Repeaters-2021-Medical-Chemistry

CHAPTER - 02
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

There is a vast diversity in the living world so it is very difficult to study each and every organism. So it
is essential to group them in various categories based on their similarities and dissimilarities.
There are three main systems of classification - Artificial, Natural and Phylogenetic.
I. Artificial system of Classification
It is based on one or few morphological characters for grouping of organisms. Some have used habit
and habitat for this purpose. Aristotle (350 BC) divided plants into herbs, shrubs and trees. He also
divided animals into two groups - Enaima (with red blood) and Anaima (without red blood). Pliny the
Elder (23 - 79 AD) used artificial system of classification for both plants and animals. Linnaeus also put
forward an artificial system of plant classification on the basis of number of stamens.
II. Natural system of Classification
It is a system of classification which takes into consideration comparable study of a number of characters
so as to bring out natural similarities and dissimilarities and hence natural relationships among the
organisms. The system employs those characters which are relatively constant. They include
morphological characters, anatomical characters, cytological characters, physiology, ontogeny or
development, reproduction, cytochemistry and biochemistry, experimental taxonomy etc. The
characteristics are helpful in bringing out maximum number of similarities in a group and comparable
differences with other groups of organisms. A natural system for classification of seed plants was
proposed by Benthem and Hooker (1862 - 1883)
III. Phylogenetic System of Classification
Classification based on evolutionary relationships of organisms is called phylogenetic system of
classification. First phylogenetic system was proposed by Engler and Prantl (1887 - 1999)
Depending upon the type of system of classification, organisms are classified into two or three kingdoms,
four kingdoms, five kingdoms and now into six kingdoms.
1. Two Kingdom Classification
In Linnaeus time a Two kingdom system of classification with Plantae and Animalia. Kingdoms was
developed that included all plants and animals respectively. This system was mainly based on presence
or absence of cell wall. This system did not distinguish between the eukaryotes and prokaryotes,
unicellular and multicellular organisms and photosynthetic (green algae) and non-photosynthetic (fungi)
organisms.
Classification of organisms into plants and animals was easily done and was easy done and was easy
to understand, but , a large number of organisms did not fall into either category. Hence the two
kingdom classification used for a long time was found inadequate.

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Besides, morphology, a need was also felt for including other characteristics like cell structure, nature
of cell wall, mode of nutrition, habitat, methods of reproduction, evolutionary relationships, etc.
Classification systems for the living organisms have hence, undergone several changes over the
time.
2. Three Kingdom Classification
Ernst Haeckel (1866) separated unicellular animals, algae and fungi from other organisms on the
basis of lack of tissue differentiation. The new group was called kingdom Protista. Later on fungi and
multicellular algae were taken out from the group so that kingdom protista came to have only unicellular
organisms divided into three kingdoms - Plantae, Protista and Animalia.
3. Four Kingdom Classification
With the advent of electron microscope, it became clear that bacteria and related organisms have a
different nuclear structure as compared to others. They are prokaryotes in contrast to others which
have a true nucleus and are called Eukaryotes. Copeland (1956) created a separate kingdom for
them - Monera. This divided the living world into four kingdoms - Monera, Protista, Plantae and Animalia.
In this system, fungi continued to remain with the plants.
4. Five Kingdom Classification (From 1969 to 1990)
In order to develop phylogenetic classification, R.H. Whittaker (1969), an American taxonomist, divided
all the organisms into five kingdoms. As the viruses are on the border line of living and non-living, they
have been left out. He started kingdom fungi. Thus Whittaker’s five kingdoms are Monera, Protista,
Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
5. Three Domain System (Six Kingdom Classification - 1990)
This system was introduced by Carl Woese, O.Kandler, M.L. Wheelis. He divided cellular life forms
into three domains - Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya. Woese argued, on the basis of differences in
16S rRNA genes, that bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes each arose separately from an ancestor with
poorly developed genetic, machinery, often called a progenote.
1. Domain Archaea : It contains a single kingdom.
(i) Kingdom Archaebacteria
2. Domain Bacteria :- There is a single kingdom
(ii) Kingdom Eubacteria
3. Domain Eukarya : It has four kingdoms
(iii) Kingdom Protista
(iv) Kingdom Fungi
(v) Kingdom Plantae
(vi) Kingdom Animalia
Five Kingdom Classification
The main criteria for classification used by Whittaker include :
(i) Cell structure [Prokaryote / Eukaryote]
(ii) Body organisation [Unicellular / Multicellular]
(iii) Mode of nutrition [Autotroph / Heterotroph]
(iv) Reproduction

