Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)

CHAPTER - 04
CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR
STRUCTURE

Chemical bond
It is the force of attraction between the constituent particles like ions, atoms, metal ions and molecules,
in order to get the stability.

 Chemical bonding process accompanied by decrease in energy.

 Decrease in energy  strength of the bond.

Causes of chemical combination
I. Tendency to acquire minimum energy.
1. When two atoms approaches to each other. There is attractive forces between nucleus and electron
and vice versa.
2. Also repulsive forces present between nucleus and electrons of two atoms.
3. Attractive forces are dominant than repulsive force, therefore total energy of the system decreases.

1 1
4. Stability   attractive force 
energy repulsive force

5. Bond formation is exothermic.

II. Tendency to acquire stable configuration

Classification of chemical bond

Strong bond Weak bond

Ionic Metallic Vander Waal's bond Hydrogen bond

Covalent Co-ordinate
bond bond bond bond
1) Dipole - Dipole interaction
2) Dipole-Induced dipole interaction
3) London force

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS
In order to explain the chemical bond as well as molecularNOTES)
structure the following theories
are used.
1. Lewis Langmuir - theory
2. Octet theory
3. Valence bond theory (VBT)
4. VSEPR theory
5. Molecular orbital theory (MOT)
Lewis and Kossel approach (1916)
Lewis approach to chemical bond
Lewis pictured the atom in terms of a positively charged ‘Kernel’ (The nucleus with the inner electrons)
and the outer shell that could accommodate a maximum of eight electrons. ie eight electrons occupy
the corners of the cube, which surrounded the Kernel.
For eg: Sodium 2, 8, 1

Inert gas

Ne : 2, 8

Ar : 2, 8, 2, 8

 This octet electrons, represent a particularly stable electronic arrangement.

 Lewis postulated an atom achieve the stable octet when they are linked by chemical bonds.

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)
Lewis symbols
In the formation of a molecule, only the outer shell electrons take part in chemical combination and
they are known as valence electrons.

Li Be B C N O F Ne

Significance of Lewis symbol

1. The symbol helps to calculate common group valence of the element. Valence electrons of the element
is either equal or 8-valence electrons.
Kossel’s approach to chemical bond
1. Highly electronegative atoms like halogens and highly electropositive atom like alkalimetals are
separated by noble gases.
2. Formation of negative and positive ions are associated with gain of electron or loose of electron.
3. Negative and positive ions thus formed attain the stable noble gas electronic configuration.
4. Negative and positive ions are stabilized by electrostatic force of attraction.

Na  Na   1e
Ne3s1 Ne

Cl  21e5  Cl 2 1
Ne3s 3p Ne3s 3p6

   
 Na  Cl  NaCl or Na Cl

The bond formed, as a result of the electrostatic force of attraction between the positive and negative
ions was termed as ionic bond.
Octet rule
Kossel and Lewis (1916) developed an important theory of chemical combination between atoms
known as electronic theory of chemical bonding.
Octet rule. In order to get stability of an atom, atom gain, loose energy or take part in sharing of electron
pair. Therefore their outermost shell contain 8 electrons.
Covalent bond
Langmuir (1919) refined the Lewis cubic arrangement of the octet and by introducing the term covalent
bond.

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS
Lewis-Langmuir theory NOTES)

 The sharing of pair of electrons form a covalent bond.

 Two pairs of electrons are take part in the sharing between two atoms, double bonds are formed.

 Three pairs of electrons are take part in the sharing between two atom, triple bonds are formed.

 More than one electron pairs shared between the two atoms, multiple bonds are formed.

Cl + Cl Cl Cl
Cl Cl

H O H O
H H

O C O
O C O
Bond pair of electrons

Lone pair of electrons

 The electron pair which take part in bond formation is known as bond pair of electrons.

 The electron pair which does not take part in bond formation is known as non-bonding pair or lone pair.
In covalent bond Lewis representation of the compound is very important
Lewis representation of compounds or simple molecules (Lewis structures)
Steps for writting the Lewis dot structures
1. Find the total number of valence electrons of central atom and surrounding atom
2. For anions : Each negative charge would mean addition of one electron.
For cation : Each positive charge would mean substraction of one electron.
3. Least electronegative atom occupies the central position in the molecule/ion
4. After accounting for the shared pairs of electrons for single bonds. The remaining electron pair are
either utilised for multiple bonding or remain as the lone pairs.
5. The basic requirement being that each bonded atom gets an octet of electrons.
Total no.of valence electrons = 12
Total no.of pairs = 12/2 = 6

Eg : O2 O O

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)

O O
Eg : O3
O O  O O

Total valence electron = 18 e–

Total pairs = 18/2 = 9

-1
O

CO23 O C O

Total valence electron = 24

Total no.of pairs = 24/2 = 12

HNO3 O N O H

Total valence electron = 24

Total no.of pairs = 24/2 = 12

CO C O
Total valence electron = 10/2 = 5
Total no.of pairs = 5

- -
NO21 O N O O N O

Total valence electrons = 18

Total no.of pairs = 18/2 = 9
NCERT (Exercise)

H  COOH (formic acid)

H C O H Total valence electrons = 18

H C O H Total no.of pairs = 18/2 = 9

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS
Formal charge NOTES)

In a Lewis dot structure of poly atomic ions or compounds their actual charge is not a formal charge.
That charge is the sum of all individual atoms charge. Those individual atoms charge is known as
formal charge.

Formal charge = (V –  – ½ b)

Where V,  and b are valence, lone pair and bond pair electrons respectively..
Importance of formal charges
Formal charges help in the selection of the lowest energy structure from the number of possible
Lewis structure.
Lowest energy structure is the one with a factor based on a pure covalent bond between the two
atoms.
Formal charge on O atoms in ozone.

O
O 2 O
1. 1 3

V 1 b
2
O1  64 1 4  0
2
O2  62 1  6  1
2
O3  6  6  1  2  1
2

 Formal charges of O in O ion 0, +1, –1 or –1, +1, 0

2. N31 azide ion

-1
-1 +1 -1 -1 -2
0 +1
N N N N
N N
1 2 3
1 2 3

2 
V 1
2 
b V 1 b
N1  5  4  1  4  1 N1  5  2  1  6  0
2 2
N  5  0  1  8  1
2
N2  5  0  1  8  1
2 2
3
N  54 1  4  1 N  5  6  1  2  2
3
2 2

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)
Octet theory (Lewis and Kossel)
In order to get the stability of atom, it acquire 8 electrons in the outer most shell either by loose of
electron ,gain of electron or take part in the sharing of a pair of electron.
Limitations
1. H2, He their stability could not clearly explained. It could clearly explained by duplect theory.
2. In complete octect molecules/electron deficient molecule /hypovalent compounds. Like LiCl, BeCl2,
BCl3 , AlCl3 etc.
3. Expanded octet molecules, hypervalent compounds/super octet compounds.
PCl5, SF6, IF7, H2SO4, SO3
4. Odd electron molecules
A compound contain central atom having unpaired electron or odd electron.
For eg: NO, NO2,

N O
7e-
5. Xe and Kr are noble gases their outermost shell contain 8 electrons. But they form stable compounds
like XeF2, XeF4, XeF6, XeOF2, KrF2. Their formation and stability could not clearly explained.
6. Inability to explain the energy exchanges during the formation of stable molecule.
7. Inability to explain shape of molecules.
Ionic bond / electrovalent bond
It is the electrostatic force of attraction between the ions ie cations and anions, in order to get the
stability.
Requirements for the formation of ionic bond
1. Ease of formation of cation and anion from the respective atom.
Arrangement of positive and negative ions in respective atom.

