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TECHNOLOGY IN AC TION™

Custom Raspberry
Pi Interfaces
Design and build hardware interfaces
for the Raspberry Pi

Warren Gay
Custom Raspberry
Pi Interfaces
Design and build hardware
interfaces for the Raspberry Pi

Warren Gay
Custom Raspberry Pi Interfaces: Design and build hardware interfaces for the Raspberry Pi
Warren Gay
St Catharines, Ontario, Canada
ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-2405-2 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-2406-9
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4842-2406-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017931068
Copyright © 2017 by Warren Gay
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or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
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The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even
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While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the
date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal
responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty,
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Contents at a Glance

About the Author���������������������������������������������������������������������������� xiii


About the Technical Reviewer��������������������������������������������������������� xv


■Chapter 1: Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������ 1

■Chapter 2: 3V/5V Signal Interfacing����������������������������������������������� 5

■Chapter 3: VGA LCD Monitors������������������������������������������������������� 25

■Chapter 4: I2C LCD Displays��������������������������������������������������������� 35

■Chapter 5: MC14490 and Software Debouncing��������������������������� 55

■Chapter 6: PCF8591 ADC�������������������������������������������������������������� 67

■Chapter 7: Potentiometer Input Controls�������������������������������������� 91

■Chapter 8: Rotary Encoders�������������������������������������������������������� 103

■Chapter 9: More Pi Inputs with 74HC165����������������������������������� 129

■Chapter 10: More Pi Outputs with 74HC595������������������������������� 141

■Chapter 11: MCP23017 I/O Port Extender���������������������������������� 153

■Chapter 12: MPD/MPC Hardware Controls��������������������������������� 169

■Chapter 13: Custom Keypads����������������������������������������������������� 191

Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 213

iii
Contents

About the Author���������������������������������������������������������������������������� xiii


About the Technical Reviewer��������������������������������������������������������� xv


■Chapter 1: Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������ 1
Raspberry Pi 3 and Zero�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 2
Why GPIO Is Important����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 2
What to Purchase������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 2
Software to Download����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 4
Let’s Begin����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 4

■Chapter 2: 3V/5V Signal Interfacing����������������������������������������������� 5
7400 Series (TTL)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 6
3.3V Logic������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 7
Voltage Dividers�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 9
7400 Series Derivative Families������������������������������������������������������������ 11
Unused CMOS Inputs����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12
Converting 5V to 3V Input: 74LVC245���������������������������������������������������������������������� 12
Converting 5V to 3V Input: 74LVC244���������������������������������������������������������������������� 14
CD4049/CD4050����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
Input Protection Diodes������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 16

v
 ■ Contents

Converting 3 Volts to 5 Volts with the HCT Family��������������������������������� 19


74HCT245��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 20
74HCT244��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 22
Switching Speed����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 22
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 23
Bibliography������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 24

■Chapter 3: VGA LCD Monitors������������������������������������������������������� 25
VGA Converters�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 25
Resolution and Refresh Rates��������������������������������������������������������������� 26
/boot/config.txt�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27
Confirming Resolution��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 33
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 33
Bibliography������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 34

■Chapter 4: I2C LCD Displays��������������������������������������������������������� 35
LCD Module 1602A�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 35
I2C Serial Interface�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36
I2C Module Configuration���������������������������������������������������������������������� 37
I2C Module Output��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 38
I2C Module Input����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 41
PCF8574P Chip�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 42
3 Volts to 5 Volts������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 42
Attaching the I2C Serial Module������������������������������������������������������������ 44
Displaying Data������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 46
Reading from the LCD1602������������������������������������������������������������������� 48
Class LCD1602�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51
I2C Baud Rate���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53
Profit and Loss�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 54
vi
 ■ Contents


■Chapter 5: MC14490 and Software Debouncing��������������������������� 55
Hardware: MC14490������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 56
Chip Operation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57
Capacitor C1������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57
Experiment�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 58
More Inputs������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 61
Software Debouncing���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 62
Experiment�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 66

■Chapter 6: PCF8591 ADC�������������������������������������������������������������� 67
The YL-40 PCB��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 67
Voltage Range��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 70
I2C Bus�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 70
I2C Addresses���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 70
DAC (AOUT)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 70
Removing YL-40 LED D1������������������������������������������������������������������������ 73
Hacking YL-40 I2C Address������������������������������������������������������������������� 74
I2C Bus Setup���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 75
Reading from PCF8591�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 76
Experiment������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 76

Writing to the DAC��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 77


Experiment������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 77
Experiment������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 78

Limitations��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 79
Extending Voltage Range����������������������������������������������������������������������� 79
Repairing the Temp Sensor������������������������������������������������������������������� 80
Conversion to Celsius���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 83

vii
 ■ Contents

Reading Temperature���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 84
Experiment������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 84

The YL-40 LDR��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 85


Experiment������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 85

1N914 Experiment��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 85
Software������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 89
Potential Experiments��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 90
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 90
Bibliography������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 90

■Chapter 7: Potentiometer Input Controls�������������������������������������� 91
Potentiometers�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 91
Voltage Dividers������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 93
ADC Circuit�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 95
Pot Resistance��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 95
Taper����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 96
Effect of ADC Bits���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 96
Experiment�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 97
Applying Potentiometer Controls����������������������������������������������������������� 99
Selection Resolution���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 101
Summary��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 101
Bibliography���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 102

■Chapter 8: Rotary Encoders�������������������������������������������������������� 103
Keyes KY-040 Rotary Encoder������������������������������������������������������������� 103
The Switch������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 105
Operation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 107
Voltage������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 108

viii
 ■ Contents

Evaluation Circuit�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 108


Interfacing to the Pi����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 110
Experiment������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 112
Experiment������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 114
Sequence Errors���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 114
Experiment������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 115
FM Dial 1��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 116
FM Dial 2��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 117
Class Switch���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 119
Main Routine��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 126
Summary��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 127
Bibliography���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 127

■Chapter 9: More Pi Inputs with 74HC165����������������������������������� 129
74HC165 Pinout����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 129
Function Table������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 131
Breadboard Experiment����������������������������������������������������������������������� 132
Program����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 134
Logic Analyzer View����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 136
Profit and Loss������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 137
Even More Inputs�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 138
Other Bit Counts���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 139
Combining GPIOs��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 139
Chip Enable����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 139
CD4012B��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 140
Summary��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 140

ix
 ■ Contents


■Chapter 10: More Pi Outputs with 74HC595������������������������������� 141
74HC165 Pinout����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 141
Function Table������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 142
Breadboard Experiment����������������������������������������������������������������������� 143
Experiment Run����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 146
Input and Output���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 148
Additional Outputs������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 151
Profit and Loss������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 152
Summary��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 152

■Chapter 11: MCP23017 I/O Port Extender���������������������������������� 153
MCP23017������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 153
Wiring�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 155
Output GPIO Experiment���������������������������������������������������������������������� 157
Input Experiment��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 158
Software Operations���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 159
I2C Header Files���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 160
Opening the I2C Driver������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 161
I2C Write��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 161
I2C Read��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 162
Configuration�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 163

Interrupt Capability������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 164


Interrupt Profit and Loss���������������������������������������������������������������������� 168
Summary��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 168

x
 ■ Contents


■Chapter 12: MPD/MPC Hardware Controls��������������������������������� 169
Audio Preparation�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 169
MPD/MPD������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 171

Hardware Setup���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 174


Test Volume Control���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 175
Test Rotary Control����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 176
Test LCD���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 176
The mpcctl Program���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 176
Main Program������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 177
Rotary Encoder Thread����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 181
LCD Thread����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 185
MPC Status Thread����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 187
Volume Control Thread����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 188
Program Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 189

Summary��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 190
Bibliography���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 190

■Chapter 13: Custom Keypads����������������������������������������������������� 191
Breadboard Setup������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 191
Output Tests���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 193
Input Tests������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 193
High-Side Driver���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 194
Low-Side Driver����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 195
Driving an LED������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 195
The Keypad������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 196

xi
 ■ Contents

Keypad Program���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 201


The main Program������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 202
The key_lookup Function������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 204
The i2c_write Function����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205
The i2c_read Function������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 206

Combination Lock�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 207


Combination Lock�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 208
The main Program������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 209
The get_key_code Function��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 211

Interrupts��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 212
Summary��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 212
Bibliography���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 212

Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 213

xii
About the Author

Warren Gay started out in electronics at an early age,


dragging discarded TVs and radios home from public
school. In high school he developed a fascination for
programming the IBM 1130 computer, which resulted
in a career plan change to software development.
After attending Ryerson Polytechnical Institute, he
has enjoyed a software developer career for more
than 30 years, programming mainly in C/C++. Warren
has been programming Linux since 1994 as an open
source contributor and professionally on various Unix
platforms since 1987.
Before attending Ryerson, Warren built an Intel
8008 system from scratch before there were CP/M
systems and before computers got personal. In later
years, Warren earned an advanced amateur radio
license (call sign VE3WWG) and worked the amateur
radio satellites. A high point of his ham radio hobby
was making digital contact with the Mir space station (U2MIR) in 1991.
Warren works at Datablocks.net, an enterprise-class ad-serving software services
company. There he programs C++ server solutions on Linux back-end systems.

xiii
About the Technical
Reviewer

Massimo Nardone has more than 22 years of


experience in security, web/mobile development, the
cloud, and IT architecture. His true IT passions are
security and Android.
He has been programming and teaching how to
program with Android, Perl, PHP, Java, VB, Python,
C/C++, and MySQL for more than 20 years.
He has a master’s of science degree in computing
science from the University of Salerno, Italy.
He has worked as a project manager, software
engineer, research engineer, chief security architect,
information security manager, PCI/SCADA auditor,
and senior lead IT security/cloud/SCADA architect for
many years.
His technical skills include the following: security,
Android, cloud, Java, MySQL, Drupal, Cobol, Perl, web and mobile development,
MongoDB, D3, Joomla, Couchbase, C/C++, WebGL, Python, Pro Rails, Django CMS,
Jekyll, Scratch, and more.
He currently works as chief information security officer (CISO) for Cargotec Oyj.
He has worked as a visiting lecturer and supervisor for exercises at the Networking
Laboratory of the Helsinki University of Technology (Aalto University). He holds four
international patents (PKI, SIP, SAML, and proxy areas).
Massimo has reviewed more than 40 IT books for different publishing company and
is the coauthor of Pro Android Games (Apress, 2015).