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(v) Phylogenetic relationships

Advantages of Five Kingdom Classification
1. Separation of prokaryotes in to a separate kingdom - Monera
2. Separation of unicellular eukaryotes into kingdom Protista - eg. Chlamydomonas, Chlorella
3. Separation of fungi into a separate kingdom
4. Here animal and plant kingdoms are more than they are in two kingdom classification
5. It has tried to bring out phylogenetic relationships even amongst the primitive forms
6. Placement of Euglena in kingdom Protista
Drawbacks of Five Kingdom Classification
1. Monera and Protista contain both walled and wall - less organisms, photosynthetic and non-
photosynthetic organisms, unicellular, filamentous organisms.
2. Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria in structure, composition and physiology
3. Mycoplasmas are quite different from bacteria where they have been placed along with prokaryotes
4. Viruses have not been included in this system of classification.

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KINGDOM MONERA
Monera is a kingdom of prokaryotes. It includes the most primitive forms of life. Being the earliest
forms of life, monerans are adapted to all types of habitats. They are found everywhere (cosmopolitan
in distribution). They occur in unicellular, colonial or filamentous forms.
There are two major groups - of monerans.
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria
Archaebacteria
They are primitive or first formed bacteria (ancient bacteria). They live in extreme environmental conditions
like high acidity, high salt concentration etc. They survive in such conditions due to the specialised
composition of their cell wall. Their cell wall is made up of a polysaccharide called Pseudomurein.
The cell membranes are characterised by the presence of a monolayer of branched chain lipids.
Archaebacteria are of three major types - Thermoacidophiles, Halophiles, Methanogens.
1. Thermoacidophiles
They are temperature, acid loving bacteria. They are gram negative bacteria. They are facultative
anaerobes. Basically they are chemosynthetic.
They often live in hot sulphur springs and can tolerate temperature as higher as 80oC and pH as low as
2. eg. Thermoplasma, Thermoproteus, Thermus aquaticus
2. Halophiles
They are salt loving bacteria. They are gram negative and facultative anaerobes. They are
chemoheterotrophs. They live in hyper saline lagoons, salt lakes, dead sea etc. They have reddish
pigment called baceriorhodopsin in their membrane to trap sunlight and form ATP directly, under
anaerobic conditions. This ATP is not used for the synthesis of food. eg. Halobacterium and Halococcus
3. Methonogens
They are methane producing bacteria. They are gram negative and obligate anaerobes. They are
found in marshy habitat, swamps, sewage treatment plants and in the gut of several ruminant animals
like cows and buffaloes. So the dung of these animals consist of these bacteria and can be used in
biogas plant. eg. Methanobacterium, methanococcus
EUBACTERIA
Father of modern bacteriology - Louis Pasteur. They are true bacteria and cell wall is made up of
peptidoglycan / Murein / Mucopeptide which is a combination of polysaccharides and aminoacids.
Peptidoglycan is a rigid molecule and it is a heteropolysaccharide. It has long glycan strands which are
made up of :
NAM → N-acetyl muramic acid
NAG → N-acetyl glucosamine
These glycan strands are interconnected by short peptide chains which have a few aminoacids.
Eubacteria are classified into two :
1. Bacteria 2. Cyanobacteria
BACTERIA
Bacteria were first discovered by Leeuwenhoek in 1676. Ehrenberg coined the term ‘bacteria’. Bacteria
are of different size and shape. The average size of a bacterium is 3 − 5µm .

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Shapes of Bacteria
Bacteria are of 4 categories based on their shape. They are :

1. Coccus / cocci - spherical shaped

2. Bacillus / Bacilli - Rod shaped

3. Spirillum / Spirilli - Spiral shaped

4. Vibrium / Vibrio - Comma shaped

Classification of Bacteria based on the number and position of flagella

The various forms of flagellation are as follows :-
a) Atrichous - Flagella absent
b) Monotrichous - A single flagellum occurs at or near one end of bacterium

c) Amphitrichous - A single flagellum at each of the two ends

d) Cephalotrichous - A group or tut of flagella is found only at one end

e) Lophotrichous - A tuft group of flagella occurs at each of the two ends or poles.

f) Peritrichous - A number of flagella are distributed all over the surface.