2. Ionisation energy   iH  required to eject loosely bound outermost electron from neutral gaseous
atom in ground state.

Na  Na   1e    iH  495.8kJ mol 1 ..............(1)

3. Electron gain enthalpy (  eg H ) the energy released when one electron is accepted by a neutral gaseous
atom in ground state.

Cl  1e  Cl   eg H  348.7 kJ mol 1 ............... (2)

(1) + (2)

Na  Cl  NaCl  s    147.1kJ mol  1

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0
NOTES)
But actually formation NaCl is exothermic and  f HNaCl is –412 kJ/mol. Therefore some other factors
are involved for the formation of ionic bond of NaCl.
In order to explain this, Born Haber cycle is used.
Born Haber Cycle

Na(s) + 1/2Cl2(g) NaCl(s)

subH0 1 bond dissociation

2 energy

Na(g) 1 Cl
2 2  latticeH
 iH  eg H

Na g1  Clg1

0
 f HNaCl  subHNa   iHNa  1 D   eg H   latticeH0
2

= 107.8 kJ/mol  495.4 kJ/mol  12 242.6kJ  348.8  412.3kJ/mol  788 kJ/mol

4.  subH0  Energy required to sublime 1 mole of solid substance into gaseous substance at its sublime
temperature.
5. Dissociation energy - The energy required to dissociate one mole gaseous molecule into atoms
4. Lattice energy/Lattice enthalpy : Energy release when one mole of solid ionic crystal is formed from
the gaseous ions or energy absorbed to dissociate when one mole of solid ionic crystal into gaseous
ions.
According to Coulombs law

q1q 2
Electrostatic/coloumbic force of attraction f 
r2

q1q 2
f r  r
r2

q1q 2 q1q 2
Lattice energy U  ; U= A
r r
when q1 q2 are the quantity of charges on the cation and anion r is the distance between cation and
anion. A is the madelung constant. This constant depend on the nature of the salt.

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For Example :
Madelung constant for NaCl = 1.754
Madelung constant for CsCl = 1.76
Born Haber cycle is used to calculate Lattice enthalpy of ionic compounds as well as thermodynamic
stability.

i) L.E.  q1q 2
1
ii) L.E. 
r

F Cl  Br  I
Li+ 1036 853 807 757
Na+ 923 787 747 704
K+ 821 715 682 649

Rb+ 785 689 660 630

Cs+ 740 659 631 604

OH  O 2
Na  900 2481
Mg 2  3006 3791

Al 3  5627 15,916

Hydration enthalpy
The energy released, when 1 mole of gaseous ions get attach with water molecules. Smaller the size
of ions higher will be the hydration energy.
For eg: In aqueous solution, order of h ydration energy

Li   Na 0  K  0  Rb 0  Cs  0
3.4 A 0 2.76 A 2.32 A 2.28 A 2.26 A

 The size of ions in aqueous solution.

Li   Na   K   Rb   Cs 

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NOTES)

H H
H H
O O
H
H + O
O Li
H
H O
O H
H H
H

Similarly in aqueous solution Be2  Mg 2  Ca 2  Sr 2  Ba 2 (Order of hydration and size)

Similarly anion like halides in aqueous solution

F   Cl   Br   I  order of hydration 

F   Cl   Br   I (size of ions)

O
O H H
H
H
H O
F
H H
H H
O H
O

Note: Hydration energy/enthalpy of ions increases solubility of that ion increases.

Solubility of ionic compounds in polar solvents mainly depend on hydration energy and lattice energy.

 hydH0   latticeH0 solubility of salt increases

Note:
Solubility of ionic compounds in water depend upon the difference in the size of cation and anion.

solubility  difference in the size of cation and anion

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Li+ ClO4 NO3 I-1 Br Cl

Na+
From top to bottom solubility decreases
K+

Rb+

Cs+
2 2
+2 SO4 CO3 NO3
Be

Mg+2
From top to bottom solubility decreases
Ca+2

Sr+2

Ba+2

F OH Small size Be+2 OH F

Li+1 1000
Mg+2
From to to bottom
Na+1 900 From top to bottom solubility increases
solubility increases Ca+2
K+1 600
Sr+2
500
Rb+1
Ba+2
400
Cs+1

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS
This is because NOTES)

Lattice energy steeply decreases than hydration energy (experimental data)

Thermal stability
Ionic compounds can with stand at high temperature without undergoing decomposition
I. In monoatomic anion contain compounds
Lattice energy  Thermal stability

Li+1 N-3 O-2 X-1

Na+1
From top to bottom L.E. decreases
thermal stability also decreases
K+1

Rb+1

Cs+1

II. In poly atomic anion contain compound

Thermal stability depend on packing of the ions in lattice
or

High polarising power of cation 

Thermal stability

Li  ClO3 NO3 CO32 OH

Na  From top to bottom
1
K Thermal stability increases
Rb 1
Cs 1

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Be 2 CO23 SO24 OH

Mg 2
From top to bottom
Ca 2 Thermal stability increases
Sr 2
Ba 2

CHARACTERISTIC FEACTURES OF IONIC BOND

1. Physical state. Ionic bonded compounds are hard and brittle.
2. They show isomorphism

FeSO4 .7H2O|MgSO4 .7H2O

3. High density
4. High M.P. NaCl (801°C) KCl (776°C)
5. Ionic bond is non-directional bond: (Ions will attract oppositively charged ions in all directions)
6. They are thermally stable one
7. Ionic bonded compounds are more soluble in polar solvents like water(dielectric constant 80)
8. Ionic bonded compounds show high electrical conduction in molten state or aqueous state.
Covalent character in charged species
Covalent character of ionic bonded species depends on:-
1. Polarising power of cation
The power of cation to cause distortion in the electron cloud of the negative ion is referred to as its
polarising power.

2. Polarisibility of anion
The ability of anion to undergo distortion in the electron cloud of the negative ion is referred to as its
polarisibility of anions.

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The extent of covalent character based on Fajan’s rule NOTES)

Rule - I : Smaller the size of cation, Larger will be its polarising power.

Charge of cation
Polarising power 
Radius of cation
LiCl > KCl (Covalent character order)

BeCl2  MgCl2  CaCl2  SrCl2  BaCl2

Rule-II : Larger the charge on the cation , higher will be the polarising power.
Na+ < Mg2+ < Al3+ < Si+4
Rule-III : Larger the size of anion
LiCl < LiI (Covalent character )
CaF2 < CaCl2 < CaBr2 < CaI2 (Covalent character)
Pseudo inert gas configuration compounds have high polarising power and their compounds are
more covalent.