xv
CHAPTER 1

Introduction

These are exciting times for hobby computing! In the 1980s you had to round up chips
for the central processing unit (CPU), erasable programmable read-only memory
(EPROM), and random access memory (RAM); find some peripherals; and then wire up
the numerous address and data bus lines. After all that, you still had a pretty limited 8-bit
system with no operating system. Today, you can acquire a 64-bit ARM quad-core system
on a chip (SoC) with 1GB of memory and several built-in peripherals already assembled!
Not only that, but the system will run a Unix operating system, whether it be Linux or
some flavor of BSD, complete with a compiler and a plethora of other software tools. All of
this fits in the space of a credit card footprint.
You can purchase a number of Raspberry Pi “hats” to add hardware interfaces, but
these come at a steeper cost than doing it yourself. Adding your own hardware interfaces
is not only fairly easy to do but is incredibly fun! There are some small challenges,
however, especially when interfacing the 3-volt (3V) Raspberry Pi to a 5V world. But this
book will prepare you for that.
Chapter 2 focuses on interfacing between the 3V and 5V logic systems. While there
are an increasing number of 3V parts today, there is still a wealth of transistor-transistor
logic (TTL) parts, which are 5V, available that you might want to use. Sometimes you
are simply faced with the need to communicate with a 5V interface, like that of a liquid-
crystal display (LCD) display. Chapter 2 will step you through what you need to know.
Since the monitor is often a critical display component, Chapter 3 will examine
how you can use discarded Video Graphics Array (VGA) monitors, available almost for
free. These are perfect for embedded applications involving the Raspberry Pi Zero, for
example. Chapter 4 will examine how to use the small 16×2-character LCD screens over
the Pi’s inter-integrated circuit (I2C) bus.
Button and switch interfaces with metal contacts often require “debouncing.”
Chapter 5 explores a hardware and software solution for debouncing. Chapter 6 covers
the world of analog-to-digital (ADC) conversion and digital-to-analog (DAC) conversion.
Chapter 7 covers how to read potentiometers, further exploiting the ADC concepts.
Chapter 8 covers rotary encoders so that the interface can be used in Chapter 12 as
part of an embedded music-playing daemon (MPD) selection control. Chapters 9 and 10
demonstrate how the 74HC165 and 74HC595 can be used to add extra general-purpose
input/output (GPIO) ports. Chapter 11 explores the more powerful MCP23017 input/
output (I/O) extender chip for GPIO expansion.

© Warren Gay 2017 1


W. Gay, Custom Raspberry Pi Interfaces, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4842-2406-9_1
Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

Chapter 12 brings many of the presented topics together in an embedded


application. In this project, a hardware rotary control is used in conjunction with an
MPD to select music or Internet radio stations. A potentiometer feeds volume control
information for instant digital volume adjustment. An embedded application normally
runs headless, so an economical 16×2 LCD is used to round out this demonstration.
Chapter 13 wraps up the book with one more interface—the keypad. In this chapter,
a PCF8574 in dual inline package (DIP) form is used to create a remote keypad using
the I2C bus. The software application demonstrates a combination lock. The I2C bus
permits the keypad to exist some distance away from the Raspberry Pi but using only a
four-wire ribbon cable. The ribbon cable carries two lines for power and two more for I2C
communication. This is also an ideal arrangement for robotics.

Raspberry Pi 3 and Zero


The two recent developments are the Raspberry Pi Zero and the Raspberry Pi 3. You
could say these models are at opposite ends of the spectrum. The Zero is in high demand,
mainly because of its killer price of $5. The Pi 3, on the other hand, has killer performance
for the price.
This book is generally neutral about what Pi you choose to apply. The book was
developed using a Raspberry Pi 3, but except for performance differences, all examples
should work for all models.

Why GPIO Is Important


One of the keys to the success of the Raspberry Pi is a design that offers GPIO interfaces.
In the PC era, people had to attach their home-brewed hardware through the PC’s printer
parallel interface or work with the more cumbersome RS-232 interface. With the Pi,
you have access to serial data, a clock, I2C, serial peripheral interface (SPI), pulse width
modulation (PWM), and general I/O signaling. This arrangement is far more capable and
opens a world of options to the Pi user.

What to Purchase
In addition to the basics necessary to run your Raspberry Pi, you’ll need to acquire the
following items for the chapter experiments. Also listed are the specific chapters they
apply to.
• Breadboard
• Plenty of Dupont wires (for breadboarding)
• Pi Cobbler (GPIO to breadboard)
• 74LS04 (Chapter 2)
• 74LVC244 (Chapter 2)

2
Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

• 74LVC245 (Chapter 2)
• 74LVC244 (Chapter 2)
• CD4049 or CD4050 (Chapter 2)
• 74HCT244 (Chapter 2)
• 74HCT245 (Chapter 2)
• CD4001 (Chapter 2)
• High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) to VGA adapter
(Chapter 3 only)
• LCD module 1602A (Chapters 4 and 12)
• I2C Serial Interface Module with PCF8574 chip, for LCD
(Chapters 4 and 12)
• I2C level converter (Chapters 4 and 12)
• MC14490 chip (Chapter 5)
• 0.01 microfarad capacitor (Chapter 5)
• Push buttons (Chapter 5)
• YL-40 printed circuit board (PCB) using PCF8591 chip (Chapter 6)
• 3.1 kiloohm and 15 kiloohm 1/8 watt, resistors (Chapter 6)
• 1N914 diode (Chapter 6)
• 3.3 kiloohm 1/8 watt resistor (Chapter 6)
• 1 Kiloohm linear potentiometer (Chapters 7 and 12)
• Optional knob for potentiometer (Chapters 7 and 12)
• Keyes KY-040 rotary encoder (Chapters 8 and 12)
• Optional knob for rotary encoder (Chapters 8 and 12)
• 2 × 170 ohm resistor (Chapter 8)
• 2 × LEDs
• 74HC165 (Chapter 9)
• 74HC595 (Chapter 10)
• MCP23017 (Chapter 11)
• 2 × PCF8574P (Chapter 13)
• Hex keypad (Chapter 13)

3
Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

Software to Download
For this book, you’ll need to perform two software downloads.
• Download the software for this book, Exploring the Raspberry Pi 2
with C++, from here:
• https://github.com/ve3wwg/raspberry_pi2.git
• Download the source code for this book from either of the
following locations:
• https://github.com/ve3wwg/custom_interfaces_pi.git
• www.apress.com/9781484217382
Once the Exploring the Raspberry Pi 2 with C++ software is downloaded, go into its
directory and install it, as shown here:

$ cd raspberry_pi2
$ make all install
This will give you access to the C++ library code that this book builds upon, as well as
the gp utility for controlling GPIO from the command line.
To build this volume’s source code, go into its subdirectory and type the following:

$ cd custom_interfaces_pi
$ make

This will compile all the programs discussed in this book, saving you from having
to do that later. The compiled executables are left in their subdirectories and are not
installed anywhere else on your Raspberry Pi.

Let’s Begin
With those formalities out of the way, you can begin your exploration of hardware
interfaces on the Pi!
Most of the chapters can be read out of sequence. This is helpful when you are
waiting for ordered components to arrive. Before attempting any interface involving
5 volts, however, I strongly recommend that you digest Chapter 2 first.

4
CHAPTER 2

3V/5V Signal Interfacing

Looking through online forums, I often see posts from people struggling with how
to interface between 3V and 5V logic systems. Advice varies widely, ranging from
“connecting it directly seems to work for me” to other dubious methods.
The purpose of this chapter is to eliminate the guesswork. The solutions presented
here are not the only solutions available, but they are practical for those seeking answers.
I’ll focus specifically on 3.3V and 5V systems in this chapter because the Pi is a 3V system
and a great many parts still use 5 volts.
To be clear, this chapter is about signal interfacing, not driving high-powered loads.
Power introduces other factors that go beyond signal interfacing. I2C also does not
apply here because of its bidirectional nature and the use of the open collectors. Signal
interfacing does, however, apply to GPIO-, TTL-, and SPI-related circuits. Figure 2-1
illustrates some of the featured components used in this chapter.

Figure 2-1. Two useful level interfacing chips

© Warren Gay 2017 5


W. Gay, Custom Raspberry Pi Interfaces, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4842-2406-9_2
Chapter 2 ■ 3V/5V Signal Interfacing

7400 Series (TTL)


The 7400 series of integrated circuit (IC) was developed in the 1960s and 1970s to be used
as building blocks for digital mainframe computers (the 5400 series is the military-grade
equivalent). This is known as transistor-to-transistor logic (TTL), which largely replaced
the earlier diode transistor logic (DTL).
TTL circuits use a 5V power supply (usually referred to as VCC) and use defined
voltage ranges for what is considered true (1) or false (0). Any signal that is between these
ranges is considered undefined or ambiguous.
Since these digital signal levels are measured by voltage and because the signals of
interest are input or output signals, they use the symbolic notation shown in Table 2-1.

Table 2-1. Signal Symbols

Symbol Description
VI Voltage of an input
VO Voltage of an output

Input and output ranges are further qualified using the symbols in Table 2-2.

Table 2-2. Input and Output Signal Symbols

Symbol Description
VIL Voltage of an input, at low level
VIH Voltage of an input, at high level
VOL Voltage of an output, at low level
VOH Voltage of an output, at high level

When we begin with logic levels, we must start with input logic levels. These levels
decide what is considered a 0 or 1 when received from the sending circuit. Thus, the signals
of primary interest are VIL and VIH . Look for these when examining a datasheet (you usually
can find a datasheet for a given chip by Googling <part-number> datasheet PDF).
Table 2-3 describes the TTL (5V) levels. Notice that VIH is defined in terms of VCC for
its highest voltage range. Remember also that VCC can itself vary by up to 10 percent in
value because the power supply varies. When VCC varies like this, VIH can be as low as 4.5
volts or as high as 5.5 volts.