Bacteria have different life style. Though the bacterial structure is very simple, they are very complex in
behaviour. Bacteria show the most extensive metabolic diversity, because some are anaerobes and
others are aerobes, some are autotrophs others are heterotrophs. Different forms like nitrifying,
denitrifying, ammonifying, nitrogen fixing etc. forms are there in bacterial community.
NUTRITION IN BACTERIA
Some bacteria are autotrophs, majority of others are heterotrophs.

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AUTOTROPHIC BACTERIA
They can prepare their own food. They are of two types. Photoautotrophic bacteria and
chemoautotrrophic bacteria.
Photoautotrophic bacteria
They can prepare their own food. They lack chlorophyll ‘a’. So they are not taking water as reducing
agent. So oxygen is not released in their photosynthesis. So their photosynthesis is Anoxygenic. They
have photosynthetic pigments like bacteriochlorophyll and bacterioviridin.
Photoautotrophic bacteria can be classified into two.
They are : Photolithotrophic purple sulphur bacteria
Photolithotrophic green sulphur bacteria
Purple Sulphur Bacteria (Chromatium)
They use inorganic sulphur compounds such as Na2S2O3 as a source of electron. Here photosynthetic
pigment is bacteriochlorophyll.
Green Sulphur Bacteria (Chlorobium)
They use H2S as a source of protons and electrons. They pigment is bacterioviridin.
Some other photosynthetic bacteria : Purple non sulphur bacteria. eg. Rhodospirillum
Chemoautotrophic Bacteria
They prepare their food using chemical energy. They oxidise various inorganic substances such as
nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and use the released energy for their ATP production. They play a great
role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron and sulphur.
They are of different types :
1) Nitrifying bacteria eg. Nitrosomonas, nitrobacter, nitrococcus
2) Sulphur bacteria eg. Beggiotoa, Thiobacillus, Thio-oxidans
3) Methane bacteria eg. Methanomonas
4) Hydrogen bacteria eg. Hydrogenomonas
5) Iron bacteria eg. Ferrobacillus, Ferro-oxidans
Heterotrophic Bacteria
They depend upon other organisms for their food. They are the most abundant bacteria in nature. They
are of different types :
Simple Saprophytes
Decomposer Saprophytes
Parasites
Symbionts
SIMPLE SAPROPHYTES
They live on organic matters like food-stuff and release digestive enzymes to the surroundings. These
substances digest the complex organic molecules into simple organic and inorganic molecules. Then
these are absorbed by them through general body surface.
eg. Lactobacillus or LAB / Lactic Acid Bacteria : which help in making curd from milk.

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Bacteria which are used for the production of antibiotics.

DECOMPOSERS
Decomposers are the saprophytes which live on dead plant and animal bodies. They cause decaying
and decomposing of dead bodies by breaking down complex organic compounds into simple organic
and inorganic compounds.
eg. Ammonifying bacteria like Bacillus ramosus, Bacillus mycoiles, Bacillus valgaricus
PARASITES
They are pathogenic bacteria which cause damage to humans like cholera - Vibrio cholerae, typhoid -
Salmonella typhi / S. typhimurium, tetanus - Clostridium tetani etc.
Xanthomonas citri causes citrus canker in citrus fruits.
SYMBIONTS
eg. Rhizobium and roots of leguminous plants. Rhizobia are symbiotic nitrogen fixers.
E.coli [Escherichia coli] seen in human intestine. They help to absorb vitamin B-12 from our food and
they synthesis vitamin B12.
REPRODUCTION IN BACTERIA
Bacteria reproduce mainly by asexual method binary fission during favourable conditions. During
unfavourable conditions bacteria from endospores.
True sexual reproduction is absent in bacteria ‘so called’ sexual reproduction methods are seen by
adopting a primitive type of DNA transfer from one bacterium to another. The methods are :
1. Conjugation - Lederberg and Tatum discovered in 1946. Bacterial DNA is transfered from one to
another through conjugation canal.
2. Transduction - Zinder & Lederberg (1952) - Transfer of DNA from one bacteria to another by virus.
3. Transformation - Griffith (1928)
EXTRA POINTS
→ Father of modern bacteriology - Louis Pasteur
→ Smallest bacterium : Dialister pneumosinetes
→ Largest bacterium : Epulopsicum fishelsoni
: Thiomargarita namibiensis
→ Bdellovibrio bacteriovorous : Bacteria that attack other bacteria. They help to maintain the purity
of River Ganga
CYANOBACTERIA
They are also known as blue-green algae because once they were included in plant kingdom along
with algae. But as they were prokaryotes they were transferred into monera. So they are moneran
algae. All of them are photoautotropic and aerobic. They have photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll a
and phycocyanin (blue colour) which is a type of phycobilin. Their photosynthesis is oxygenic.
They occur as unicellular, colonial or filamentous forms. They can be marine or Freshwater forms.
Some of them are terrestrial forms but they need moisture. They often form algal blooms in polluted
water bodies.
Many of the cyanobacteria are nitrogen fixers ie, they convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia.

