BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

CHAPTER - 12
ELECTROSTATICS - I
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

ELECTROSTATICS - I
Electricity is the branch of physics which deals with study of charges. The studies are classified into
two types
(i) Electrostatics : This deals with study of charges at rest
(ii) Electrodynamics or current electricity : This deals with study of charges in motion
Frictional Electricity
Consider two neutral bodies. Electrical neutrality is due to the equality in the number of electrons and
protons. When they are rubbed together, heat energy is developed at their contact surface due to
friction. Using this energy, some electrons are transfered from one body to another. Body loosing the
electrons gain a positive charge due to deficiency of electrons and the body gaining these electrons
gain an equal negative charge due to excess of electrons. These charges are known as frictional
electricity.
e.g : When glass rod is rubbed with silk cloth, electrons are transferred from glass to silk. So glass
gets a positive charge and silk an equal negative charge.
Usually, electrons are removed from the body in which they are less tightly bound to the nucleus and
are transferred to the body in which they are more tightly bound to the nucleus. The minimum energy
required to remove an electron from a body is known as work function. So electrons are removed from
body with lesser work function and transferred to the body with more work function. So work function
is less for glass and more for silk.
The least value of charge that can be transferred between two bodies when they are rubbed together
is the charge of a single electron, e = 1.6 × 10-19 C. So it is treated as the basic unit of charge. So the
positive or negative charge that can appear on a body will be an integer multiple of electronic charge.
This fact is called quantisation of charge.

Q =  ne ; n = 1, 2, 3, .....

Here n is the number of electrons transferred when two bodies are rubbed or the excess number of
electrons in a negative body or deficient number of electrons in a positive body.
eg : Consider a body with 1C positive charge. Then deficient number of electrons are

Q 1
n  19
 6.25  1018
e 1.6  10
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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

Q
If a charge Q flows for a time t, then current established; I   Q  It
t
 ne  Qt
Here n is the number of free electrons move through the wire.
Unit of charge : Coulomb (SI)
esu of charge (cgs)
IC = 3 × 10 esu
9

Dimensions of charge = AT
Properties of charge
(i) Charge is quantised
(ii) For an isolated system, total charge is conserved
(iii) Charge is a scalar
(iv) Charges can flow and the direction of charge flow between two bodies is determined by their potential
values.
(v) When two identical conducting bodies are made in contact, total charges are equally shared between
them. But this is not true for non identical bodies.
(vi) Charges accumulate at the sharp edges of a conducting body.
(vii) Like charges repel while unlike charges attract. But attraction is possible between a charged body and
a neutral body. Repulsion happens only between charged bodies. So only repulsion characterise a
charge.
Charging by conduction
It is a method of charging in a neutral conductor by using a direct contact with a charged body. When
a contact is made, free electrons travel from A to B. Hence positive charge on B reduces but due to
electron loss an equal positive charge appears on A. Here loss of charge in one body results a gain in
charge on the other. Also only similar type of charge can be produced.

Charging by induction
This is a charging method which does not require a direct contact between bodies.

So induction followed by proper earthing is required for charging by induction.

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

Coulomb’s law
It gives the electrostatic force between two point charges.

q1q 2 1 q1q 2
F or F
r2 4 r 2
  absolute electrical permittivity of the medium between the charges. If free space or vacuum is
12 2
present between the charges,  is used as  0 , the permittivity of free space. 0  8.85 10 C / Nm .
2

1 q1q 2 1
In such a case; F  4 r 2 40
 9  109
0

Unit of  is C2/Nm2.

A2T 2
Dimensions of   2 2
 M 1L3T 4 A 2
MLT L

 and  0 are related as;   K 0 or    r  0

K  dielectric constant or  r  relative permittivity of the medium. It is the property of a medium by

which it opposes the passage of electric interaction through it. K values are ;
Vacuum air good conductor (metal) Perfect insulator
K=1 K 1 K K=0

1 q1q 2
 Fair 
40 r 2 . If a dielectric medium K is filled in the entire spacing between charges.