Table 2-3. TTL (5V) Input Logic Levels

Symbol Minimum Maximum Description


VIL 0.0 volts 0.8 volts Logic value false (0)
VIH 2.0 volts VCC Logic value true (1)

6
Chapter 2 ■ 3V/5V Signal Interfacing

It is clear from Table 2-3 that any digital signal from 0.0 volts to 0.8 volts is to be
considered a false (0) input. Signals at 2.0 volts or higher are considered true (1). Any
voltage between these levels is ambiguous and must be avoided. Ambiguous levels are
interpreted unpredictably as 0 or 1.
Generating an exact voltage level consistently and reliably is difficult, if not
impossible. For this reason, ranges of acceptable values are used. For example, if your
digital input signal is 0.125 volts, it clearly falls within the TTL logic 0 range. In another
example, a voltage input of 2.8 volts is clearly interpreted as a logic 1.
When you examine output signals, the output needs to meet the requirements of the
input ranges if the signal is to reliably transmit digital data. For example, if a hypothetical
part generates logic 1 output voltages between 3.0 volts and VCC, then it meets the TTL
interface requirements for logic high. This is because 3.0 volts meets and exceeds the 2V
minimum. If the same part is guaranteed to generate logic low levels between 0.1 and 0.6
volts, then this clearly falls into the TTL low range also. With these voltage ranges, this
part will successfully communicate with other TTL component inputs.

3.3V Logic
With the introduction of complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) logic soon
after TTL, a definition for CMOS logic levels had to be agreed upon. The difficulty with
CMOS, however, was that it could operate over a range of different power supply voltages
(note that the power supply is often referred to as VDD for CMOS). For this reason, CMOS
logic levels are usually defined in terms of the operating VDD instead. Fractional values are
provided in [1], while the percentage references can be found in [2].
Table 2-4 lists the CMOS logic level guidelines.

Table 2-4. CMOS Logic Levels

Symbol Minimum Maximum Description


VIL 0.0 volts 1/3 VDD Logic value false (0)
30% VDD
VIH 2/3 VDD VDD Logic value true (1)
70% VDD

The CMOS ranges provided in Table 2-4 are approximate. The final range is defined
by the device’s datasheet.
Even though the Raspberry Pi CPU is CMOS-based, the input specifications provided
by Broadcom are slightly different and documented in Table 2-5.

Table 2-5. Raspberry Pi Logic Levels

Symbol Low High Description


VIL 0.0 volts 0.8 volts Logic value false (0)
VIH 1.3 volts VDD Logic value true (1)

7
Chapter 2 ■ 3V/5V Signal Interfacing

In this chapter, you will have to pay attention to all three sets of input logic levels.
I’ve introduced several symbols and voltage levels. Figure 2-2 will help you visualize
what I am about to discuss. For now, ignore the fact that the 5V signal exceeds the supply
voltage for the 74LVC245. This will be explained later.
On the right side of Figure 2-2 is an example 5V TTL device (74LS04). In the middle
is the level shifting device. Finally, on the left is the Raspberry Pi GPIO input that I want to
feed a signal into.

74LS04
+5.0V
Raspberry

2.7 – 5V
Pi 74LVC245
+3.3V
VOH
VOH
2.0-3.3V
3.1-3.3V
1.3-3.3V

VIH
VIH
VIL VOL 0 - .5V
VIL VOL
0-.8V
0-.8V

Gnd Gnd
0-0.2V

Figure 2-2. Example of logic level conversion

The signal starts at the output of the 74LS04. According to its datasheet, the output is
never lower than 2.7 volts when it represents logic 1 and never higher than 0.5 volts when
it represents logic 0. These are the 74LS04 device’s VOH and VOL output levels, respectively.
The arrows from the 74LS04 pointing left show how these voltage levels are passed into
the left device’s inputs. Whether the left device sees a logic 1 or 0 depends upon its own
input level definitions VIH and VIL. In the Figure 2-2 example, you can see that the 74LS04
clearly exceeds the 74LVC245 input requirements.
The middle device is illustrated with these two sets of parameters:
• Input levels VIL and VIH
• Output levels VOL and VOH
When examining interfaces, you must remind yourself that the input and output
voltage levels differ. The output levels must exceed the input levels of the receiving device
(if they only just met the requirement, there would be no “noise margin” of safety).

8
Chapter 2 ■ 3V/5V Signal Interfacing

Examining the 74LVC245 device going left to the Pi, you must meet the Pi’s slightly
different input parameters. Following the arrows going left, you can see that the 74LVC245
output levels definitely exceed the Pi’s input requirements. This is the general principle of
level shifting from an output to an input.

Voltage Dividers
Converting from a higher to a lower voltage logic can sometimes be done using a pair of
resistors in a voltage divider configuration (Figure 2-3). This can be attractive when there
are only one or two signals involved. But this quickly becomes burdensome when the
number of signals increases because of the parts count.

TTL Output
R1

3 Volt
R2

GND
Figure 2-3. Voltage divider circuit

A pair of resistors wired in series can take a worst-case 5V signal and produce a
3V level by dividing the voltage. The values of the resistors are chosen from a ratio, as
shown here:

5volts - 3volts R1
=
3volts R2

9
Chapter 2 ■ 3V/5V Signal Interfacing

The basic idea is that you make 3 volts appear across R2 but drop the remaining 2
volts across R1.
The first problem is that you must choose a value for R1 or R2 before the resistance can
be solved. But if you choose too high a value, then any current flowing into or out of the
midpoint junction will cause its voltage to vary (the divider is not “stiff” enough). The rule of
thumb is that the series current through R1 and R2 should be at least ten times any incoming
or outgoing current from the junction. The added current flow will stiffen the divider.
The Pi’s CMOS input requires nearly zero current. The only current that does flow
is when there is a change of state, requiring a small charge or discharge to occur. This
charge transfers to/from the stray capacitance at the chip’s pin and the CMOS gate.
Engineering students can compute this tiny charge as an exercise, but here I’ll suggest
that 1mA is plenty of “stiffness.”
Resistors come in different tolerances. You can assume the following 10 percent
resistor values for this example:

R1 = 1.5kW

R2 = 2.2kW

If you were to do all the Ohm’s law math, you’d discover that the midpoint voltage
(VR2) would be 2.97 volts when the TTL input is 5 volts.
Let’s test this arrangement using a Texas Instrument 74LS04 output feeding into the
voltage divider. The divider’s output will be used as an input for the Raspberry Pi. You
want to test whether this will actually work under all possible conditions.
Assume a worst-case 74LS04 output low voltage of VOH=0.5 volts, and assume VOH=2-7 volts
for output high. These represent the datasheet’s guaranteed worst-case figures. Table 2-6
summarizes how the voltage divider measures up. The column “Pi Margin” measures the
difference between the Pi’s requirement and the value appearing at that input.

Table 2-6. Voltage Divider from 74LS04 to Pi

Symbol TTL Divider Pi Margin Description


VOL 0.4 volts 0.24 volts 0.56 volts Logic value 0: 0.56 volts under
the limit
VOH 2.5 volts 1.49 volts 0.19 volts Logic value 1: 0.19 volts over
the minimum

From Table 2-6 you can see that VOL is below the Raspberry Pi requirement of 0.8
volts by a margin of 0.56 volts. The worst case for the 74LS04 output high (VOH) has a lower
margin of 0.19 volts over the Pi’s minimum of 1.3 volts. It appears that you’ve met the
requirements, even though a bigger safety margin on the high side is desirable.
Is the circuit acceptable if you consider the worst-case values for the 10 percent
resistors R1 and R2? Recall that I used a parts tolerance of 10 percent. The worst case here
would be R1 + 10 percent and R2 – 10 percent because this would lower the midpoint
voltage further. Table 2-7 summarizes this result.

10
Chapter 2 ■ 3V/5V Signal Interfacing

Table 2-7. Results of Worst Case 10 Percent Resistor Error

Symbol TTL Divider Pi Margin Description


VOL 0.4 volts 0.22 volts 0.58 volts Logic value 0: 0.58 volts under
the limit
VOH 2.5 volts 1.36 volts 0.06 volts Logic value 1: 0.06 over the
minimum

It is clear from Table 2-7 that the VOH result of 1.36 volts is dangerously close to the
absolute limit of the Raspberry Pi specification (1.3 volts). The margin of error is only 0.06
volts. This is looking shaky.
From this, you might conclude that the voltage divider is not as attractive as it might first
appear. From a hobby perspective, you can make this work by cherry-picking your resistors
carefully or by using lower-tolerance resistors. What you didn’t consider was that the power
supply can vary by another 10 percent in its supply voltage. If you were to turn this into a
product (or a kit), you’d want to improve that error margin to avoid shipping faulty units.
Finally, consider also that this analysis is sensitive to the TTL part that is being used.
If you substituted the 74LS04 for a part with poorer worst-case conditions, you may end
up generating signals that are “out of spec.”

7400 Series Derivative Families


The 74L low-power series was introduced in 1971, which was soon superseded by the
faster 74LS series. Several new series derivative families began to appear including 74H
(high speed), 74S (high speed Schottky), and so on. Finally, CMOS-compatible families
were added including HC and HCT. Currently several derivative families are available [3].
Table 2-8 lists some of the derivative families that may be of interest. We’ll focus on
the HCT series and LVC series derivative families. While other families may sometimes
work, you must also consider the speed of the device, particularly when you want to do
high-speed SPI, for example.

Table 2-8. Some 7400 Series Derivative Families [1]

74XX Series Description


HC High-speed CMOS, similar performance to LS, 12ns, 2.0–6.0 volts
HCT High-speed, compatible logic levels to bipolar parts
AHCT Advanced high-speed CMOS, three times as fast as HC, tolerant of 5.5V
on input
LVC Low voltage: 1.65–3.3V and 5V-tolerant inputs, TPD < 5.5ns at 3.3 volts,
TPD < 9ns at 2.5 volts
LVT Low-voltage: 3.3V supply, 5V-tolerant inputs, high output current < 64mA,
TPD < 3.5ns at 3.3 volts, IOFF, low noise

11
Chapter 2 ■ 3V/5V Signal Interfacing

Unused CMOS Inputs


Before I present breadboard experiments using CMOS devices, you should be aware of
the unused input quirk of CMOS devices. TTL devices can have unconnected inputs, even
though it is usually best to ground them to avoid noise. CMOS inputs, however, must be
connected.
CMOS inputs can be tied to ground or VDD. They simply must not be left
“floating.” Failure to observe this practice can result in unusual behavior or potential
device failure.