1 1
Na  Cl   C u Cl Covalent character

1s 2 2s 2 2p6 Ne 3s 2 3p6 3d10

Ne Inert gas Pseudo inert gas configuration
Inert gas

Eg: of pseudo inert gas configuration cations:

Zn2+ > Cd2+ > Hg+2
Cu+1 > Ag+ > Au+1
ZnCl2 > CdCl2 > HgCl2 covalent character order.
Effect of increased polarisation
1. Covalent character increases
2. Polarising power of cation increases, covalent character increases M.P. decreases.
Order of M.P.
NaX > KX > RbX > CsX > LiX (X = Cl, Br)

NaF  KF  LiF  RbF  CsF

KI  NaI  RbI  CsI  LiI
NaF  NaCl  NaBr  NaI (ionic bond only)
 In ionic bond LE  M.P 

BaX 2  SrX 2  CaX 2  MgX 2  BeX 2

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3. Order of solubility in aqueous solutions

AgCl AgBr AgI

Partially so lub le in so lub le in H 2O

2 3
Fe  OH2  Fe  OH3
4. Intensification of colour
Polarised anion has distorted electron, which absorb energy from light, its complementary colour is
releasing.
AgCl(white) AgI (yellow)
HgCl2 (colourless) HgI2 (red)
SnCl4 (colourless) (SnI4) (red)
PbCl2 (colourless) PbI2 (bright yellow)
COVALENT BOND
A covalent bond is formed by the mutual sharing of a pair of electron.
Characteristic features of covalent bond, covalent bonded compounds
1. Physical state : Generally exists as gases and liquids. S8, P4, I2 exists as soft solids.
2. M.P. : Covalent compounds have relatively low melting and boiling points except diamond.
SiC (Carborandum) and SiO2 (Silica)
3. Solubility in Non-polar solvents like benzene, ether, CCl4 etc
4. Electrical conductivity : Generally bad conductors of electricity except graphite.
5. Covalent bonded compounds show isomerism
6. Directional characteristics : Covalent bond is directional and give geometry of compounds.
1. Valence bond theory (VBT)
Postulates :
1. A covalent bond is formed by the overlapping of atomic orbitals
2. Overlapping atomic orbitals should contain unpaired electron and opposite spin
3. Extent of overlapping leads the stable bond is due to the repulsion between the nucleus in minimum.
4. Excessive overlapping leads the unstable bond is due to the repulsion between the nucleus is
maximum.
5. One atomic orbital is take part in overlapping, single bond is formed, more than one atomic orbital take
part in the overlapping multiple bonds are formed.
This could clearly explained with the formation of hydrogen molecules.
When two hydrogen atoms HA and HB approach each other, the following interactions occur
1. Attractive forces between eA and nucleus of B
Attractive forces between eB and nuleus of A

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NOTES)
2. Repulsive forces between nucleus of A and nucleus of B eA and eB
During the formation of covalent bond, attractive forces are dominent than repulsive force.

Orbital overlap concept of covalent bond formation

In covalent bonding, there is a change in electron densities in the combining atoms. Accumulation of
electron densities between the two nuclei results in bond formation. When two atoms approach, there
is overlapping of electron waves.
The main ideas of orbital overlap concept of covalent bond formation are
i. Covalent bonds are formed by overlapping of half filled atomic orbitals present in the valence shell of
the atoms taking part in bonding.
ii. The orbitals undergoing overlapping must have electrons with opposite spins
iii. The strength of a covalent bond depends upon the extend of overlapping.
Overlapping of atomic orbitals
When two atoms come close to each other there is overlapping of atomic orbitals. This overlap may
be positive, negative or zero depending upon the properties of overlapping of atomic orbitals. The
various arrangement of s and p orbitals resulting in positive, negative and zero overlap are depicted in
the following figure.
The criterion of overlap, as the main factor for the formation of covalent bonds applies uniformly to the
homonuclear/heteronuclear diatomic molecules and polyatomic molecules. In the case of polyatomic
molecules like CH4, NH3 and H2O, the VB theory has to account for their characteristic shapes as well.
We know that the shapes of CH4, NH3 and H2O molecules are tetrahedral, pyramidal and bent
respectivley.

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)

TYPES OF COVALENT BONDS

Sigma (  ) and pi (  ) bonds

a. Sigma (  ) bond : The bond formed by the axial (or head-on) overlap of atomic orbitals along the
internuclear axis is known as (  ) bond. Sigma bond may be formed by any one of the following types
of overlapping.
i. Overlapping of s-s orbitals : Hydrogen molecule (H2) formation is an example of 1s-1s overlap
between two hydrogen atoms, resulting in the formation of a covalent bond.

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NOTES)

ii. Overlapping of s-p orbitals

The half filled s orbital of one of the two elements overlaps with the half-filled p-orbital of the other
element resulting in the formation of a chemical bond. Examples of this type of s–p overlap are the
formation of compounds HF, H2O, NH3, HCl etc. The general representation of an s–p orbital overlap
can be made as shown.

iii. Overlapping of p–p orbitals

The half filled p orbital of one of the two elements overlaps with the half filled p orbital of the other
element resulting in the formation of a chemical bond. Examples of this type are the formation of
compounds like F2, Cl2 etc.

b. Pi    bond: Covalent bond formed by the lateral or sidewise overlap of half-filled atomic orbitals is

known as pi    bond. The atomic orbitals overlap in such a way that their axes remain parallel to each
other and perpendicular to the internuclear axis.

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)
Differences between sigma and pi bonds

 bond  bond

It is formed by axial overlap of s-s or s-p or p-

It is formed by lateral overlap of p-p orbitals
p orbitals of two atoms

Extent of overlappiing is quite large and Overlapping is to a small extent and hence 
hence  bond is a strong bond bond is a weak bond

There can only be one bond between two There can be one or two bonds between two
atoms atoms

Electron cloud is cylindrically symmetrical Electron cloud of  bond unsymmetrical about

about the line joining the two nuclei the internuclear axis.

 bond may involve the overlapping of hybrid  bond usually involves the overlapping of pure
orbitals. They determine the shape of the orbitals. They do not determine the shape of
molecule molecules.

HYBRIDISATION
It is defined as the intermixing of atomic orbitals of slightly different energy and shape so as to redistribute
their energies, resulting in the formation of new set of orbitals of identical shape and similar energy.This
explains why atoms like Be, B, C show a valency of 2, 3 and 4 respectively. The energy required for
excitation is compensated by energy released during bond formation.
Characteristics of hybridisation
1. The number of hybridised orbitals formed is equal to the number of orbitals that get hybridised.
2. The hybridised orbitals are always equivalent in energy and shape.
3. The hybrid orbitals are more effective in forming stable bonds than unhybridised atomic orbitals.
4. The hybrid orbitals are directed in space in some preferred directions so as to have minimum repulsion
between electron pairs. Therefore, the type of hybridisation indicates the geometry of the molecule.
Conditions for hybridisation
1. The orbitals present in the valence shell of an atom only undergo hybridisation
2. Only those orbitals which have approximately the same energy can undergo hybridisation
3. Promotion of electron in an atom is not necessary before hybridisation
4. Even, filled orbirtals of the valence shell may take part in hybridisation in certain cases.

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Types of hybridisation NOTES)

1. sp hybridisation : This involves one s and one p orbital of the valence shell of an atom resulting in the
formation of two new equivalent hybridised orbitals. The sp hybrid orbitals have 50% s and 50% p
character. The sp hybrid orbitals are linear and lie in the same line at an angle of 180° from each other.
Structure of BeCl2 : In BeCl2, Cl–Be–Cl, the central Be atom uses both its valence electrons in
forming 2 bonds with the two chlorine atoms.