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eg. Nostoc, Anabaena, Oscillatoria

The colonies are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath. In nostoc and anabaena nitrogen fixation
occurs in specialised cells called heterocyst.
Heterocyst are large, pale yellow coloured thick walled cells, which contains nitrogenase enzyme
which is needed for nitrogen fixation. Nostoc and anabaena can fix nitrogen freely and symbiotically.
Nostoc has symbiotic association with coralloid roots of Cycas. Anabaena has symbiotic association
with Azolla. So azolla can be used as bio fertilizer.
♦ Nostoc is called Moonspit, Fallenstar, star jelly
♦ Trichodesmium erythraceum → Red sea
♦ Spirulina is used as single cell protein [SCP]
MYCOPLASMA
They are otherwise called PPLO → pleuropneumonia like organism. They are the smallest living cell
or organism. They completely lack a cell wall. They are anaerobs. They were discovered by Nocard &
Roux. They are :
♦ Witches broom in legumes
♦ Bunchy top of papaya
♦ Little leaf disease of brinjal
♦ Bovine pleuropneumonia in cattle
ACTINOMYCETES
They are filamentous bacteria. Once they were included in Fungi. Majority antibiotics are extracted
from actinomycetes. Antibiotics like streptomycin, Aureomycin, Chloromycin, tetramycin, neomycin.
Some cause disease in humans eg. Mycobacterium tuberculae causes tuberculosis, M. leproae causes
leprosy, Cornybacterium diphthereae causes diptheria.
Ricketssios
1. It causes typhus fever, Rocky mountain spotted fever, Scrub fever.
KINGDOM PROTISTA
Protists are unicellular and eukaryotes. Boundaries of this kingdom are not well-defined. Unicellular
fungi plants and animals are included in Protist. They are primary aquatic.
This kingdom forms a link with other kingdoms.
→ Their cell contains a well defined nucleus and membrane bounded organelles.
→ Some have flagella or cilia or pseudopodia as locomotary structures.
→ They reproduce asexually and sexually. Sexual reproduction is by a process involving cell fusion
and zygote formation.
Based on their mode of nutrition, kingdom Protista can be classified into three. They are:
1. Photosynthetic protists
2. Saprophytic protists
3. Protozoan protists
PHOTOSYNTHETIC PROTISTS
They are also called Protistian algae. Different forms are their in this group. The most common three
types are:

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1. Chrysophytes
2. Dinoflagellates
3. Euglenoids
These are unicellular algae and all of them are photosynthetic
Chrysophytes
This group include golden algae (Desmids) and Diatoms. They are found in fresh water as well as
marine environment. They are microscopic and float passively in water currents. So they are called
Phytoplankton.
Diatoms are golden-brown algae. Their body is covered by siliceous cell wall halves called frustules.
The cell wall has two thin overlapping halfs which fit together as in a soap box. The larger frustule is
called epitheca and smaller frustule is called hypotheca. The frustules are indestructurable. Diatoms
have left behind large amount of cell wall deposits in their habitat. This accumulation over billions of
years is referred to as “Diatomaceous earth”. Being gritty this soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils
and syrups. It is used as insulation material in refrigerators and boilers. It is used as cleaning agent in
tooth paste. It is used to make sound proof room. Diatomaceous earth is also called Diatomite or
Kiselgur.
Diatoms have photosynthetic pigments like chlorophyll ’a’, chlorophyll ‘c’, carotenes, diatoxanthin etc.
The reserve food is chrysolaminarin and Oil.
They multiply by binary fission. Repeated fission reduces the size of daughter cells. It is corrected by
the development of Rejuvenescent cells [Auxospores]
Diatoms are the chief producers in the ocean
eg for diatoms
→ Navicula
→ Triceratium
→ Pinnularia
When diatoms where in plant kingdom they were included in the class Bacillariophyta.
Dinoflagellates [Pyrrophytes]
They are mostly marine. The photosynthetic pigments are chlorophyll ‘a’, chlorophyll ‘c’, fucoxanthin
and other carotenoids. So they appear in different colours like yellow, green, brown, blue or red.
Reserve food is starch and oil. They have cellulosic cell wall which has stiff cellulose plates on the
outer surface.
Most of them have two flagella. One lies longitudinally and projects out of the cell and the other flagellum
lies transversely in furrow between the cell wall plates.