Converting 5V to 3V Input: 74LVC245


The LVC series derivative family can help when you want to convert a 5V signal to 3.3
volts. The first of this family that you’ll examine is the 74LVC245.
The 74LVC245 chip provides eight bidirectional buffers, with tristate capability.
For a level translator, you’re not interested in the tristate or bidirectional capabilities.
These can be hardwired to function in one direction only, and tristate can be disabled
(some users might find the tristate useful, but the direction should be hardwired).
What is of critical importance is how the configured input is transformed from the
TTL level to the Pi level.
Figure 2-4 provides an abbreviated logic diagram for the buffers A1 and B1. The
remaining seven buffers are controlled by the same DIR and OE gate inputs and are
available on the remaining device pins.

DIR
1

OE
19

A1
2

B1
18

etc.

Figure 2-4. 74LVC245 octal bus transceiver

Wiring the DIR and OE gate inputs to ground causes the data to flow from input B1 to
output A1. This configuration enables the buffer going from right to left, while disabling
the buffer going left to right.

12
Chapter 2 ■ 3V/5V Signal Interfacing

The 74LVC245 was chosen here because it can be supplied with +3.3 volts but can
accept input voltages (at B1) at voltages as high as +5 volts. This feature is critical, since
most ICs will accept only a maximum of their supply voltage (+3.3 volts) plus one diode
drop (about 0.6 volts). This is because of the way electrostatic discharge (ESD) protection
works in the device.
The 74LVC245 must operate at +3.3 V so that its output (A1) will provide a maximum
of +3.3 volts to the Raspberry Pi. It also happens to be the recommended operating
voltage for this device.
Figure 2-5 illustrates the circuit for interfacing 5V inputs (B ports) to the
Raspberry Pi (A ports). The single 7404N chip (IC2A) is shown to represent some
arbitrary TTL level signal wired to B1. Additional TTL signals can be wired to B2
through B8 in the same way.
The figure doesn’t show this, but the 74LVC245 (IC1) chip must be powered from
a +3.3V supply (Raspberry Pi supply). The TTL chip (IC2A), on the other hand, will be
powered by the 5V supply.

IC1 7404N
GPIO_INPUT 2 18 2 1
A1 B1
3 A2 B2 17
4
A3 B3
16 IC2A
5 15
A4 B4
6 B5 14
A5
7 13
A6 B6
8 12
A7 B7
9 11
A8 B8
1
DIR
19
G
(/OE)
74LVC245

GND
Figure 2-5. 74LVC245 as a TTL to 3V level converter

Substituting a 7400 chip quad NAND gate for IC2A in Figure 2-5, its output was fed
into the 74LVC245 (IC1) input B1 for an experiment. Table 2-9 summarizes the measured
DC voltages.

13
Chapter 2 ■ 3V/5V Signal Interfacing

Table 2-9. Measured 74LVC245 DC Voltages

7400 VCC 7400 Inputs 7400 Output '245 VDD '245 B1 '245 A1
+4.99 volts Gnd +4.45 volts +3.29 volts +4.45 V +3.29 V

+4.99 volts +0.038 volts +0.38 V +0.009 V

Figure 2-6 shows my breadboard setup used for the measurements in Table 2-9. The
lab unit shown on the left was a hamfest (ham radio flea market) deal that I scored one
summer day. Hamfests are great for acquiring parts and used equipment (like the used
Fluke bench DMM under the scope).

Figure 2-6. Breadboard test setup

From this test, it was observed that the 74LVC245 tolerated the +4.45V input and
produced a nice +3.29V output on A1. The 3V supply was not raised, which can happen
if an incorrect part is used for IC1 (because of internal protection diodes). When the TTL
input of +0.38V was provided to B1, the 74LVC245 improved the VIL signal as A1=+0.009V.
The 74LVC245 performed marvelously as a 5V to 3V conversion device.

Converting 5V to 3V Input: 74LVC244


The 74LVC244 device is another member of the LVC derivative family (Figure 2-7). This
device has the advantage that it is unidirectional, making it simpler and potentially
cheaper than the 74LVC245 device. To use this device, the two OE inputs are wired to
ground to permanently enable the 3V outputs (unless, of course, you need tristate). The
inputs are 5V tolerant, making this another terrific logic level converter.

14
Chapter 2 ■ 3V/5V Signal Interfacing

1A0 1Y0
2 18

1A1 1Y1
4 16

1A2 1Y2
6 14

1A3 1Y3
8 12
1OE
1

2A0 2Y0
17 3

2A1 2Y1
15 5

2A2 2Y2
13 7

1A3 2Y3
11 9
19 2OE

Figure 2-7. 74LVC244 pinout

Table 2-10 summarizes the measurements taken when the 74LVC244 was used.

Table 2-10. Measured 74LVC244 DC Voltages

7400 VCC 7400 Inputs 7400 Output '244 VDD '244 B1 '244 A1
+5.02 volts Gnd +4.69 volts +3.31 volts +4.69 V +3.31V
+5.00 volts +0.035 volts +0.35 V +0.012 V

The experiment once again confirms that the input of the 74LVC244 was permitted
to be higher than the VDD supply of +3.3 volts. Had this device not possessed this special
feature, the '244 input reading might be +0.6 volts or higher. This will be clarified when I
discuss protection diodes.