Each of these orbitals overlaps axially with half filled 3p orbitals of chlorine to form two Be–Cl bonds.
Few other compounds which exhibit sp hybridization are BeF2, CO2, CH3CN, HCN etc.
2. sp2 hybridisation : This involves the mixing up of one s and two p orbitals of the valence shell of an
atom to form three new equivalent orbitals. The three new equivalent sp2 orbitals are formed with 33%
s character and 67% p character. The three equivalent orbitals have a symmetrical distribution and
are directed towards the corners of a trigonal planar structure at an angle of 120° from one another.
Strucutre of BCl3 : In BCl3, the ground state electronic configuraiton of the central boron atom is 1s2
2s2 2p1. In the excited state, one of the 2s electrons is promoted to vacant 2p orbital, as a result boron
has three unpaired electrons. These three orbitals hybridise to form three sp2 hybrid orbitals. The
hybrid orbitals formed are oriented in a trigonal planar arrangement and overlap with the 2p orbitals of
chlorine to form three B–Cl bonds.

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)

3. sp3 hybridisation : This involves the mixing up of one s and three p orbitals of the valence shell of an
atom to form four new equivalent orbitals. Each sp3 hybrid orbital has 25% s-character and 75% p-
character. The four sp3 hybrid orbitals are directed towards the four corners of a tetrahedron to minimise
repulsion. The angle between the sp3 hybrid orbitals is 109°28/ or approximately 109.5°.

Structure of methane (CH4)

Carbon atom in the ground state

Carbon atom in the excited state

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NOTES)

Carbon atom after sp3 hybridisation

In methane, the four sp3 hybridised orbitals of carbon are directed towards the four corners of a
regular tetrahedron with the carbon atom located at the centre and four hydrogen atoms at the corners.
Each of the four sp3 hybrid orbitals on carbon is singly filled. In the formation of methane, each of
these hybrid orbitals overlap with the half filled 1s orbital of hydrogen. This results in four C–H bonds
and these single bonds are known as sigma    bonds. The axes of the sp3 orbitals are directed
towards the four corners of a regular tetrahedron, with the carbon at the centr ewith H–C–H bond
angle 109°28/
Energy is required for the promotion of a 2s electron to 2p orbital and for the hybridisation of the
orbitals to give equivalent orbitals, but this is compensated by the release of energy in the formation of
covalent bonds involving the sp3 hybrid orbitals.
4. sp3d hybridisation : When one s orbital, three p orbitals and one d orbital are involved in the
hybridisaiton, it is called sp3d hybridisation. For example, phosphorus in PCl5 is sp3d hybridised.
Structure of PCl5 : The structure of PCl5 shows that the central atom P uses all its five electrons
from its valence shell (3s2 3p3) in forming the 5 bonds with five chlorine atoms.

P atom in the ground state :

P atom in the excited state:

The result is that there are five non-equivalent sp3d hybrid orbitals with 2 axial orientations and 3
equatorial (lateral) orientations. sp3d hybrid orbitals are singly occupied with electrons. They form five
 bonds with five p orbitals of five chlorine atoms.

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)
PCl5 has a trigonal bipyramidal shape. Of the five bonds, three equatorial bonds are equal in length
and two axial bonds are longer than the equatorial bonds. This is because axial bond pairs suffer more
repulsive interaction from the equatorial bond pairs. Axial bonds are less stronger than equatorial
bonds.

5. sp3d2 hybridisation: It involves the mixing up of one s orbital three p orbitals and two d orbitals to give
six hybridised orbitals. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) is an example of a molecule where sulphur shows
sp3d2 hybridisation.
Structure of SF6 : In SF6, all the six valence electrons of sulphur are used up. There are six sp3d2
equivalent orbitals formed after hybridisation with no lone pair of electrons. Each of the six hybridised
sp3d2 orbitals are singly filled before bonding.
Each one of these sp3d2 hybridised orbitals overlaps with p orbitals of six fluorine atoms to form SF6.
The molecule has an octahedral shape.

As the s-character in a hybrid orbital increases its electronegativity increases, since the s-electrons
are more close to the nucleus.

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Hybridisation in organic compounds
NOTES)

Number of hybridised orbitals = Number of sigma bonds + number of lone pair on the central atom
If the hybridised orbitals number equal to 2, 3, 4 are sp, sp2, sp3 respectively.

Structure of acetylene (H–C  C–H)

Both the carbons in acetylene are sp hybridised.

Carbon atom in the excited state

Carbon atom after hybridisation

One sp hybrid orbital of one carbon atom overlaps axially with sp hybrid orbital of the other to form
C–C sigma bond. The other sp hybrid orbital of each carbon overlaps axially with 1s orbitals of hydrogen
atoms to form C–H sigma bonds. Each of the two unhybrisides orbitals (2py and 2pz) of one carbon
atom overlaps sidewise with similar orbitals of the other carbon atom to form two  bonds. Acetylene
molecule is linear with bond angle of 180°.

Structure of ethyelen (CH2 = CH2) : Both the carbons in ethylene are sp2 hybridised.

Carbon atom in the excited state :

Carbon atom after hybridisation :

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)
2
The three sp hybrid orbitals of carbon are oriented in a plane and are inclined at an angle of 120°. One
sp2 hybrid orbital of one carbon atom overlaps axially with sp2 hybrid orbitals of the other carbon to
form C–C sigma bond. The remaining two sp2 hybrid orbitals of each carbon atom overlap axially with
one s orbital of each carbon atom overlap axially with one s orbital of hydrogen to form C–H sigma
bonds. The unhybridised two p orbitals (2pz) of each carbon atom is oriented at right angles to the sp2
hybridised orbitals. These unhybridised 2pz orbitals of the two carbon atoms overlap sidewise to form
a  bond. The  bond consist of two equal electron clouds distributed above and below the plane of
other atom.

HYBRIDISED ORBITALS CONTAIN LONE PAIRS

When lone pairs come on the hybridised orbitals, the geometry distorted.
I. In NH3

2s 2p
2 2 3
N(g ) 1s 2s 2p :

2s 2p

N(g)
sp3 hybridised orbitals with one lone pair

If one lone pair comes on the hybridised orbital geometry distorted and pyramid shape is formed.
Bond angle decrease from 109°28/ to 107°. This is due to lone pair - bond pair repulsion is greater
than bond pair - bond pair repulsion.

N 1070
H H
H
Pyramid shape

Hydrides of nitrogen family except NH3 (PH3, AsH3, SbH3) will not take part in hybridisation. Only pure
P orbitals are used and their bond angles are near to 90°.

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NOTES)
PH3 AsH3 SbH3
93.36/ 91.48/ 91.18

This is based on Drago’s rule.

In H2O
O(g) 1s2 2s2 2p4

O(g)

sp3 hybridised orbitals contain two lone pair. The geometry distorted and bent shape is formed. The
bond angle reduced from 109° 28/ to 104.5° this is because lone pair - lone pair repulsion is greater
than lone pair - bond pair repulsion than bond pair - bond pair repulsion.

Hydrides of oxygen family except H2O (H2S, H2Se, H2Te) will not take part the hybridised orbitals. Only
pure P orbitals are take part their bond angles are near to 90°.

H2S H2Se H2 Te
92 91 90.30/

This is based on Drago’s rule.

Predicting the hybridised orbitals of the central atom of the compound.

2
H  S 1 V  E  A  C

where S is the number of surrounding atom, V is the valence electrons of the central atom, E is the
valency of surrounding atom A and C are number of Anion charge and cation charge.