Red dinoflagellates are common. Very often they undergo rapid multiplication that thus make the sea
appear red which is called Red tide
eg: Gonyaulax, Gymnodinium

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At this time they release neurotoxins like Saxitoxin and Brevitoxin which kill marine animals like fishes.
Extra
→ Some dinoflagellates show bio-luminescence and are called fire algae. eg: Noctiluca
→ Dinoflagellates are only group of eukaryotes which lack histone proteins associated with DNA. So
their nucleus is called mesokaryon.
Euglenoids
This group includes euglena and other related organisms. Majority of them are fresh water forms and
found in stagnant water. They lack cell wall, instead of cell wall they have protein rich layer called
Pellicle which makes their body flexible. They have two flagella- one short and one long. At the base of
the flagella there is a photo receptor region called Eyespot/Stigma. Eye spot is made up of a red
pigment called Astaxantin. Their nutrition is Mixotropic - they are photosynthetic in the presence of
sunlight but when there is no sun light they behave as heterotrophs by predating on other smaller
organisms i.e., holozoic. They have the photosynthetic pigments identical to those present in higher
plants like chlorophyll ‘a’, chlorophyll ‘b’, xanthophyll, carotens. Contractile vacoules are there for
osmoregulation and excretion.
The reserve food is paramylum granules.

SAPROPHYTIC PROTISTS
Slime moulds
They were once included under fungi under the class Myxomycetes. Slime mould lack cell wall. So in
favorable conditions the cells form an aggregation called plasmodium which may grow and spread
over several feet. The body moves along decaying twigs and leaves engulfing small organic molecules.
But they are basically saprophytes but can show holozoic nutrition.

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During unfavorable conditions plasmodium differentiates and forms fruiting bodies called sporangia
which bear spores. The spores posses true walls. They are extremely resistant and survive for many
years even under adverse conditions. These spores are dispersed by air currents. Slime moulds are
of two types:
Acellular eg: Physarum, Physarella
Cellular eg: Dictyostelium
PROTOZOAN PROTISTS
They were included under animal kingdom. They are believed to be primitive relatives of animals. The
protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites. Based on their locomotory structure
they are classified into four:
1. Amoeboid protozoans
2. Flagellated protozoans
3. Ciliated protozoans
4. Sporozoans
Amoeboid Protozoan
These include amoeba and related organisms. They live in fresh water, sea water or moist soil. They
move and capture their prey by putting out pseudopodia.
eg: Amoeba
Marine forms have silica shells on their surface. A parasitic form is Entamoeba histolytica - causing
amoebiasis or amoebic dysentery in humans (spread through contaminated water)
Flagellated Protozoan [Zooflagellates]
They have flagella as the locomotary structure. The members of this group are either free-living or
parasites. The parasitic form cause diseases in humans
eg: 1. African sleeping sickness- Trypanosoma gambiense: while they are in the human blood they
cause Gambia fever. While they are in the brain they cause sleeping sickness. They are transmitted by
tse-tse fly [Glossinia palpalis]
2. Kala azar- Leishmania donovani : It is transmitted by sand fly [Phlebotomus argentipes]
3. Symbiotic flagellated protozoan: Trichonympha and Lophomonas are symbiotic in intestine of termites
and wood cockroaches.
Ciliated Protozoan
They have cilia as the locomotary structure. They are aquatic. They actively move through water
because of presence of thousands of cilia. They have a cavity called gullet that opens to the outside of
cell surface. The coordinated movement of rows of cilia causes the water laden with food to be steered
into the gullet.
eg: Paramecium [first observed by Anton Van Laeewn hoek he called it as slipper animalcules].
Paramecium is binucleated- macronucleus and micronucleus [ control the activity of cell][controls
reproduction]. Contractive vacoule of or osmoregulation and excretion.