15
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
601. Definitions (1827), p. 235.
602. I. e. to the object which measures that cost-value.
603. Ibid., p. 243.
604. See above, p. 254. Ricardo’s long correspondence with Malthus on the
subject is mentioned by Empson, Edin. Rev., l. c. p. 469. Empson’s extracts from it
are the most valuable part of his article.
605. R. Torrens, Production of Wealth, 1821, pp. iv, v.
606. Held, Sociale Geschichte Englands, p. 205.
607. Dialogues of Three Templars on Political Economy, 1824 (Works, Black,
1863, vol. iv.). All depends on the assumption in the middle of Dialogue I. p. 196,
(“it is Mr. Ricardo’s doctrine that,” &c.), and on the confinement of the discussion
to natural value (p. 198).
608. Measure of Value, p. 20 n.
609. London, 1832; Birmingham, 1833. The Constituent Assembly applied the
same measure, but in a different way, in 1791. See Roscher, National-ökon. (1879),
p. 298.
610. The words are, “enable the labourers to maintain a stationary or an
increasing population” (Pol. Econ., 1836, p. 218). The awkwardness of the sentence
may be due to bad editing; but we read elsewhere of the “price of wages.”
611. Pol. Econ., 1836, pp. 218, 223.
612. See Lassalle and Marx.
613. Cf. Malthus, Pol. Econ. (1836), pp. 224, 225, &c. Essay on Population, 7th
ed., III viii. 323, but especially IV. xiii. 473. See also Rogers, Six Centuries, ch. viii.,
‘The Famine and the Plague,’ especially pp. 233–242.
614. Malthus, Essay on Pop., IV. xiii. 473; cf. pp. 373 and 434.
615. Cf. especially Essay on Pop. (2nd ed.), III. ix. 444. “The price of labour
has been rising—not to fall again.”
616. Emigr. Comm. (1827), p. 326, qu. 3411; cf. 3408, 3409. Cf. above, p. 197.
617. The chief of them being the rate of profits which is at the given time
enough to induce the “undertaker” (or “enterpriser”) to continue business.
618. See Mill on Thornton’s ‘Labour,’ Fortnightly Review, May 1869. Cf.
Walker on The Wages Question, pp. 140 seq.
619. So in Quarterly Review, Jan. 1824, p. 315, Malthus says profits depend
rather on the demand for produce than on the demand for labour.
620. Discourse on Pol. Econ., by J. R. MacCulloch, pp. 61, 62 (1st and 2nd
edd.), 1825.
621. Conversations on Pol. Econ., 1817 (1st and 2nd edd.), p. 137. Mrs.
Marcet’s memory is preserved for latter-day readers by Macaulay’s reference to her
in the essay on Milton.
622. Discourse, l. c. Cf. MacC.’s Pol. Econ., Pt. III. ch. ii. p. 378 (ed. 1843);
Prof. Fawcett’s Manual of Pol. Econ., p. 131 (1876).
623. James Mill, Elem. (1821), p. 25; John Mill, Principles, II. xi. § 1. Cf. Fort.
Rev., 1869, May; Thornton, Labour, II. i. p. 83.
624. Wealth of Nations, I. viii. p. 31, 2.
625. Ibid., IV. ix. 306, 1.
626. Ibid., IV. ix. 310, 2.
627. Ibid., V. i. 327, 2.
628. Pol. Econ., ed. 1836, ch. iv. sect. ii. p. 224.
629. Ibid. ed. 1820, ch. iv. p. 248.
630. Quarterly Review, Jan. 1824. Cf. below, p. 288.
631. Supplement to Encyclopædia Britannica. Cf. above, p. 71.
632. Empson in Edin. Rev., Jan. 1837, p. 496.
633. Quart. Rev., Jan. 1824 (no. lx.), pp. 333–4.
634. Ricardo, Pol. Econ. and Tax., ch. i. sections iv., v.; Works, pp. 20, 25. Cf.
Malthus, Pol. Econ., 1820, p. 104, and the whole of section iii. pp. 72 seq.
635. Quart. Rev., l. c. p. 324; cf. p. 315. Cf. above.
636. Pol. Econ. and Tax., ch. i. sections iv. and v.
637. Any given value, it might be added, is influenced by custom as well as
competition.
638. 1821, p. 186, ch. iv. sect. iii. “That consumption is coextensive with
production.”
639. Pol. Econ., III. xiv. “Of excess of supply.” Cf. I. v. § 3, p. 42.
640. A cargo of skates was sent to Rio Janeiro in 1808.
641. The intention of the new Corn Law of 1815 was to keep out all foreign
grain till the home price should reach 80s. a quarter, or the loaf 1s. See above, p.
221.
642. The article on the Bullion question, in August of the same year, might be
his, if it was not Francis Horner’s. Cf. Horner’s Life, vol. i. ch. vi., dates April and
Sept. 1805, from which it appears that Horner was working hard at the question
and meant to write on it, as he might have done better in 1811, fresh from his
experience on the Bullion Committee. As to the February article, the authorship is
shown partly by internal evidence, partly by Horner’s Life, vol. ii. p. 68 (Jan. 1811):
“I received Malthus’ MS. from you [Jeffrey] and have since transmitted it to him
with such remarks as occurred to me in perusing it,” &c. MacCulloch did not begin
to write the economical articles for the Edin. Rev. till 1818. See Notes and Queries,
5th Oct., 1878.
643. For the history of the currency in the interval see Miss Martineau’s
Introd. to Hist. of Peace, Bk. II. ch. iii.; Hist. of the Peace, Bk. I. ch. iii. and ch. xv.;
Cobbett’s Paper v. Gold; Macleod’s Banking, vol. ii., end of ch. ix. pp. 174–221,
much the completest account.
644. Peel changed his views then on Currency, as he did later on Catholic
Emancipation and the Corn Laws.
645. p. 370. He speaks approvingly of the American free trade in banking in a
way that would have pleased Cobden.
646. p. 371.
647. E. g. Horner complains of this even in so clear a paper as that on
Newenham. See Horner’s Life, vol. i. pp. 436–7 (sub dato 1808).
648. Works (ed. MacC.), pp. 291–296.
649. Ricardo, Works (MacC.), p. xxi.
650. Cf. below, Bk. V.
651. Horner’s Life, vol. ii. p. 68 (Jan. 1811).
652. Thoughts and Details on High and Low Prices during the last Thirty
Years, 1793–1823. The later ed. of 1838 in three vols. is more valuable.
653. Political Register, 30th Nov., 1816.
654. Internal evidence, e. g. p. 237 of the Quarterly, compared with p. 65 of
Measure of Value, would show his authorship, and the article is ascribed to him by
Tooke, Prices, ed. 1838, vol. i. p. 21.
655. l. c. pp. 215–16.
656. Bosanquet, Practical Observations on the Report of the Bullion
Committee (1810); Ricardo, The High Price of Bullion a Proof of the Depreciation
of Bank-Notes (1809), and his Reply to Bosanquet (1811).
657. l. c. Pol. Econ., Introd. (1820), pp. 6 and 7 n., (1836) p. 5 n. Cf. Tooke,
Prices, Part I. p. 6 (ed. 1823).
658. Tooke, Prices, Part III. p. 91.
659. See Tract on Value, p. 18.
660. Quarterly, April 1823, p. 230.
661. Econ. Pol., Part III. ch. ii., 2nd ed., 1842; 1st ed., 1802.
662. “Products” is Say’s word, however.
663. Elements (1821), ch. iv. sect. iii. pp. 186 seq. “That consumption is
coextensive with production.” Mill taught this as early as 1808 in his tract (against
Spence) Commerce defended.
664. Lettres à M. Malthus sur différents sujets d’écon. pol., notamment sur
les causes de la stagnation générale du commerce (1820), pp. 26 seq.
665. Pol. Econ. (1820), p. 355, (1836) p. 316. Against Say’s general position see
Definitions, p. 56 n.
666. Wealth of Nations, I. iii.
667. See above, p. 232. A curious footnote in Essay on Pop., 3rd ed., vol. ii. p.
264, suggested that there might be over-production in the case of high farming
when its cost made the farmers charge more than the public could bear. But this
note disappeared afterwards.
668. Ricardo, Pol. Econ. and Taxation, ch. xxi. p. 176 (MacCull.’s ed.). Mill
(Elements, pp. 193 ft., 194) is more rigid.
669. Essay, 7th ed., IV. xiii. 473.
670. Pol. Econ. (1836), ch. iv. sect. iii. p. 239, slightly altered from 1st ed.,
1820, ch. iv. sect. iii. p. 266.
671. Sismondi, Nouveaux Principes de l’Écon. Pol., 1819. See Malthus, Pol.
Econ. (1820), p. 420, (1836) pp. 325 n., 366 n. Cf. on the other hand Essay, III.
xiii. 372–3 and n.
672. Wealth of Nations, V. i. art. ii. pp. 350–353 (ed. MacC.). He is outrivalled
by Ferguson, Civil Society, parts iv. and v. (ed. 1773).
673. 3rd ed. of Pol. Ec. and Tax. (1821), ch. xxxi. pp. 468–9, ed. MacCull., pp.
235–6. Cf. below (Critics). It is the position of Marx.
674. If we believe Bowring, Life of Bentham (ed. 1843), p. 176.
675. “Supposing that his opinions have not altered within the last twelve
months.”—De Quincey, vol. iv. p. 231.
676. James Mill, Elements, pp. 193, 194. MacCull., Pol. Ec., p. 207. Cf. the
tract Mordecai Mullion (1826).
677. Especially by Sunday Schools, according to the testimony of Samuel
Bamford.—Radical, vol. i. p. 7 (1844).
678. We have his counterpart in our own day.
679. See below, Bk. III., for disproof of the charge that he was reactionary in
his politics, like many economical optimists.
680. Pol. Econ., 1820, p. 236.
681. l. c. p. 472.
682. Emigr. Comm. (1827), p. 317, qu. 3281.
683. Some such view is suggested by Malthus himself, Essay, IV. xiii. p. 473
(cf. Pol. Ec., 1820, p. 475), a passage which it is hard to reconcile with the passages
in the Quarterly and in the Pol. Ec. that speak of the necessity of a special class of
unproductive consumers.
684. Pol. Econ. (1820), ch. vii. sect. ix. p. 473. Cf. Tract on Rent, p. 48 n.
685. Essay on Pop., III. iii. p. 282 (in relation to Robert Owen). Cf. the whole
ch. xiii. of Book III., where he treats of “Increasing Wealth as it affects the
Condition of the Poor.”
686. Pol. Econ., l. c. p. 474.
687. Ibid., l. c. pp. 474–5.
688. See above, pp. 245 seq. and 252.
689. See below, Bk. IV., and cf. above, p. 208.
690. See above, p. 142.
691. The passage is quoted in full because by recent critics it is much garbled;
e. g. in Progress and Poverty, VII. i. 304 n.
692. Essay, 2nd ed., IV. vi. 531.
693. Lucretius, iii. 951. Cicero’s simile of the theatre open to all comers, but
giving each man his own seat, had special application to Property (De Finibus, iii.
20).
694. Epitaph on Fenton.
695. James Grahame’s Population (1816), p. 34. Cf. Quarterly Rev., Dec. 1812,
p. 327; Hazlitt, Spirit of the Age, ‘Malthus,’ end.
696. Book III. Part I. ch. iv. (1785).
697. E. g. Godwin, Population (1820), I. iii. 17. The withdrawal was probably
due to Sumner. See Otter, Life of Malthus in Pol. Ec. (1836), p. lii.
698. Cf. Essay, 2nd ed., pp. 400, 401, and nn.; 7th ed., p. 298 n. Cf. pp. 295
and 297 n. Cf. also Tooke, above quoted, p. 291.
699. Cf. above, p. 220.
700. On Bounties and the Corn Trade. Cf. High Price of Provisions, p. 3.
701. l. c. p. 23. See above, p. 289. Also Corn Law Catechism, 1839, qu. 244.