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)
H geometry Bond angle Lone pair with shape orbital
of compound
2 sp linear 1.80°
3 sp2 trigonal planar 120° 1-bent shape
4 sp3 tetrahedron 109°28/ 1-pyramid shape,
2-bent shape

5 sp3d trigonal bipyramid 90° and 120° 1-See saw shape d z2

2-T-shape
3-Linear

6 sp3d2 octahedron 90° 1-square pyramid d x2  y2 , d 2

z

2- square planar

7 sp3d3 pentagonal bipyramid 90°, 72° 1-distorted octahedron d x 2  y 2 , dz 2 , d xy

In complexes compounds

dsp2  square planar d x2  y2 , Px , Py

d2sp3  octahedron d x2  y2 , d
z2

Overlapping strength of hybridised orbitals : sp  sp  sp2  sp2  sp3  sp3

p  d overlapping

SO 2
S(g) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 3d0

3s 3p 3d

sp2  bond with p orbital of O atom  p  d 

 bond with p orbital of O atom  p  p 

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS
NOTES)

p  p
p  d
S
O O

Bent’s rule
i. A lone pair of electrons prefers to occupy that hybrid orbital which has greater percentage of s-character
(near to the nucleus)
ii. A more electron negative atom/group refers to occupy the hybridised orbitals having smaller percentage
of s character (away from the nucleus) in Trigonal bipyramid geometry
1. Axial bond length is greater than equitorial
2. There are two different bond angles are present ie 90 and 120°.
3. Lone pair occupy only in equitorial position
4. Highly electronegative atom occupy in axial position first.
VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION (VSEPR) THEORY :
Lewis concept is unable to explain the shapes of molecules. This theory provides a simple procedure
to predict the shapes of covalent molecules. Sidgwick and Powell in 1940, proposed a simple theory
based on the repulsive interactions of the electron pairs in the valence shell of the atoms. It was
further developed and redefined by Nyholm and Gillespie (1957).
The main postulaes of VSEPR theory are as follows:
i. The shape of a molecule depends upon the number of valence shell electron pairs (bonded or
nonbonded) around the central atom.
ii. Pairs of electrons in the valence shell repel one another since their electron clouds are negatively
charged.
iii. These pairs of electrons tend to occupy such positions in space that minimise repulsion and thus
maximise distance between them.
iv. The valence shell is taken as a sphere with the electron pairs localising on the spherical surface at
maximum distance from one another.
v. A multiple bond is treated as it it is a single electron pair and the two or three electron pairs of a multiple
bond are treated as a single super pair.
vi. Where two or more resonance structures can represent a molecule, the VSEPR model is applicable
to any such structure.
The repulsive interaction of electron pairs decreases in the order:

lone pair  p  – lon pair  p  > long pair  p  – bond pair (bp) > bond pair (bp) > bond pair (bp)

Nyholm and Gillespie (1957) refined the VSEPR model by explaining the important difference between
the lone pairs and bonding pairs of electrons. While the lone pairs are localised on the central atom,
each bonded pair is shared between two atoms. As a result, the lone pair electrons in a molecule
occupy more space as compared to the bonding pairs of electrons. This resultant in greater repulsion
between lone pairs of electrons as compared to the lone pair - bond pair and bond pair - bond pair
repulsion. These repulsion effects result in deviations from idealised shapes and alterations in bond
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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)
angles in molecules.
For the prediction of geometrical shapes of molecules with the help of VSEPR theory it is convenient
to divide molecules into two categories as (i) molecules in which the central atom has no lone pair and
(ii) molecules in which the central atom / ion has one or more lone pairs.
Shape (molecular geometry) of some simple molecules/ions with central atom/ion having no
lone pairs of electrons (E).

Shape (molecular geometry) of some simple molecules/ions with central atom/ions having one or
more lone pairs of electrons (E).

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NOTES)

Back bonding
It is a special kind of bonding observed when a lone pair of electron is donated from one of the atom
into the vacant orbitals of other atom.
Due to back bonding there is a partial double bond character which increases the repulsion and hence
bond angle increases.

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)

F F

B
B
F F F F
sp2 Partial  character
Repulsion increases
Bond angle increases

Back bonding order : BF3 (due to matching size of B and F) > BCl3 > BBr3 >BI3
Application
1. To predict Lewis acid nature - As Back bonding increases Lewis acid nature decreases
2. To predict bond angle - As Back bonding increases bond angle increases
3. To predict the structure of some compounds - As Back bonding increases the lone pair undergo
delocalisation there by distorted geometry converted to ideal geometry.
Co-ordination bond or Dative bond (Perkins)
It is the sharing of pair of electron between the two atoms, the shared pair of electron come from
one of the atom.  This bond requires.
1. Electron rich species (Lewis base)
2. Electron deficient species (Lewis acid)

H
H 3N H+ H N H
Lewis base Lewis acid (Ammonium ion)
H

H H
+ O
O H H
(Hydronium ion)
H H

H3N BF3 H3N BF3

adduct

O N
O O O O

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Polarity developed on a covalent bond, Non polar covalent bond
NOTES)

This is due to electronegativity difference between two bonded atoms.

Non polar covalent bond
A covalent bond formed by the overlapping of same atoms or having same electronegativity.
H H O O
Polar covalent bond
A covalent bond formed by the overlapping of different atoms having different electronegativities.
 
H Cl
Dipole moment (  ) (Debye)
It is the movement of electron pair towards more electronegative atom in a covalent bond. It is a vector
quantity ie dipole moment has direction and magnitude. The magnitude can be determined by the
relation.

  ed

where e is the electronic charge and d is the distance between the two atoms.

Value of e = 1.602  10
19
C  SI  = 4.8  1010 esu  CGS
Unit of dipole moment is debye (D), esu cm and Cm
1D = 3.33564  10–30 cm

1D = 1  10 18 esu cm

Application of dipole moment

1. Prediction of percentage of ionic character

Ionic character

(50%)
1. Electronegativity difference between the = 1.7 Both ionic and covalent
bonded atoms (50%)

Covalent character

2. Hanney Smith relation

% of ionic character = 16   A   B   3.5   A   B 

2

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)

obs
3. Percentage of ionic character =   100
theoretical  e  d 

2. Prediction of geometry

F Be F
1. Co-linear molecule : 0

2. Co-planar molecule

B 0
F F

3. Regular geometry   0
A compound contain similar surrounding atoms and has no lone pair. If lone pair comes, symmetrical
lone pair contain compound also regular geometry one.

Cl

C
Cl PCl5, SF6
Cl
Cl

3. To find the resultant dipole moment

If a compound contain similar surrounding atoms, the resultant dipole moment.

  12  22  21, 2 cos  ; where 1  2


  resul tan t  21 cos
2
4. To predict the ortho, para, meta compounds.

Cl Cl Cl

Cl

Cl
Cl
1  2  3  3  0 

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS
NOTES)

5. To predict cis and trans isomers

Cl
Cl Cl R H
R R
C C
C C
R
H Cl
H H

R  0 R  0

6. Order of dipole moment

1. HF  HCl  HBr  HI

2. NH3  NI3  NBr3  NCl3  NF3

3. H3C  Cl  CH2  Cl2  CH  Cl 3  CCl 4

Exceptional

H3C  Cl  H3C  F  H3C  Br  H3C  I . This is due to in addition to electronegativity carbon-

chlorine bond length also considering
Resonance
A compound, its all the properties could not clearly explained with a single structure it could clearly
explained with more than one structures are known as resonating structures or canonical structures.