1 q1q 2 1 q1q 2
Fmed = 4 r 2  4 K r 2
0

Fair
Fmed 
K
Characteristics of electric force
(i) It is a conservative force
(ii) It is either repulsive or attractive
(iii) It is a central force. So the direction of electric force between charges always acts along the line joining
their centres
(iv) Direction of attractive force on a charge is always towards the other charge and the direction of repulsive
force on a charge is always away from the other charge along the line joining their centres.

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

(v) Force between two charges is independent of presence of other charges but depends on the medium
between charges.
(vi) Electric force is a strong force
(viii) If a medium of dielectric constant K is filled between the charges, force is
1 q1q 2 1 q1q 2 1 q1q 2
F  
4 0 K r 40 r K
  4 0 d 2
2 2

d  r K , is the interactive distance between charges. This idea is used to find the force between
charges when more than one dielectrics are present between the charges.
eg :

r1 r2 r3
1 q1q 2
q1 K1 K2 K3 q2 F
4 0 d 2

d  r1 K1  r2 K 2  r3 K 3
Null point (Neutral point)
It is a point in a region of charges where the net electric force is zero.
e.g. 1 : Two like point charges
Here null point lies between the charges on the line joining them. Null point will be more close to the
charge with lesser magnitude.

r r
x from q1. x  from q2
q2 q1
1 1
q1 q2
e.g. 2 : Two unlike point charges
Here null point lies outside the system of charges on the line joining them, more close to the charge
with lesser magnitude.

r r
x x 
q q1
1  2 from q1 1
q1 q2
e.g. 3 : If equal charges are placed at all the corners of a polygon of equal sides, its geometrical centre is
a null point

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ELECTRIC FIELD
It is a region surrounding a charge where the influence due to that charge exist. Charge producing the
field is called a source charge and all other charges are test charges. Any point outside this region is
called in finity. The word influence means any test charge entering into this region will experience a
force of attraction or repulsion.

The strength of influence at a point in the field is given by a vector called electric field intensity ( E ). At
a point it is defined as the force experienced by a unit positive charge placed at that point.

F N V
E
q0 Unit =
C
or
m
 E   MLT 3A 1
Theoretically this test charge (q0) must be selected infinitesimally small so that its field at its position
can be neglected.

 F
 E  lim  
q0 0 q
 0

Direction of electric field depends on the sign of source charge. If source charge is (+), direction of E
at a point is directed away from source charge and if source charge is negative, it is directed towards
the source charge along the line joining the point to the centre of the source charge.

Electric field due to a point charge

Consider a point P at a distance r from a point charge Q.

1 Q
Then field at P, E  4 r 2
0


Consider a sphere of radius r with P on the surface and Q at centre. Then E acts radially outwards. If

Q is negative, E is directed radially inwards. That is why the electric field produced by a point charge
is called radial electric field.

Consider a number of point charges q1, q2, q3...... in a region. P is a point in the region at respective
distances r1, r2,....... from the charges.

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  
If E1 , E 2 , E 3 ,....... are the electric fields at P due to these charges, then net field at P can be calculated
  
using superposition principle as E  E1  E 2  .......

Uniform Electric field

It is an electric field where both value and direction of field is same at every point. To produce it, we
need to take two identical metallic plates and place them close and parallel to each other. Give a
positive charge to one plate and equal negative to the other. Then in the region between the plates field
will be uniform, directed from positive to negative plate.


If field varies by value or direction or both from point to point, it is a non uniform E field.

Behaviour of a charge placed in a uniform E

Consider a charged particle of mass m and charge q placed at a point in a uniform E .

When field is switched ON, at once charge experience a force F = qE. If charge is positive, direction of
force is same as the direction of field and if charge is negative, direction of force is opposite to the
direction of field. Due to this force, charge starts moving with an acceleration a.