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Sporozoans
They lack locomotary structures. They include diverse organisms that have an infectious spore like
stage in their lifecycle. The most notorious one is Plasmodium vivax- malarial parasite, which causes
malaria in humans. Plasmodium is transmitted by female anopheles mosquito.
KINGDOM FUNGI
Study of fungi - mycology
Father of mycology -Pier Antonio Micheli
Father of Indian mycology - E.J. Butler
Father of modern mycology - Anton de Bary
Fungi are multicellular heterotrophs. Yeast is the exception. Yeast is the group of unicellular fungi.
Fungi show diversity in morphology and habitat. These are found in all habitats like soil, air, mouth,
skin, hair, eyes on decaying matters etc. It shows in warm and humid places.
VEGETATIVE BODY
Vegetative body of fungi is filamentous except yeast. It consist of long slender thread like structures
called hyphae. The network of hyphae is known as mycelium. Hyphae are of two types aseptate hyphae
and septate hyphae. Aseptate hyphae lack cross walls or septa so they are continuous tubes filled with
multinucleated cytoplasm and this condition is called coenocyte.

Aseptate hyphae is a primitive character of fungi septate hyphae have cross wall it is an advanced
feature of fungi..
CELL WALL

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Cell wall is made up chitin/ fungal cellulose. Chitin contain nitrogen containing polysacchride and it is
the beta polymer of NAG [N-acetyl glucosamine]. In some cell wall is composed of cellulose.
eg: Phytophthora, Pythium
NUTRITION
Fungi are strictly heterotrophic. Different types are
1. Simple saprophytes eg: Bread mould (Rhizopus).
2. Decomposers saprophytes eg: Mushroom.
3. Parasites eg: Ring worm in humans
4. Symbionts eg: eg: Lichens (association between fungi and algae), Mycorrhiza -association between
fungi and roots of higher plants. Roots of the plants provide a shelter and food for fungi. Fungi absorb
minerals and water from the soil. Mycorrhiza are of two types:
1) Ectomycorrhiza, 2) Endomycorrhiza. In ectomycorrhiza fungi are seen on the surface of roots. In
endomycorrhiza fungi are seen within the roots. The most common type is VAM (Vesicular arbuscular
mycorrhiza).
REPRODUCTION
Reproduction in fungi takes place mainly vegetatively and fragmentation, fission, budding are the most
common type of vegetative reproduction methods.
Asexual reproduction in fungi is by the production of asexual spores like conidia/conidiospores,
Sporangiospores, zoospores etc.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
During unfavorable conditions fungi prefer sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction is also by spore
formation. The sexual cycle involves three steps. They are :
1) Plasmogamy : It is the fusion of protoplasm of gamates. Gamates can be motile or non-motile.

2) Karyogamy : It is the fusion of nuclei to form diploid zygote.

3) Zygotic meiosis : Zygote undergoes meiotic division to form haploid cells. These cells act as the
sexual spores like Oospores, Ascospores and Basidiospores. These spores germinate and produce
haploid hyphae.

In higher fungi like Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes there is an interval of time between plasmogamy
and karyogamy. This phase is called Dikaryotic phase.
Based on the morphology of mycelium, mode of spore formation and fruiting bodies, kingdom fungi is
divided into 4 classes. They are:
1) Phycomycetes
2) Ascomycetes
3) Basidiomycetes
4) Deuteromycetes

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PHYCOMYCETES (Algal Fungi / Conjugation Fungi)

They are found in aquatic habitats and on decaying wood, in moist and damp places or as obligate
parasites on plants. Mycelium are aseptate and coenocytic.
Reproduction- Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation.
Asexual reproduction is by the formation of asexual spores like Zoospores (motile) and Aplanospores
(non-motile). These spores develop endogenously inside sporangia.
Sexual reproduction is of three types based on the nature of gametes. They are:
i) Isogamy : Male gamate and female gametes are similar. They can be motile or non-motile.

ii) Anisogamy : Male gamate is small and motile, female gamete is large and motile.

iii) Oogamy : Male gamate is small and motile, female gamate is larger and non-motile, then the female
gamate is called edd or ovum.