Resonating structures Resonance hybrid


O
O O :O O :O

C C C C
 
O 
O O O O O O O
Resonance hybrid

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)
Conditions and characteristics features of resonance
1. In resonating structures, in identical point contain identical atoms.
2. There is an interchange of lone pair and  bond or  bonds
3. Resonating structures have high energy, least stable and cannot be isolated.
4. Resonance hybrid is the altogether of canonical forms and has least energy and most stable.
5. There is no exact double bond and single bond their average bond length is present
6. Resonance energy is the energy difference between the resonance hybrid and most stable canonical
forms.

R.E.  EResonance hybrid  Estable canonical forms

OR

R.E.  E observed/exp erimental  Estable canonical form

7. Resonance energy increases, stability of compound increases .
Bond parameters
Bond Length : It is the distance between the nuclei of covalent bonded atoms.
Factors influencing the bond length.
1. Size of bonded atom : Size of bonded atom increases bond length increases.

H  F  H  Cl  H  Br  H  I
2. Electronegativity of bonded atom
Electronegativity of bonded atom increases bond length decreases

H  F  H  Cl  H  Br  H  I

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NOTES)

3. Multiple bonds
Multiple bonds increases bond length decreases.

H3C  CH3  H2C  CH2  HC  CH  C  C bond length 

4. Hybridisation
% s charactor increases electronegativity of bonded atom increases, bond length decreases.

H C  CH
3 3  CH2  CH2  HC  C  H
% s character 25% 33.3% 50%

5. Back bonding
Back bonding increases, bond length decreases.

F
F
B F B F

F F

6. Resonance
Among resonating structures, there is no exact double bond and single bond their average bond
length will be present.

O O
O O O O
Arrange in the increasing order of bond length.

H
O O O
O O < O O <H (O - O bond length)

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)
Bond angle :
Angle created between the two adjacent covalent bonds.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BOND ANGLE
1. Hybridisation

sp sp2 sp3 sp3d sp3d 2

180  120 
0 0
109 28 
0 /
120 0
& 90 0
 90 
0

2. Number lone pairs on the central atom

Number of lone pairs on the central atom increases, bond length decreases is due to the repulsion
between p  p  bp  p and bp  bp

CH4  NH3  H2O

p 0 p 1 p 2

3. Single electron on the central atom

Single electron on the central atom and bond pair repulsion is lower than bond pair - bond pair repulsion.

NO2 H  5  2.5. It is round to 3

2
np  0.5  H  3 sp2

Bond angle > 120°

N Bond angle = 132°
O O

4. Electronegativity of central atom

In three dimensional compounds, central atom having high electronegativity than surrounding atom,
the bond angle will be maximum.

N
P As Sb
Cl Cl > Cl Cl > Cl Cl > Cl Cl
Cl
Cl Cl Cl

Electronegativity order = N > P > As > Sb. If all the above conditions are same,
5. Bulky group on the central atom increases, bond angle increases.

O O
<
H3C CH3 CH3CH2 CH2 CH3

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS
Bond order NOTES)

Number of bonds between the two atoms.

Cl – Cl B.O. = 1
O=O B.O. = 2
NN B.O. = 3
Bond order  Bond energy /bond strength/bond dissociation energy..

1
Bond order 
Bond length
Bond order = O, –ve the molecule will not exist.
In diatomic molecules

Total electrons 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

B.O. 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

In resonating structures

No. bonds between the two atoms in all resonating structures

B.O =
Total number of resonating structures

* *
* *
For example in Benzene : 

2 1
B.O. =  1.5
2
Bond dissociation energy
The energy required to dissociate one mole of a covalent bond in a compound.
Cl –Cl Bond dissociation energy = 242 kJ/mol
H–H Bond dissociation energy = 434 kJ/mol
Bond energy
The energy released, when one mole of covalent bond formed from the gaseous atoms.
Average bond enthalpy or mean bond enthalpy
In poly atomic similar surrounding atoms present in a compound, all the bonds are not same, their
average bond length is taken.
For eg :

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)

H2O  H g   OH g  ;  a H1  502 kJmol 1

OH g   H g   O g  ;  a H2  427 kJ mol 1

502  427
Bond length of O–H bond in water =  464.5 kJ
2
FACTORS INFLUENCING BOND DISSOCIATION ENERGY
1. Size of bonded atom : Size of bonded atom increases, bond dissociation energy decreases.
Eg: HF > HCl > HBr > HI (Bond dissociation energy)
2. Multiple bonds : Multiple bonds between the two atoms increases ,bond dissociation energy
decreases.

Eg: H3C  CH3  H2C  CH2  HC  CH (C–C)

3. Lone pair on the bonded atom increases bond dissociation energy decreases.

H
H 3C CH3 > H2N NH2 > O O > F F
H
MOLECULAR ORBITAL THEORY
Molecular orbital (MO) theory was developed by F-Hund and R.S. Mulliken in 1932.The salient feature
of this theory are
i. The electrons in a molecule are present in the various molecular orbitals as the electrons of atoms
are present in the various atomic orbitals.
ii. The atomic orbitals of comparable energies and proper symmetry combine to form molecular orbitals.
iii. While an electron in an atomic orbital is influenced by one nucleus, in a molecular orbital it is influenced
by two or more nuclei depending upon the number of atoms in the molecule. Thus, an atomic orbital
is monocentric while a molecular orbital is polycentric.
iv. The number of molecular orbital formed is equal to the number of combining atomic orbitals. When
two atomic orbitals combine, two molecular orbitals are formed. One is known as bonding molecular
orbital while the other is called antibonding molecular orbital.
v. The bonding molecular orbital has lower energy and hence greater stability than the corresponding
antibonding molecular orbital.
vi. Just as the electron probability distribution around a nucleus in an atom is given by an atomic orbital,
the electron probability distribution around a group of nuclei in a molecule is given by a molecular
orbital.
vii. The molecular orbitals like atomic orbitals are filled in accordance with the aufbau prnciple obeying the
Pauli’s exclusion principle and the Hund’s rule.

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS
NOTES)
Formation of Molecular Orbitals Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)

According to wave mechanics, the atomic orbitals can be expressed by wave functions   's  which
represent the amplitude of the electron waves. These are obtained from the solution of Schrodinger
wave equation. However, since it cannot be solved for any system containing more than one electron,
molecular orbitals which are one electron wave functions for molecules are difficult to obtain directly
from the solution of Schrodinger wave equation. To overcome this problem, an approximate method
known as linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) has been adopted.
Let us apply this method to the homonuclear diatomic hydrogen molecule. Consider the hydrogen
molecule consisting of two atoms A and B. Each hydrogen atom in the ground state has one electron
in 1s orbital. The atomic orbitals of these atoms may be represented by the wave functions  A and  B .
Mathematically , the formation of molecular orbitals may be described by the linear combination of
atomic orbitals that can take place by addition and by subtraction of wave functions of individual
atomic orbitals as shown below:

Therefore, the two molecular orbitals  and   are formed as:

The molecular orbital  formed by the addition of atomic orbitals is called the bonding molecular
orbital while the molecular orbital   formed by the subtraction of atomic orbital is called antibonding
molecular orbital as depicted in figure.

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)

 
Formation of bonding    and antibonding  molecular orbitals by the linear combination of atomic
*

orbitals  A and  B centered on two atoms A and B respectively..

