜃= = = 0.01 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
𝑑 100𝜆
𝜃1 𝜆1
= =𝑛 𝑛𝜆𝐷 1∗𝜆∗50
𝜃2 𝜆2 2. 𝑦= = = 0.5𝑐𝑚.
𝑑 100𝜆
𝜃1 0.20
𝜃2 = = = 0.15 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒.
𝑛 1.33

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 75

Kolhapur
Sol:
𝐼0 Sol:
𝐼1 = , 𝐼2 =? , 𝜃 = (90 − 50)0 = 400 𝜆 =? , 𝑋20 = 0.4 ∗ 10−2 𝑚, 𝐷 = 1.2𝑚,
2
Malus law, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑉 = 0.9 ∗ 10−2 𝑚, 𝑑 = 90 ∗ 10−2 𝑚,
𝑢 = 1.2 − 0.9 = 0.3𝑚 = 30𝑐𝑚.
𝐼2 = 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
=
𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝐼2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 40 𝑑1 𝑣 𝑑1 𝑢 0.9 ∗ 10−2 ∗ 30 ∗ 10−2
2 = ,𝑑 = =
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣 90 ∗ 10−2
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha,
𝑑 = 0.3 ∗ 10−2 m. 76

Kolhapur
19. In Fraunhoffer diffraction by a narrow slit, a screen is placed at a distance of 2 m from
the lens to obtain the diffraction pattern. If the slit width is 0.2 mm and the first minimum
is 5 mm on either side of the central maximum, find the wavelength of light.
[Ans: 5000 Å]
Given :- 𝑛𝜆𝐷
yn =
𝑎
D=2m
a = 0.2 mm = 0.2 x 10-3 m 𝑦𝑛 x 𝑎
𝜆=
yn = 5 mm = 5 x 10-3 m 𝑛x𝐷

λ=?
5 x 10−3 x 0.2 x 10−3
𝜆=
1x2

𝜆 = 5000 0A
77
20. The intensity of the light coming from one of the slits in Young’s experiment is twice the intensity
of the light coming from the other slit. What will be the approximate ratio of the intensities of the
bright and dark fringes in the resulting interference pattern? [Ans: 34]
Given :- 𝐼𝐵 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 2
=
𝐼𝐷 𝐴1 − 𝐴2 2
𝐼1
I1 = 2I2 i.e. =2
𝐼2
I α A2
As 2
𝐼𝐵 2.𝐴2 + 𝐴2
𝐼1 𝐴1 2 = 2
= 𝐼𝐷 2.𝐴2 − 𝐴2
𝐼2 𝐴2

𝐼𝐵 2.414 2
𝐴1 2 =
=2 𝐼𝐷 0.414 2
𝐴2
𝐴1
= 2
𝐴2 𝐼𝐵
= 33.9
𝐼𝐷
𝐼𝐵
A1 = 2.A2 ≅ 34 78
𝐼𝐷
21. A parallel beam of green light of wavelength 546 nm passes through a slit of width 0.4
mm. The intensity pattern of the transmitted light is seen on a screen which is 40 cm away.
What is the distance between the two first order minima?
[Ans: 1.1 mm] ( w = Distance between two first order minima )
Given :- 𝑛𝜆𝐷
w=
𝑎
n=2
λ = 546 nm = 546 x 10-9 m
2 x 546 x 10−9 x 40 x 10−2
a = 0.4 mm = 0.4 x 10-3 m w=
0.4 x 10−3
D = 40 cm = 40 x 10-2 m
w =?
w = 1.092 mm
or
w = 1.1 mm 79
22. What must be the ratio of the slit width to the wavelength for a single slit to have the
first diffraction minimum at 45.0°? [Ans: 1.414]

Given :-
a sinθ = nλ
n=1
θ = 45.00 𝑎 𝑛
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
𝜆
𝑎
=?
𝜆
𝑎 1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛45.00
𝜆

𝑎 1 2
=1 = = 1.414
𝜆 ൗ 2 1 80
23. Monochromatic electromagnetic radiation from a distant source passes through a slit. The
diffraction pattern is observed on a screen 2.50 m from the slit. If the width of the central maximum is
6.00 mm, what is the slit width if the wavelength is (a) 500 nm (visible light); (b) 50 μm (infrared
radiation); (c) 0.500 nm (X-rays)?
[Ans: 0.416 mm, 41.6 mm, 4.16 x10-4mm]
Given :-
λv = 500 nm = 500 x 10-9m
Width of central maxima = 2. y
λin = 50 μm = 50 x 10-6 m
λx = 0.500 nm = 0.5 x 10-9 m
W = 2.y
D = 2.5 m
a = 6.00 mm = 6.00 x 10-3 m
2𝜆𝐷
W=
𝑎
2𝜆𝐷
a=
𝑊
81
i) For visible light ii) For infrared rays iii) for X-rays
2𝜆𝑣 𝐷
av = 2𝜆𝑥 𝐷
𝑊 2𝜆𝑖𝑛 𝐷
ax =
𝑊
ain =
𝑊
2 x 500 x 10−9 x 2.5 2 x 0.5 x 10−9 x 2.5
av = ax =
6 x 10−3 6 x 10−3
2 x 50 x 10−6 x 2.5
ain =
6 x 10−3
av = 0.4166 mm

ax = 4.16 x 10-4 mm
ain = 41.6 mm

82
24. A star is emitting light at the wavelength of 5000 Å. Determine the limit of resolution of a telescope having an
objective of diameter of 200 inch.
[Ans: 1.2 x 10-7 rad]
Given
λ = 5000 0A = 5 x 10-7 m
D = 200 inch = 200 x 2.54 = 508 cm = 5.08 m
θ =?
1.22 𝜆
θ =
𝐷