702. l. c. pp. 9–11. Cf. the “make up” and “bread money” mentioned in Report
of Poor Law Commission, 1834, p. 27.
703. High Price, &c. pp. 19, 20.
704. l. c. p. 27. Cf. above, p. 43.
705. 1st ed., pp. 82, 83; 7th ed., pp. 302–3.
706. Essay, 7th ed., Appendix, p. 493.
707. He borrows, as he himself says, the language of Sir Frederick Eden on the
State of the Poor (1797). See Essay on Population, 2nd ed., p. 417 n.; 7th ed., p.
308 n.
708. Letter to Whitbread (1807), pp. 12, 13; cf. Essay, p. 445 ft.
709. Quoted, Essay, III. vi. 308 n.
710. 7th ed., III. vi. 303; 1st ed., p. 365.
711. III. vi. (7th ed.), p. 305.
712. See e. g. Emigration Committee, 1827, qu. 3369, p. 323.
713. Dr. John Moore’s View of Society and Manners in France, Switzerland,
and Germany (7th ed., 1789), vol. ii. pp. 144–157.
714. Essay, 7th ed., III. vi. p. 307; Emigration Committee (1827), qu. 3361, p.
323.
715. l. c. pp. 307–8. Cf. above, p. 134.
716. Reports to Local Gov. Bd. on Foreign Poor Laws, 1875, p. 7.
717. Macvey Napier’s Correspondence, pp. 29 seq. Date 30th Sept, 1821.
718. Report of Poor Law Comm., 1834; Remedial Measures, p. 227.
719. Essay on Population, Appendix, p. 492. It was probably this disclaimer of
public duty that led Coleridge to complain, “the entire tendency of the modern or
Malthusian political economy is to denationalize” (Table Talk, p. 327). Cf.
Toynbee, Industr. Revol., p. 24. But it may have been simply the idea that Malthus,
like Ricardo, advocated laissez faire; and in this case it is singular he should not
have said “Ricardian” instead of “Malthusian.”
720. Essay, 2nd ed., IV. vii. p. 538; 7th ed., IV. viii. p. 530.
721. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 539.
722. E. g. Report of Commissioners, p. 13.
723. Report, pp. 227–8.
724. Report, p. 228.
725. Even if he were a poor ratepayer, voting a sum of which his richer
neighbour would pay the larger share.
726. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 490; 7th ed., p. 394; cf. pp. 392 top and 396.
727. Essay, 7th ed., IV. x. pp. 442–3; cf. p. 161.
728. 7th ed., IV. i. p. 390. Cf. above, p. 37.
729. Not quite logical, if the test of a virtuous action is its tendency to produce
happiness.
730. Ibid., IV. i. p. 390.
731. 2nd ed., pp. 489, 490, 501; 7th ed., pp. 390, 401. Cf. Paley, M. and P.
Phil., I. vi., II. iv.; Tucker, Light of Nature (1st ed., 1768), vol. ii. ch. xxix., esp. § 12.
732. Essay, 7th ed., IV. i. 391. Kant’s test of a moral law, so far as it was not
purely dogmatic, was most easily illustrated, or he would have said parodied, by
this Utilitarian argument.
733. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 487; 7th ed., p. 392.
734. Ibid., 2nd ed., p. 488; 7th ed., pp. 392–3; cf. p. 398.
735. Ibid., 1st ed. (1798), p. 211.
736. The passage in A Tale of the Tyne, which left no trace on Miss
Martineau’s own memory, but so faithfully expounded Malthus that he called on
purpose to thank her for it (Autobiogr., i. 253), is easily identified in the light of
these extracts as ch. iii. p. 56 of ed. 1833.
737. 2nd ed., pp. 491–2; 7th ed., p. 395. See above, p. 36.
738. 2nd ed., p. 494; 7th ed., p. 397. Cf. above, p. 38.
739. The phrase in Essay, 7th ed., p. 401.
740. Not to be confused with his contemporary, Josiah Tucker, Dean of
Gloucester, the forerunner of Adam Smith.
741. 1727 to 1774, the year of his death. Betchworth, now absorbed in Mrs.
Hope’s estate of Deepdene, was on the farther side of Dorking from Albury and the
Rookery.
742. This lucid epithet is ascribed to George III.
743. A point of difference has been noted above (p. 39) and below (p. 330). He
differs from Bentham also, who would not gratify the passions but destroy them.
See Held, Soc. Geschichte, p. 213.
744. Essay, 7th ed., IV. x. 441.
745. Ibid., IV. i. 391.
746. See above, p. 35.
747. 7th ed., p. 441 ft.
748. Ibid., p. 442 top.
749. Essay, III. ii. 279, explains in this way the popular prejudice which, in
one case at least, visits the same sin more severely in a woman than in a man.
750. Essay, 7th ed., IV. x. 442.
751. Ibid., IV. ii. 401. Cf. Paley, Moral Philos., Vol. I. Book II. ch. iv. p. 65,
there quoted, and Tucker, L. of N. (1st ed.), vol. ii ch. xxix., especially §§ 5–7 and
12.
752. Essay, 7th ed., IV. x. 443, 444 ft.
753. Ibid., IV. viii. 432, 433, compared with p. 492.
754. Essay, 7th ed., App. pp. 492–3. Cf. 7th ed., p. 280: “Self-love is the
mainspring of the great machine.”
755. III. vii. 311.
756. Edin. Rev., 1810 (Aug.), an article on Ingram’s Disquisitions on
Population, and [Hazlitt’s] Letters in Reply to Malthus. As the relations of Malthus
to the Review were close at this time, and as the arguments and the style are
remarkably like our author’s, there is at least a strong probability that he wrote the
article, Jeffrey after his custom providing it with a head and tail to disguise the
authorship. Cf. Cockburn’s Life of Jeffrey, Vol. I. 301, 302, cf. 285.
757. Cf. Wealth of Nations, I. x. 48, 49.
758. Edin. Rev., 1810 (Aug.), p. 475.
759. Paley, Mor. and Pol. Phil., I. vii. 9; cf. Malthus, Essay, IV. ii. 397, &c. Cf.
above, p. 39.
760. Paley, ibid., I. iv. 14.
761. See above, p. 37. The passages there cited completely refute Held’s
assertion that “Malthus appealed to Utility in the teeth of his belief in the Bible”
(Sociale Geschichte Englands, Book I. ch. ii p. 234).
762. Mor. and Pol. Phil., vii. 10.
763. “Any condition may be denominated ‘happy’ in which the amount or
aggregate of pleasure exceeds that of pain.”—Paley, M. and P. Ph., I. vi.
764. Essay, 7th ed., III. vi. 305.
765. See Mr. Sidgwick’s Method of Ethics, p. 385 ft.
766. Quoted from The Crisis, by Empson, Edin. Rev., Jan. 1837, p. 482.
767. Report of the Crofters Commission, 1884, p. 9.
768. Essay, IV. iii. 407.
769. It would help the social reformer to learn, e. g. from clergymen,
guardians of the poor, and police magistrates, what exact proportion of the
destitution within their experience has been due, (a) to the fault of the victim, (b)
to the fault of his parents, (c) to the fraud or oppression of others, and (d) to the
mere accidents of trade.
770. 7th ed., p. 280.
771. III. ii. 434.
772. Scenes of Clerical Life, p. 250.
773. 7th ed., p. 404.
774. p. 464, 1817. As early as 1803 (Essay, 2nd ed., IV. xi 689) Malthus had
recommended Savings Banks.
775. 7th ed., p. 397. Cf. p. 407, &c.
776. 7th ed., p. 405. To make the whole picture complete we must add what is
said above (ch. i.) on the place of man on the earth, and also (Bk. III. chs. ii. and
iii.) on industrial society as it might be.
777. See above, p. 298.
778. Mackintosh changed but never recanted. See Macaulay’s Essays.
779. Essay, 7th ed., IV. vi 420–1.
780. W. of N., I. i.
781. More strictly, what grows of itself is natural; what makes it grow of itself
is Nature.
782. See e. g. Essay, p. 390.
783. Life of Godwin, ii. 266.
784. Southey wished some “Crusader” like Rickman to write economical
articles for the Quarterly and keep out Malthus (Life and Letters, vol. iii. p. 188).
785. Essay, III. vii. 318; written in 1817.
786. 2nd ed., IV. vi.; 7th ed., IV. vi. and vii. He must have remembered, when
he wrote these words, the imprisonment of his poor tutor Gilbert Wakefield for a
seditious pamphlet (1799–1800). See below, Bk. V.
787. 7th ed., p. 417.
788. 7th ed., p. 426: written in 1817. For the tendency of the French before the
Revolution to look to Government for everything, see e. g. Dyer’s Modern Europe,
vol. iv. ch. lii p. 304.
789. 7th ed., p. 418.
790. Essays Moral and Political, vol. i. p. 49; ‘The British Parliament.’
791. Malthus, Essay, 2nd ed., p. 502; 7th ed., p. 402. Cf. a striking passage in
the review of Newenham, Edin. Rev., July 1808, pp. 348–9.
792. E. g. 7th ed., pp. 438–9 and 478. Cf. above, p. 56. Horner’s letter to
Malthus in. Feb. 1812 (Mem. of Horner, vol. ii. pp. 109–10) shows it was an active
sympathy. Malthus agreed to act as a “steward” at one of Lancaster’s meetings in
London.
793. 2nd ed., pp. 556–7; opponents “may fairly be suspected of a wish to
encourage their ignorance as a pretext for tyranny.”
794. 7th ed., p. 439; 2nd ed., pp. 555–6.
795. Miss Martineau, Hist. of Peace, I. vii. 117–18.
796. Essay, 7th ed., IV. ix. 440, 441.
797. Held, Soc. Gesch., p. 215.
798. See above, pp. 95, 96, &c.
799. See above, p. 340.
800. Essay, 7th ed., IV. x. 446–7.
801. Emigr. Comm. (1827), qu. 3310.
802. IV. xiii. 474. Potatoes are a godsend to such, he says in another place
(Edin. Rev., July 1808, p. 344).
803. See above, Bk. II. ch. i.
804. See above, p. 301.
805. E. g. Essay, IV. ix. 433.
806. In Germany poor scholars from the country are often, when attending
the University, billeted for bread and butter on the well-to-do citizens; and
learning proves on the whole so inconsistent with laziness, that the practice does
not make them unwilling to earn their own living afterwards.
807. A protective duty is indirect relief of the protected industry, but as a rule
the protected are secured against indolence by their own domestic competition;
and the fault of protection lies elsewhere than in encouragement of indolence.
808. Rénan, Qu’est ce qu’une Nation?
809. Cf. above, p. 225.
810. Cf. p. 36.
811. The reaction against Rousseau and Godwin may partly account for the
absence of Cosmopolitanism.
812. See above, ch. i.
813. Some one has said, “Was man nicht definiren kann, zieht man als
Organismus an;” and we had been told, long before, that a simile is either “idem
per idem” or “idem per aliud,” either of them a logical fallacy.
814. Essay, Bk. IV. ch. x. p. 445. “Every man has a right to do what he will with
his own.” But the question is:—What is his own?
815. Professor T. H. Green, Liberal Legislation and Freedom of Contract,
Oxford, 1881.
816. τὴν φιλίαν ἀναγκαῖον ὑάρη γίνεσθαι. Ar. Pol., II. ii.
817. See above, p. 310.
818. Discourse on the Christian Union. See Essay on Population, 7th ed., p.
254 n.; Price, Observations, p. 206 n.
819. From Matth. vi. 10, and Psal. cxxii. 2 seq.
820. See esp. pp. 12–18, and 20 (4th ed., 1790).