Conditions for the combination of atomic orbitals

The linear combination of atomic orbitals to form molecular orbitals takes place only if the following
conditions are satisfied:
1. The combining atomic orbitals must have the same or nearly the same energy. This means that
1s orbital can combine with another 1s orbital but not with 2s orbital because the energy of 2s orbital
is appreciably higher than that of 1s orbital. This is not true if the atoms are very different.
2. The combining atomic orbitals must have the same symmetry about the molecular axis. By
convention z-axis is taken as the molecular axis. It is important to note that atomic orbitals having
same or nearly the same energy will not combie if they do not have the same symmetry. For example,
2pz orbital of one atom can combine with 2pz orbital of the other atom but not with the 2px or 2py
orbitals because of their different symmetries.
3. The combining atomic orbitals must overlap to the maximum extent. Greater the extent of overlap,
the greater will be the electron-density between the nuclei of a molecular orbital.
TYPES OF MOLECULAR ORBITALS

Molecular orbitals of diatomic molecules are designated as    sigma,  (Pi),  (delta) etc.

In this nomenclature, the sigma molecular orbitals are symmetrical around the bond-axis while pi
molecular orbitals are not symmetrical. For example, the linear combination of 1s orbitals centered on
two nuclei produces two molecular orbitals which are symmetrical around the bond-axis. Such molecular
orbitals are of the  type and are designated as  1s and  * 1s. If internuclear axis is taken to be in
the z-direction, it can be seen that a linear combination of 2pz - orbitals of two atoms also produces
two sigma molecular orbitals designated as 2p z and * 2p z . Molecular orbitals obtained from 2px
and 2py orbitals are not symmetrical around the bond axis because of the presence of positive lobes
above and negative lobes below the molecular plane. Such molecular orbitals, are labelled as  and * .
A  bonding MO has larger electron density above and below the inter-nuclear axis. The * antibonding
MO has a node between the nuclei.
Energy Level Diagram for Molecular Orbitals
We have seen that 1s atomic orbitals on two atoms form two molecular orbitals designated as
1s and *1s . In the same manner, the 2s and 2p atomic orbitals (eight atomic orbitals on two
atoms) give rise to the following eight molecular orbitals:

Antibonding MOs * 2s * 2pz * 2p x * 2p y

Bonding MOs 2s 2p z 2p x 2p y

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS
NOTES)

Number of nodal plane in MO’s

1s, 2s, 2p z  0

*1s, * 2s, * 2pz , 2p x and 2p y  1

* 2px and * 2p y  2  perpendicular to each other 

The energy levels of these molecular orbitals have been determined experimentally from spectroscopic
data for homonuclear diatomic molecules of second row elements of the periodic table. The increasing
order of energies of various molecular orbitals for O2 and F2 is given below.

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)

However, this sequence of energy levels of molecular orbitals is not correct for the remaining molecules
L

2
, Be2, B2, C2, N2. For instance, it has been observed experimentally that for molecules such as B2,
i

VC2, N2, etc, the increasing order of energies of various molecular orbitals is

The important characteristic feature of this order is that the energy of 2p z molecular orbital is higher

than that of 2p x and 2p y molecular orbitals.

Electronic configuration and Molecular Behaviour

The distribution of electrons among various molecular orbitals is called the electronic configuration of
the molecule. From the electronic configuration of the molecule, it is possible to get important information
about the molecule as discussed below.
Stability of Molecules : If Nb is the number of electrons occupying bonding orbitals and Na the number
occupying the antibonding orbitals, then (i) the molecule is stable if Nb is greater than Na and (ii) the
molecule is unstable if Nb is less than Na. In (i) more bonding orbitals are occupied and so the bonding
influence is stronger and a stable molecule results. In (ii) the antibonding influence is stronger and
therefore the molecule is unstable.
Bond order :
Bond order is defined as one half the difference between the number of electrons present in the
1
bonding and the antibonding orbitals. i.e. Bond order (b.o.) =  Nb  Na  . The rules discussed above
2
regarding the stability of the molecule can be restated in terms of bond order as follows : A positive
bond order (i.e., Nb > Na) means a stable molecule while a negative (i.e. Nb < Na) or zero. (i.e. Nb = Na)
bond order means an unstable molecule.
Nature of the bond
Integral bond order values of 1, 2 or 3 correspon to single, double or triple bonds respectively as
studied in the classical concept.
Bond-length
The bond order between two atoms in a molecule may be taken as an approximate measure of the
bond length. The bond length decreases as bond order increases.
Magnetic nature
If all the molecular orbitals in a molecule are doubley occupied, the substance is diamagnetic (repelled
by magnetic field). However if one or more molecular orbitals are singly occupied it is paramagnetic
(attracted by magnetic field). e.g. O2 molecule.

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS
Bonding in some homonuclear diatomic molecules NOTES)

1. Hydrogen molecule (H2) : It is formed by the combination of two hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen
atom has one electron in 1 s orbital. Therefore, in all there are two electrons in hydrogen molecule
which are present in 1s molecular orbital. So electronic configuration of hydrogen molecule is

H2 :  1s  . The bond order of H2 molecule can be calculated as given below:

2

N b  Na 2  0
Bond order =  1
2 2
This means that the two hydrogen atoms are bonded together by a single covalent bond. The bond
–1
d i s s o c i a t i o n e n e r g y and bond length equal to
o f h y d r o g e n m o l e c u l e h a s b e e n f o u n d t o b e 4 3 8 k J m o l

74 pm. Since no unpaired electron is present in hydrogen molecule, therefore, it is diamagnetic.

2. Helium molecule (He2) : The electronic configuration of helium atom is 1s2. Each helium atom contains
2 electrons, therefore, in He 2 molecule there would be 4 electrons. These electrons will be
accommodated in 1s and *1s molecular orbitals leading to electronic configuration:

He2 :  1s   *1s 

2 2

Bond order of He2 is 1/2 (2 - 2) = 0

He2 molecule is therefore unstable and does not exist. Similarly, it can be shown that Be2 molecule

  1s   2s    2s 
2 2
 1s 
2 * 2 *
also does not exist.

3. Lithium molecule (Li2) : The electronic configuration of lithium is 1s2, 2s1. There are six electrons in
Li2. The electronic configuration of Li2 molecule, therefore, is

Li2 :  1s   *1s   2s 

2 2 2

The above configuration is also written as KK  2s  where KK represents the closed K shell structure
2

  1s 
2
 1s 
2 *
. From the electronic configuration of Li2 molecule it is clear that there are four electrons
present in bonding molecular orbitals and two electrons present in antibonding molecular orbitals. Its
bond order, therefore, is ½(4 – 2) = 1. It means that Li2 molecule is stable and since it has no unpaired
electrons it should be diamagnetic. Indeed diamagnetic Li2 molecules are known to exist in the vapour
phase.
4. Carbon molecule (C2) : The electronic configuration of carbon is 1s2 2s2 2p2. There are twelve
electrons in C2. The electronic configuration of C2 molecule, therefore, is

C2 :  1s   *1s   * 2s   2p2x  2p2y  or KK  2s   * 2s   2p2x  2p2y 

2 2 2 2 2

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)