After plasmogamy and karyogamy zygote is formed and this zygote is called Zygospore. Zygospore
undergoes meiosis to form sexual spores called Oospores.
eg: Rhizopus (Bread mould)
Albugo - albugo is a parasite on mustard plants. It causes white rust on mustard leaves.
Pythium debaryanum - causes damping of seedlings.
Phytophthora infestans - Causes late blight of potato
Sclerospora - causes downy mildew of cereals.
Saprolegnia - aquatic phycomycetes (saprophytes)
Mucor - grows on jams, horse dung. Terrestrial
ASCOMYCETES
Commonly called Sac fungi. Mycelium is multicellular septate, branched . Yeast is unicellular. They
are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous (growing on dung)
reproduction by fragmentation and asexually by the formation of asexual spores called conidospores
or conidia. Conidia are produced exogenously at the tip of vertical hyphae called conidiophore.

→ → →

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Sexual reproduction is by the fusion of cells of opposite strain of hyphae. Here the vegetative cells of
hyphae directly act as gamates. The plasmogamy of the gametes results in the formation of a sac- like
structure called Ascus. After dikaryotic phase and karyogamy diploid zygote is formed. It undergoes
zygotic meiosis to form 4-8 haploid sexual spores called ascospores. Hence the formation of ascospores
is endogenous. ie., they are produced inside the ascus.
In higher ascomycetes numerous asci aggregate to form complex fruiting bodies called ascocarp.
Ascocarp are of 4 types. They are:
1. Apothecium - cup shaped
2. Perithecium - flask shaped
3. Cleistothecium - closed
4. Hysterothecium - elongated with a slit.
eg: Yeast [saccharomyces ceriviseae/Bakers’s yeast/Brewer’s yeast].
Pencilium notatum [Green/blue mould]
Peziza - coprophilous
Aspergillus flavus - [weed of laboratory] - It produces a carcinogenic cancer causing) toxin called
Aflatoxin.
Claviceps purpurea - It causes ergot disease in wheat and bajva. It is used for the production of a
halucinogen called LSD [Lysergic acid diethylamide]
Neurospora crassa [pink mould] - It is used extensively in biochemical and genetic work.
Gibberella fujikuroi
Edible ascomycetes
1. Morels - Morchella
2. Truffles - Tuber aestivum
BASIDIOMYCETES [Club fungi]
They grow in damp soil on logs and tree stumps and also as parasites.
The mycelium is branched and septate.
Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation. No asexual reproduction. Like ascomycetes here also
there are no sex organs. Steps of sexual reproduction are same as that in ascomycetes. But here the
spores are produced on club-shaped structure called basidia. Basidiospore are produced exogenously
on basidium. In higher basidiomycetes numerous basidium aggregate to form basidiocarp. Hook shaped
outgrowths or clamp connections are found on the side of septate of hyphae.
eg: Common edible mushroom [Agaricus campestris]
Amanita - the most poisonous mushroom. (Toad stool)
Polyporus [Bracket fungi]
Lycoperdon [Puff ball]
Rust [Puccinia]
Smut [Ustilago]

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DEUTEROMYCETES [Fungi imperfecti]

This class is considered as artificial group because the vegetative or asexual phase of this fungi are
only know. When the sexual forms of these fungi are discovered they were moved into classes they
rightly belong to it. It is also possible that asexual and vegetative phase have been given a name and
the sexual stage another. When the linkage were established the fungi where correctly identical and
moved out of deuteromycetes and they were often moved to ascomycetes and basidiomycetes.
T h e d e u t e r o fragmentation and asexual spores called conidia. Mycelium
m y c e t e s r e p r o d u c e b y

septate and branched. The members of this class are saprophytes or parasites. Majority of them are
decomposers of litter (plant waste) and help in mineral recycling.
eg: Alternaria : causes early blight of potato and tomato
Colletotrichum falcatum : causes red rot of sugarcane
Trichoderma
Helmithosporium - Brown leaf spot disease of rice
Cercospora sps - Tikka disease of ground nut
Tinea rubrum : athlete foot disease in humans
Trichophyton - ring worm of beard
Microsporum - ring worm of scalp and body
KINGDOM PLANTAE
Plants are eukaryotic, photoautotrophs. Some members are partially or completely heterotrophs.
Examples for the insectivorous plants
Insectivorous plants are partial heterotrophs. They live in nitrogen deficient soil. So for nitrogen nutrition
they trap insects, kill and digest them and absorb nitrogen compounds from the dead bodies of insects.
eg: Pitcher plant [Nepenthes]
Venus fly trap [Dinoea]
Sun dew plant [ Drosera]
Bladder wort [Utricularia] -aquatic
Butter wort [Pinguicula]
Parasitic plants
Parasitic plants depend upon other plants for water, minerals and food. They produce haustoria or
sucking roots for taking water and minerals from xylem and food from phloem.