821. Pt. II. Essay V. pp. 228 seq. Life, ii. 292. Cf. ii. 64.
822. Life, ii. 64.
823. Thoughts, p. 10 and n. Cf. pp. 43, 45. In Progress and Poverty (p. 93, ed.
1881) we are told that Godwin “until his old age disdained a reply” to Malthus.
824. Thoughts, p. 61.
825. Ibid., p. 67.
826. Ibid., pp. 72–3.
827. Life of Godwin, i. 324.
828. See above, p. 208 n. In the 5th edition he turns his back on Godwin and
addresses Owen.
829. So Coleridge (MS. note to p. vii. of his quarto copy of the essay): “And of
course you wholly confute your former pamphlet, and might have spared yourself
the trouble of making up the present quarto.”
830. Edin. Rev., 1802, on Dr. Rennel’s Discourses, Syd. Sm., Works, i. p. 8.
831. p. 18. Compare De Quincey’s answer to Hazlitt in London Magazine,
1823 (vol. viii. pp. 349, 459, 569, 586).
832. Senior, Lect. on Pop., p. 35.
833. Population, I. iv. p. 27 (1820).
834. Cf. also speech on 9th April, 1816. Hansard, sub dato, p. 1109.
835. See above, p. 75. Cf. also above, pp. 142 seq., on Emigration.
836. Godwin, Popn., I. xiii. 106. Cf. I. iv. 22, II. ii. 142, VI. vi. 585.
837. Hawick, 1807, especially p. 84.
838. Sadler, Popn., I. i. 15 (1830).
839. Append. to 3rd ed., 1806; 7th ed., p. 485; cf. pp. 395, 446, and al.
840. See Appendix to ed. 1826, 7th ed., p. 627.
841. Life, ii. 271.
842. l. c. p. 259.
843. Life, ii. 259, 260. Cf. what Godwin writes to Sir John Sinclair, July 1821
(Sinclair’s Correspondence, i. 393).
844. l. c. p. 271.
845. Morgan and Rosser, e. g. See Life, ii. 272–5; cf. p. 280.
846. Edin. Rev., July 1821, p. 364.
847. Life of Godwin, ii. 274
848. Ibid., pp. 274–5.
849. No. 1, Oct 1802, esp. p. 26.
850. Population, I. i.
851. Appendix to 3rd ed., p. 520 n.; 7th ed., p. 491 n.
852. See his Letter to Godwin, dated October 1818, and quoted in Godwin’s
Population, Bk. II. ch. i pp. 116–123, with comments.
853. See above, p. 66.
854. Population, II. x. 244–7.
855. E. g. II. xi. 274, 282, but especially I. iv. 25, and for the third argument,
pp. 29, 30, cf. pp. 43–50, &c. Cf. also Godwin to Sinclair in Sinclair’s
Correspondence, i. 393.
856. Population tends to double in a bundled years, and there is no risk of
over-population except in occasional times of dull trade (Letter of Godwin to
Sinclair, Sinclair’s Correspondence, l. c.). A notable exception.
857. Population, II. xi. 251–2.
858. IV. i.
859. II. ii. 127, and cf. above.
860. II. xi. 287, &c., &c.
861. III. iii. 327 seq.
862. Coups d’état in nature. Paul Bert, L’Enseignement Primaire, 1880, p.
xxviii.
863. Edinburgh Review, July 1821. Cf. Letter to the Rev. T. R. Malthus by
David Booth (1823), who absurdly assumes Malthus to be the reviewer. Though
internal evidence dispels this fancy, it shows that Malthus was still believed to
write for the Edinburgh Review.
864. Others, in Table Talk and Biogr. Literaria, are chiefly declamation.
865. In these quotations the capitals are in the original, and the italics
correspond to underlinings.
866. Arthur Aikin’s Annual Review, vol. ii. (for 1803) pp. 292 seq. Cf.
Southey’s Life and Correspondence (ed. 1850), vol. ii. p. 251, 20th Jan. 1804:
“Yesterday Malthus received, I trust, a mortal wound from my hand;” cf. vol. vi. p.
399, and vol. ii. p. 294. There is no hint of obligation to Coleridge.
867. Cf. above, ch. iii. pp. 81 seq., and Bk. III.
868. Sic, though it explains a thing by itself.
869. He probably meant 353rd, but his numbers are careless.
870. On margin of p. 364, 2nd paragr.: “Quote and apply to himself.”
871. E. g. on p. 65 opposite to lines 5, 6, “Ass!” a monosyllabic refinement
omitted in Southey’s review.
872. First in 1817, 7th ed., pp. 509 seq.
873. One of the charges (p. 18: that Malthus recommends the same remedies
as Condorcet) is sufficient to stamp the character of the book—An Inquiry into the
Principle of Population, &c., by James Grahame. Its Introduction gives a useful list
of writers on both sides; see p. 71. (Edin., 1816.) Simonin repeats Grahame’s
charges, with more mistakes of his own. See his Hist. de la Psychologie (1879), pp.
397–9.
874. 7th ed., p. 511. Cf. above, p. 52, and the reply to Godwin’s Reply, Essay,
2nd ed., III. iii. 384.
875. Edinburgh Review, Jan. 1837.
876. Life and Correspondence of Southey, vol. iii. pp. 21–2, and p. 188.
877. Bishop of Gloucester and later of Hereford. Theolog. Works (1832).
878. “The prolificness of human things, otherwise similarly circumstanced,
varies inversely as their numbers.”—Sadler, Popn., vol. iii. p. 352 (1830). Reviewed
somewhat caustically by Macaulay in Edin. Rev., July 1830. See Trevelyan’s Life of
Macaulay, vol. i. p. 126. Cf. Sadler’s ‘Reply’ to Edin. Rev. His weakest point was his
use of “inversely.”
879. Malthus, Essay, II. v. (7th ed.), pp. 164, 166; cf. p. 485.
880. G. P. Scrope, M.P., Pol. Econ., 1833, &c. Malthus, Essay, III. iii. (7th ed.),
282–6 (Owen), IV. xii. 457 (Owen), III. xiv. 380 n. (Anderson).
881. John Weyland, junr., F.R.S. The Principles of Population and Production
as they are affected by the Progress of Society with a view to Moral and Political
Consequences, 1816.
882. So Arnold Toynbee, Industrial Revolution, p. 107.
883. Ch. iii. p. 21. He adds, as his second: “This tendency can never be
destroyed.”
884. Essay, Appendix, p. 517.
885. Propos. iii and iv.
886. Essay, l. c. p. 521, a very strong passage.
887. Append. p. 526.
888. Pop. and Prod., pp. 82 seq.
889. 7th ed., I. ii. 12 n.; 2nd ed., p. 16.
890. Tour in Southern Counties of England, 1767, p. 342.
891. Between 1767 and 1820. Cf. above (England).
892. Travels in France, pp. 408–9 (ed. 1792) and al.
893. Essay on Pop., 7th ed., pp. 449, 451 seq.; Annals of Agriculture, no. 239,
pp. 219 seq. (quoted in Essay, App. pp. 496–7). Young had reproached Malthus for
denying the right to relief.
894. Travels in France, ed. 1792, pp. 438–9.
895. App. to Essay, pp. 499, 500. It is not true that “Owen was right as
against Malthus when he regarded a certain amount of comfort as the
indispensable condition of a moral life, and thought that a considerable increase of
man’s powers of production was possible” (Held, Soc. Gesch. Englands, pp. 351–
2). Malthus himself did both.
896. The Plan is quoted by Cobbett, Pol. Reg., Dec. 14, 1816. Malthus (Pol. Ec.
(1820), pp. 434, 435, (1836) p. 378) thinks that “co-proprietorship” of Government
with the landlords, after the scheme of the Economists and on the analogy of
Oriental “sole proprietorship,” might become too ready an engine of taxation for a
military despotism.
897. See above, pp. 87, 112, &c.
898. Essay, 7th ed., p. 284.
899. E. g. by Bagehot, Econ. Stud. (1880), pp. 135 seq., and by Southey in
Aikin’s Annual Review above quoted.
900. III. iii. 286. This and the rest of his argument (even its application to
Civil Liberty) is to be found in Aristotle, Politics, ii. 3 and 4, but esp. 5. δεὶ δὲ
μηδὲ τοῦτο λανθάνειν, &c.
901. Essay on Pop., 7th ed., p. 282.
902. See above, p. 24.
903. Genesis of Species, 2nd ed., 1871, p. 5.
904. The puzzling effect of counting up one’s great-grandfathers and great-
grandmothers up to the twentieth degree or so is described by Blackstone as
quoted by Godwin (Popn.) and re-quoted by Hazlitt (Spirit of the Age, 1825, p. 273,
‘Godwin’). The puzzle is less if we remember that our remote ancestors must have
married into each other’s families, or rather were scions in the end of the same
families. We cannot go back to a single pair except through the “prohibited
degrees.”
905. We are to understand, therefore, that Malthus and the author agree that
population needs a check, and are simply not agreed what the checks are to be.
906. See below, p. 392.
907. See above, p. 370. The sixteen positions not touched in their own place
will be met by a reference to the following places in this book: i. to p. 20, add
Essay, 2nd ed. Bk. III. ch. iii. p. 383, ii. to p. 37, iii. to p. 338, iv. to pp. 51, 78, v. to
p. 80, vi. to p. 83, viii. to p. 113, ix. to p. 376, x. to p. 67, xi. to pp. 231, 297, see
Essay, 7th ed. p. 381, xii. to pp. 70, 75, 91, xiii. to p. 393, xiv. to pp. 91, 270, xv. to
p. 294, xvi. to p. 69, and xvii. to p. 75.
908. Das Kapital, 7ter Abschn. 23tes Kap. pp. 653 seq. (ed. 1872); cf. 646 seq.
909. The language of Ricardo, ch. xxxi. p. 236 (quoted by Marx, p. 656 n.). Cf.
above, p. 297. Cf. also Marx, pp. 427 foll.
910. Cf. what Prof. Rogers says in Six Centuries, p. 229, of the attempt made
in the fifteenth century to increase the “residuum” of agricultural labour for the
benefit of the farmers and landlords. Also above, p. 164 n.
911. Marx, ibid., p. 659.
912. Misprinted in Marx as 254.
913. See above, pp. 137, 188, &c.
914. See above, p. 335.
915. See above, pp. 299, 335, &c.
916. Das Kap., p. 549 n.
917. Das Kap., p. 641 n.
918. The passage omitted is neither true nor decent.
919. G. M. Ortes Reflessioni sulla popolazione (1790).
920. Das Kap., p. 549 n.
921. Cf. above, p. 382, and Malthus, Essay, 2nd ed. III. iii. 386, where he says
that Duty and Interest must work together.
922. ‘Theory of Population,’ in Westminster Rev., April 1852, pirated by the
German Professor Trall in 1877 (Eine neue Bevölkerungstheorie), and
substantially maintained by its author (Mr. Herbert Spencer) in Principles of
Biology, Vol. II. Part vi., ‘Laws of Multiplication.’
923. Essay, 7th ed., p. 269.
924. Above, p. 377.
925. E. g. Hazlitt, Reply to Essay on Population, p. 20.
926. W. R. Greg, Enigmas of Life, 8th ed., 1874, pp. 58 seq. This was nearly
Godwin’s position in his first reply.
927. Sadler on Population, and Reply to Edinburgh Review. Godwin,
Population, Bk. VI. ch. ii., &c.
928. Carey (H. C.), Princ. of Social Science (1858), vol. i. ch. xiv.; cf. above, p.
74 seq. H. George, Progress and Poverty, pp. 115, 116. Sadler, p. 70, &c.
929. Godwin, Sadler, &c.
930. Sadler, pp. 354–5, &c. Cf. Adam Smith, W. of N., I. viii. 36. See above, pp.
82, 83.
931. Godwin, see above, p. 361. Southey, Life and Corresp., III. 188. Bagehot,
Econ. Studies, pp. 133 seq. Cf. George, II. ii. 94. Above, pp. 362, 381.
932. Besant, Law of Population, ch. iii. Cf. Malthus, pp. 407 seq. (IV. iv.);