The bond order of C2 is 12  8  4   2 and C2 should be diamagnetic. Diamagnetic C2 molecules

have indeed been detected in vapour phase. It is important to note that double bond in C2 consists of
both pi bonds because of the presence of four electrons in two pi molecular orbitals. In most of the
other molecules a double bond is made up of a sigma bond and a pi bond. In a similar fashion the
bonding in N2 molecule can be discussed.
5. Oxygen molecuel (O2) : The electronic configuration of oxygen atom is 1s2 2s2 2p4. Each oxygen
atom has 8 electron. Hence, in O2 molecule there are 16 electrons. The electronic configuration of O2
molecule, therefore, is

  1s    2s    2s   2p   2p  2p2y  * 2p1x  * 2p1y 

2 2 2
O2 :  1s 
2 * * * 2 2
z x

O2 : KK  2s   2s    2p   2p  2p2y  ,  * 2p1x  * 2p1y  

2 * 2 2 2
 z

From the electronic configuration of O2 molecle it is clear that ten electrons are present in bonding
molecular orbitals and six electrons are present in antibonding molecular orbitals. Its bond order,
therefore, is

1 1
Bond order = Nb  Na   10  6   2
2 2
So in oxygen molecule, atoms are held by a double bond. Moreover, it may be noted that it contains
* *
two unpaired electrons in  2px and  2p y molecular orbitals, therefore, O2 molecule should be
paramagnetic, a prediction that corresponds to experimental observation. In this wa, the theory
successfully explains the paramagnetic nature of oxygen.
Similarly, the electronic configurations of other homonuclear diatomic molecules of the second row of
the periodic table can be written.

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS
NOTES)

In the figure are given the molecular orbital occupancy and molecular properties for B2 through Ne2.
The sequence of MOs and their electron population are shown. The bond energy, bond length, bond
order, magnetic properties and valence electron configuration appear below the orbital diagram.
Exception :

CO+ has bond order of 3.5 because its Homo is  2s

CO has bond order of 3 (iso electronic with N2)
MOT for Heteroatomics
For isoelectronic species bond order must be same.
For Heteroatomics the orbitals of more electronegative element are less energetic but more stable
than the orbitals of less electro negative element.
Note:
For molecules or ions involving resonance

No.of bonds between any two atoms in all the resonting structres
Bond order =
Total no.of resonating structures

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)

Total no.of bonds

or Bond order =
Total no.of resonating structures

HYDROGEN BONDING
Nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine are the highly electronegative elements. When they are attached to a
hydrogen atom to form covalent bond, the electrons of the covalent bond are shifted towards the more
electronegative atom. This partially positively charged hydrogen atom forms a bond with the other
more electronegative atom. This bond is known as hydrogen bond and is weaker than the covalent
bond. For example, in HF molecule, the hydrogen bond exists between hydrogen atom of one molecule
and fluorine atom of another molecule as depicted below:
   
  H  F     H  H    H  F  . Here, hydrogen bond acts as a bridge between two
atoms which holds one atom by covalent bond and the other by hydrogen bond. Hydrogen bond is
represented by a dotted line (---) while a solid line represents the covalent bond. Thus, hydrogen bond
can be defined as the attractive force which binds hydrogen atom of one molecule with the
electronegative atom (F, O or N) of another molecule.
Cause of formation of Hydrogen bond
When hydrogen is bonded to strongly electronegative element ‘X’, the electron pair shared between
the two atoms moves far away from hydrogen atom. As a result the hydrogen atom becomes highly
electropositive with respect to the other atom ‘X’. Since there is displacement of electrons towards X,

  
 
the hydrogen acquires fractional positive charge  while ‘X’ attain fractional negative charge  .
This results in the formation of a polar molecule having electrostatic force of attraction which can be
represented as:
    
H  X     H    H  X 
The magnitude of H-bonding depends on the physical state of the compound. It is maximum in the
solid state and minimum in the gaseous state. Thus, the hydrogen bonds have strong influence on the
structure and properties of the compounds.
Types of H-Bonds : There are two types of H-bonds
i) Intermolecular hydrogen bond
ii) Intramolecular hydrogen bond
1. Intermolecular hydrogen bond : It is formed between two different molecules of the same or different
compounds. For example, H– bond in case of HF molecule, alcohol or water molecules, etc.
2. Intramolecular hydrogen bond : It is formed when hydrogen atom is in between the two highly
electronegative (F, O, N) atoms present within the same molecule. For example, in o-nitrophenol the
hydrogen is in between the two oxygen atoms.

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS
Intramolecular hydrogen bonding in o-nitrophenol molecule. NOTES)

Inter molecular H bonded compounds have

1. B.P., Viscosity, Surface tension, specific heat capacity are very high
2. Intermolecular hydrogen bonded compounds are less volatile than intramolecular H bonded compounds.
3. At room temperature, H2O exists as liquid but H2S exists as gas because in H2O intermolecular H
bond is present
4. Even though ethanol is a organic compoundwhich soluble in water is due to intermolecular H bonding
5. KHF2 is known but KHCl2 is not known because in KHF2 intermolecular hydrogen bond is present
6. Order of B.P.

H 2 O  H 2 Te  H 2Se  H 2S

HF  HI  HBr  HCl
AsH 3  NH 3  SbH 3  PH 3

SnH 4  GeH 4  SiH 4  CH 4

ADDITIONAL INFORMATIONS
1. Hybridisation involving in other chapters.
Allene :

H H
C C C
2 sp H
H sp sp2

Central C atom used sp hybridised orbitals. Surrounding C atoms used sp2 hybridised orbitals. End
two hydrogen atoms are present in perpendicular plane.ie all the atoms are not in the same plane.
Cummelene

H H
C C C C
sp2 sp sp sp2 H
H
Central two carbon atoms are used sp hybridised orbital
End two carbon atoms are used sp2 hybridised orbitals.
All the atoms are in same plane.
Benzyne

sp2 hybridised

sp2 hybridised orbital

sp2-sp2 overlapping bond
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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)

Homolytic fission
H3C  CH3   2H3C . (sp2)


Heterolytic fission
H3C  CF3   H3C CF3
sp2 sp3
Exceptional
CF3 trifluoromethyl radical. sp3 hybridised orbitals used.
 diamond  sp3
 graphite and fullerene  sp2
dim erises
 BH3   B2H6
sp2 sp3diborane

Cl
vapour phase
 BeCl2 
dim erises
 Cl Be Be Cl
sp
Cl
sp2

Cl
in solid phase
 BeCl2   Be Be
polymerises
sp Cl
sp3

PX5(g )  sp3d X  F,Cl, Br, I

 PCl 4  PCl6 
solid phase dim erises  
2PCl5 
3 3 2
sp sp d

 PBr4  Br 
solid phase 
PBr5 
sp3

 PI4  I
solid phase 
PI5 
sp3

H3N BF3  F3N BF3

SP 3 SP 2 sp3 sp3

CuSO4. 5H2O contains

1. Ionic bonds
2. Covalent bonds
3. Co-ordinate bonds
4. Hydrogen bonds

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS
NOTES)

Py  d xy 

or 
Px  d xy 

or  p  d
Py  d yz 

or 

Py  d xy 

d z2  d z2 

dxy - dxy  bond

d x 2  y2  d x 2  y2 also form  bond

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LONG TERM ( LONG TERM (ONLINE CLASS NOTES)

Eg :  Re 2 Cl8 
2
. Di Rhenium Octa chloride ion. Contain quadraple bond.

CuSO4 . 5H2O

2+
H 2-
H
O H
O H O O
2+ H
Cu S
O
H O
O H O H O
H-bond
H

Covalent bond Co-ordinate bond

Ionic bond

51