1.22 x 5 x 10−7
θ =
5.08

θ = 1.2 x 10-7 rad

83
25. The distance between two consecutive bright fringes in a biprism experiment using
light of wavelength 6000 Å is 0.32 mm by how much will the distance change if light of
wavelength 4800 Å is used? [Ans: 0.064 mm ]
Given :-
𝜆1 = 6000 0A = 6 x 10-7 m
W1 = 0.32 mm = 0.32 x 10-3 m
𝜆2 = 4800 0A = 4.8 x 10-7 m
W2 = ?
𝜆1 𝐷
As W1 = …….(i)
𝑑

𝜆2 𝐷
W2 = 𝑑
…….(ii)
84
 𝑤1 𝜆1 𝐷 𝑑
= x
𝑤2 𝑑 𝜆2 𝐷

𝑤1 𝜆1
=
𝑤2 𝜆2

𝜆2
∴ W2 = W1
𝜆1

4.8 x 10−7 x 0.32 x 10−3

∴ W2 =
6 x 10−7

∴ W2 = 0.256 x 10-3m
∆𝑤 = 0.32 x 10-3 – 0.256 x 10-3

∴ Change in distance ∆𝑤
∆𝑤 = W1 – W2 ∆𝑤 = 0.064 x 10-3 m = 0.064 mm 85
Previously asked questions in board examination
A One mark questions
1 State Huygens principle

2. Define plane polarized light.

3. Define unpolarized light.
4. State the Brewster’s law in polarization.
5. Define coherent sources.
6. Define optical path length.
7.On which factors the resolving power of microscope depends?
8.How resolving power of microscope can be increase?
9.What does the formation of shadow tell you about the propagation of light?
10. For seeing Fraunhoffer diffraction, wave front should be ?
11. On which factors the resolving power of microscope depends ?

12. How resolving power of microscope can be increase.

13. What does the formation of a shadow tell you about the propagation of light ?
Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 86
14. For seeing Fraunhoffer diffraction, wave front should be?
Kolhapur
Previously asked questions in board examination
B. Two marks questions
1. Explain Newton’s Corpuscular theory of light.
2. Define wavefront and wavenormal.
3. Explain the phenomenon of polarization of light.
4. Explain polarization by scattering.
5. Give any two conditions for steady interference pattern.
6. Explain Lloyd's mirror.
7. Explain Fresnel’s Biprism experiment.
8.What are Fraunhoffer and Fresnel type of diffraction?
9.Distinguish between interference and diffraction.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 87

Kolhapur
Previously asked questions in board examination
c. Three marks questions
1 State the merits and drawbacks of Huygens wave theory of light.
2 State Huygens principle and explain Huygens construction for plane wavefront.
3 State Huygens principle and explain Huygens construction for spherical wavefront.
4 Derive the laws of reflection of light using Huygens principle.
5 Derive the laws of refraction of light using Huygens principle.
6 Derive the Brewster’s law in polarization by reflection.
7 Explain the phenomenon of interference pattern.
8 Explain Young’s double slit experiment.
9 Explain the conditions of steady interference pattern.
10 Give the expression for optical path length.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 88

Kolhapur
Previously asked questions in board examination
C Three marks questions
11.State and explain Rayleigh’s criterion
OR
Describe what is Rayleigh’s criterion for resolution. Explain it for a telescope and microscope.
12. What is mean by limit of resolution? Explain resolving power of microscope.
13.What is meant by limit of angular resolution and explain the resolving power of a telescope.
14.Derive the condition for bright and dark fringes produced due to diffraction by a single slit.

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 89

Kolhapur
Previously asked questions in board examination
D. Four marks questions
1. Give the theory of interference band width or fringe width pattern.
2. What is diffraction of light? How does it differ from Interference?What are fraunhoffer
and fresnel diffraction?

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 90

Kolhapur
Deleted portion due to COVID-19 for Feb/Mar-21 HSC Exam

7.2. Corpuscular nature

7.6. Refraction of a light at a plane boundary between two media

7.7. Polarization

7.10. Resolving power

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 91

Kolhapur
 Thank You

Shri. Patil P.D.

Shri. Rajmane N.S.
Shri. Ghodake V.S .

Shri Swami Vivekanand Shikshan Sanstha, 92

Kolhapur