Cobbett, Taking Leave of his Countrymen (1817), p. 6; Political Register, 4th Jan.
1817, p. 26, &c., &c. Above, p. 329.
933. Godwin, Population, passim. George, II. ii. 102, 109. Above, pp. 111, 112.
934. Godwin, ibid.; George, pp. 138, 259, &c., &c.; Coleridge, MS. note to p.
358 (of Essay, 2nd ed.), where for “physical constitution of our nature” he would
read, “in the existing system of society.” So verbatim Southey in Aikin’s Ann. Rev. l.
c.
935. Doubleday, True Law of Population (1841). Above, p. 65. See Herbert
Spencer, Biology, Vol. II. pt. vi. ch. xii. pp. 455, 480, &c. The physiologists have
amply refuted Doubleday.
936. Herbert Spencer. See above, p. 393. W. R. Greg, Enigmas. Above, p. 394.
937. New Malthusians. See above, p. 24.
938. See above, pp. 365 seq. The orthodoxy of Malthus is proved not by a few
orthodox sentences which can be gleaned from him (as from Bacon), or even by the
discovery of flaws in the received doctrine, but by the whole logic of the essay.
939. See above, pp. 365 seq.
940. See above, p. 336.
941. See above, p. 328.
942. See above, p. 96.
943. The authorship of the article is shown by Macvey Napier’s Letters sub
dato, and that of the biogr. preface by Empson’s art., p. 472.
944. “Daniel Malthus, 17, Sydenham de parochia Sti Giles Londini Armigeri
filius” (Matriculation entry, Easter term, 1747).
945. See Gibbon’s Memoirs, p. 46 (ed. Hunt and Clarke), and Jeffrey’s Life, i.
40.
946. Cf. Wealth of Nations, V. i. art., pp. 341 foll.
947. Biogr. pref. to Pol. Econ. (1836), p. xxvi.
948. The name Malthus itself is probably Malt-hus, or Malthouse (cf.
Shorthouse, Maltby), which still occurs as a surname in England. Francis (or, some
say, Thomas) Malthus wrote on ‘Fireworks, fortification, and arithmetic,’ in French
and in English, 1629.
949. Except perhaps in a letter quoted by Otter, biogr. pref. p. xxvii. (date
1788).
950. l. c. p. xxv.
951. l. c. pp. xxv and xxvi, which show, however, that at fifty-seven the
strength had failed a little.
952. “He was not born to copy the works of others.”—Letter in Gentl. Mag.,
Feb. 1800. See above, p. 7, and Otter, p. xxii.
953. Otter, pp. xxi, xxii.
954. So he urges Robert continually to “apply his tools.” “I hate to see a girl
working curious stitches upon a piece of rag.”—Otter, p. xxvi.
955. Gentl. Mag., Jan. 1800, p. 86; cf. Feb. 1800, p. 177; Otter, p. xxvi.
956. Monthly Mag., March 1800, Otter, p. xxii. What and where were the
pieces we are not told.
957. Written in 1772, and republished in Mrs. Barbauld’s series of British
Novelists, 1820. Graves lived at Claverton from 1750 till his death in 1804, in his
ninetieth year. He became Fellow of All Souls in 1730, and may have known Daniel
Malthus at Oxford.
958. Whom he names and quotes freely. Tucker, in Light of Nature, shows the
same open dislike of them, but with much more good-humour and taste.
959. In 1780 or thereabouts.
960. Wakefield’s Life (1804), vol. i. p. 214. It is curious to remember that
Marat is said to have been an usher at a Warrington School a short time before
this.
961. Wakefield’s Life, i. p. 344.
962. Elected in 1776. See Life, i. p. 111 ft.
963. Otter, l. c. p. xxvii. ft.
964. Letter in App. II. to Wakefield, Life, ii. pp. 454–463. A comparison of this
letter with Wakefield, Life, ii. p. 334, and Otter, l. c. p. xxiv. ft. (“by his own
acknowledgment”), makes it almost certain that the letter is by Malthus.
965. E. g. with such very different men as Watson, Bishop of Llandaff, and
Thomas Paine.
966. Though at college he took several prizes for Latin and Greek and English
Declamations. We may hope that his defect of utterance had not become
pronounced at that date, or that the declamations were not always declaimed.
967. Wakefield, Life, ii. p. 9.
968. Otter, l. c. p. xxv.
969. Otter himself was fourth wrangler in 1790, and E. D. Clarke junior optime
in the same year.
970. Otter, l. c. p. xxviii.
971. l. c. p. xxvii.
972. l. c. p. xxviii.
973. On the road leading out of Albury towards Guildford, a snug little low-
roofed house clinging to a hill slope, less ambitious than the Rookery, but not
without its pleasant garden walks, trees, and shrubberies.
974. See above, p. 7.
975. Of which the genesis has been sufficiently described above, Bk. I. ch. i.
976. One of his sources is shown by Essay, IV. ix. 438: “In some conversations
with labouring men during the late scarcities.” Cf. the tract on The High Price of
Provisions, p. 10, &c.
977. See above, pp. 48, 49 (abroad), and p. 195 (in Ireland).
978. Clarke (E. D.) (Life by Otter, vol. ii. p. 15) refers to a letter from Malthus,
asking about the Foundling Hospital at St. Petersburg (date March 1800). Cf. ibid.,
p. 39: “As for Malthus, tell him he is not worth writing to. He is wrapped up in
other matters and obliterating all traces of his pilgrimage.... He is a great deal trop
de plomb pour un tourist” [sic]. So he draws on Mackintosh when the latter is in
India, in 1804. See Mackintosh’s Life (1836), p. 215.
979. E. g. Ricardo, Senior, and Dr. Thos. Chalmers (who paid him a flying visit
in October 1822: Life by Hanna, vol. ii. p. 358), and Francis Horner (Memoirs and
Corresp., e. g. vol. i. p. 406). In i. 436 of his Memoirs Horner speaks of having
gone with John Whishaw, the barrister, to visit Malthus at Haileybury in 1808, and
takes occasion to praise his mere love of truth above the eloquence and versatility
of others, though that, he says, may look like a decision in favour of dulness.
980. E. g. the reservoir, p. 106; but the most extravagant is perhaps the
botanical figure, on p. 273, where he says that “the forcing manure,” employed to
cause the French Revolution, has “burst the calyx of humanity.” Macaulay uses a
similar metaphor of precisely the same event, in the Essay on Burleigh.
981. His own command of metaphor made it the easier for him to turn the
edge of an opponent’s. See e. g. his handling of Weyland’s Giant, Musket-ball, and
Swaddling-clothes, in Essay, Append. pp. 514–521.
982. Engraved by Fournier for the Dictionnaire de l’Économie Politique, art.
‘Malthus.’
983. See below, p. 418 n.
984. Gentl. Mag., March 1835, p. 324.
985. Essay (7th ed.), II. iii. 148, where “winter of 1788” is perhaps for 1798,
though it is 1788 in the second and all subsequent editions; or else “preceding”
may be wrong. Cf. High Price of Prov., p. 2.
986. Cf. above, pp. 48, 127, which should be read in conjunction with this
Biography.
987. Life of Clarke, vol. ii. p. 183. We know from a footnote in the essay itself
(7th ed., p. 194) that part of it at least was written in 1802.
988. Stanhope, Life of Pitt, iii. p. 36; cf. p. 53. “Our election at Cambridge was
perfectly quiet.”
989. Life of Clarke, ii. 203–4 n.
990. Earl of Carlisle, the poet. See Engl. Bards and Scotch Reviewers.
991. Otter, l. c. p. xxvi. Cf. Essay, 1st ed., pp. 210–12. Gentl. Mag., April 1804,
p. 374. A compliment which Otter pays him (in an obituary in the Athenæum, 10th
Jan. 1835), that his servants stayed long with him, would fall more naturally to his
wife.
992. Mr. Sargant (Life of Owen, p. 85) says, on the authority of Mr. Holyoake,
that Malthus visited New Lanark in its palmy days. Owen’s work then was after
Malthus’ own heart; he was reforming the world by beginning with one individual
corner of it. Cf. Essay, III. iii. 282 ft.
993. See below, p. 423.
994. Memoirs of Horner, i. 436–7; cf. p. 406. Cf. Miss Martineau, Hist. of
Peace, Introduction, II. i. 257.
995. He was made a member of the French Institute, and, in 1833, one of the
five foreign Associates of the Acad. des Sciences Mor. and Pol., and a member of
the Royal Academy of Berlin (Otter, l. c. p. xli.). See Chas. Comte, Notice, and
Garnier, Dict. de l’Éc. Pol.
996. Bain, Life of James Mill (1882), p. 199.
997. All that is certainly known of the bulk of his contributions to the Edin.
Review is that, like those of James Mill and Mackintosh, they do not occur before
the twentieth number of it (in July 1807). See Bain, Life of James Mill, p. 75 n.
Horner mentions (Memoirs, Vol. I. p. 437) the article on Newenham’s Population
of Ireland, 1808, and another (of which he had seen the MS.) Feb. 1811 (Vol. II. p.
68). But see above, p. 285, note.
998. The apocryphal story of his eleven daughters is given and exposed by
Garnier, Dict. de l’Éc. Pol., art. ‘Malthus.’
999. Otter’s son-in-law. “Hal” in his childhood was asked what he would have
done if, like the Good Samaritan, he had found a man half dead by the roadside; he
answered (on the analogy of flies), “I should have killed him outright.” Contrast the
child’s answer with his father’s remarks on the same parable in Essay, IV. xi. 447.
1000. Clergy List, 1881.
1001. Moore’s Memoirs, Journals, &c. (ed. Russell, 1853), vol. iii. p. 148, date
Sept. 1820. Moore himself speaks of meeting Malthus and his wife when he was on
a visit to Mackintosh at Haileybury in May 1819. Ibid., ii. 315.
1002. Volksvermehrung, p. 9. Kautsky sometimes trips, but he is more
accurate than most of Malthus’ foreign biographers. Chas. Comte (in his Notice
historique sur la vie et les travaux de M. T. R. Malthus, read to Acad. of Mor. and
Pol. Sciences, 28th Dec., 1836) converts Haileybury into Aylesbury (p. 31).
1003. Pol. Econ. (1836), p. 380 n. Sydney Smith wrote to Grey about him
without success, in 1831 (Holland’s Life of Sydney Smith, vol, ii. p. 328).
1004. Richard, the brother of Wellington. See his Minute of 18th August,
1800, quoted by Malthus in his Statements.
1005. E. India Register and Directory (Hatchard), year 1807, pp. xxiv. seq.
“Preliminary view of the establishment of the E. India College.” These two
branches of the Haileybury programme correspond in their subjects to the
Competitive and the Further examinations of candidates for the Civil Service of
India as at present conducted. Malthus claims the credit of making the test in
Oriental languages a necessary condition of final appointment (Statements, p.
100).
1006. Accordingly Malthus gets many of his illustrations from India, e. g. Pol.
Ec. (2nd ed.), pp. 154–5.
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