Typical plant cell consist of chloroplast and cell wall is made up of cellulose.
Plant kingdom includes:
1) Algae
2) Bryophytes
3) Pteridophytes
4) Gymnosperms

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5) Angiosperm
Plants show a unique property called alternation of generation. The life cycle of plants consist of two
distinct generation, They are;
i) A haploid generation called gametophyte (n)
ii) A diploid generation called sporophyte (2n)
Gametophyte produces gamate by mitosis and sporophyte produces spore by meiosis

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
Animals are heterotrophic, multicellular, eukaryotes which lack cell wall. They directly or indirectly
depend on plants for food. They show holozoic nutrition by injection of food and digestion occurs in an
internal cavity and store food as glycogen and fat.
They show a definite pattern of growth and adults have a definite shape and size. Higher animals show
elaborate sensory and neuromotor mechanism. Most of them are capable of locomotion. Sexual
reproduction is by copulation followed by embryological development. In many of the higher animals
parental care is seen.
VIRUSES
Viruses are not truly living. They are characterised by having an inert crystalline structure outside the
living cell. Then they are called Viron. Once they infect a living cell they take over the machinery of the
host cell to replicate themselves and killing the host. Virus is considered as connecting link between
living and non living being.
The term virus was given by Louis Pasteur. The term virus means “venom’ or poisonous fluid. D.J
Ivanowsky [1892] First discovered virus . He recognized certain causal organisms of tobacco mosaic
disease. He found that these agents are smaller than bacteria and they can pass through bacteria
filters.
M.W. Beijerineck [1898] demonstrated that the extract of the infected plants of tobacco could cause
infection in healthy plants and he called the fungi as ‘Contgium vivum fluidum’ meaning infectious
living fluid.
W.M Stanley [1935] first crystallized and isolated virus
STRUCTURE OF VIRUS
Viruses are obligate parasites. They have a protein coat and a genetic material. Genetic material could
be either RNA or DNA. No virus contains both RNA and DNA. Thus a virus is a nucleoprotein and the
genetic material is infectious.
In general viruses that infect plants have single stranded RNA [ssRNA]. Virus that infect animals have
either single or double stranded DNA virus. Bacteriophages were discovered by Twort.
The protein coat of virus is called ‘capsia’ which is made up of small subunits called capsomeres are
arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric forms.

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Viruses cause diseases in humans like AIDS, Mumps, Small pox, herpes and influenza, common cold
etc caused by Rhinovirus. In plants the symptoms of viral disease are mosaic formation; leaf rolling
and curling, yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.
VIROIDS
In 1971, T.O Diener discovered viroids. Viroids are small than viruses but they lack the protein coat.
Viroids are free RNAs. The RNA of the viroid is of low molecular weight. It causes potato spindle tuber
disease.
PRIONS
These protineous, infectious particles discovered by Alper and the term was given by Prusiner. Prions
cause scrapie in sheep and goats, mad cow disease or Bovine spongi form encephalopathy or Craeu’z
feldt-Jacob disease, Kuru disease or the laughing death and alzhemer’s disease.
LICHENS
Lichens are the symbiotic association between algae and fungi. The algae component is called
Phycobiont and fungal component is called mycobiont. Algae are autotrophic and fungi are heterotrophic.
Algae provides food to the fungi and fungi provide shelter and absorb mineral nutrients and water for
algae.
The algae will be blue-green algae or unicellular green algae. The fungal partners will be members of
ascomycetes. Lichens are very good pollution indicators i.e., they donot grow in polluted areas. They
are highly sensitive to SO2. Lichens are of three types.
1) Crustose - eg: Graphis
2) Foliose - eg:Parmelia, Peltigera
3) Fruticose - eg: Cladonia (Reindeer moss], Usnea, Rocella tinctoria [Litmus is extracted]
Reproduction of lichens is mainly by asexual bodies called Soredia and Isidia.
Sexual reproduction of lichens is performed only by fungal partner. It produces ascospores.

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