F = ma

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qE
 ma  qE  a   uniform 
m
So after time t ;
Velocity V = u + at

qEt
 V
m

1 2 qEt 2
displacement, S  ut  at  S 
2 2m

1 q2E2 t 2
KE gained = mV   qES
2

2 2m
Here initial KE is zero for particle. But after a time t, it gains a KE. So KE of a charged particle changes
in an electric field.
Then using work-energy theorem we can conclude that, the electric field can do work on a charge
given by ;
  
W  F.S F  qE
  
W  q E .S  S  displacement

So using work-energy theorem,

work done = change in KE

  1
 
q E .S  m  V 2  u 2 
2
u  initial speed
V  final speed

Power delivered by E to change at any instant
 
P  F.V
 

P  q E.V 

Hence an E can do work and deliver power to a charge. It can change the speed and also KE of
charge. But magnetic field cannot do any of these things on a charged particle. Both electric field and
magnetic field can deflect a charge.

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
Charge Entering a uniform E
Consider a charged particle of charge q and mass m entering a uniform electric field E with a speed u
(i) Parallel Entry
(a) Positive Charge

Here charge experience a supporting force from the field and get accelerated. So when it leaves the
field KE of charge gets increased.
(b) Negative Charge
Here charge experiences an opposing force from the field and get decelerated. So it slows down. Here
we can consider two situations.
Situation 1 : Charge may finally leave the field with a reduced speed.

Situation 2 : Charge may come to a momentarily rest status before leaving the field. After that it will
return along the same path and finally leave the field at the same point and with the same speed as that
of its entry. This is because electrostatic field is conservative.

So when a (+) charge enter parallel to a uniform electric field, work done by field on charge is always
(+). But when a (-) charge enter parallel to a uniform field, work done by field on charge is either
negative or zero.
(ii) Antiparallel Entry
Here the above cases are just reversed. That is when a (+) charge enter antiparallel to the field, work
done by field on the charge is either negative or zero. When a (-) charge enter antiparallel to the field,
work done by field on the charge is always positive. During parallel and antiparallel entry, charge follows
straight line paths.
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(iii) Perpendicular Entry

Due to F, charge deflects into a curved path as shown. Let it reaches a point P after time t.

X - direction Y- direction
U x  U, a x  0 qE
U y  0, a y  , Sy  y
m
Sx  x
1
1 Sy  U y t  a y t 2
Sx  U x t  a x t 2 2
2
x  Ut 1 qE x 2
y  0
2 m U2
x
t  (1)
U qEx 2
y 2
y  x2
2mU

So path is a parabola charge leaves the field at point C. Let  be the length of the plates used for
producing uniform field. At point C; x   and y  h

qE  2
h This is the linear deflection produced on the charge by field .
2mu 2

Let  be the angular deflection caused by E on the path of charge.

qE x
Vy u y  a yt
tan     m u  x  
Vx u u

qE 

mu 2

 qE  
  tan 1  2 
 mu 

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Electric Dipole
A pair of equal and opposite point charges separated by a short vector distance is called an electric
dipole.

Vector separation is known as dipole length. Its direction is from - q to + q.


 
A dipole is characterised by its electric dipole moment P . It is the product of magnitude of one of the
charges and dipole length
 
P  q  2 Unit : (m or Debye (D))

It is a vector whose direction is from - q to + q.

Dipoles are usually found in the molecular world. Consider an HCl molecule. An electron pair is shared
between them. Since Cl atom is more electronegative, the shared electron pair will be more shifted
towards Cl atom. So Cl atom gets a partial negative charge and H atom an equal partial positive
charge.

 
H : Cl

So it behaves like a molecule of permanent dipole moment. Such molecules with permanent electric
dipole moment are known as polar molecules.
eg : HCl, HBr, HF, H2O, NH3 etc.
If we consider a water molecule, the ten protons in it generates a (+) charge centre and ten electrons
a (-) charge centre. At normal state, these charge centres lie at a small separation, giving a net dipole
moment to the water molecule.

P = Charge of 10 protons × 2 

But there are certain molecules which do not posess permanent electric dipole moment. Such molecules
are called non polar molecules.
eg : CO2, BeF2, CH4 etc.
If we consider a non polar molecule, the (+) and (-) charge centres coincide so that dipole length is

zero. So dipole moment is zero. But if we apply a strong E to such a molecule, (+) and (-) charge
centres tend to seperate and hence they gain a electric dipole moment. Such a dipole is called an
induced dipole.

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Electric field due to a dipole

Consider a dipole of charge q, dipole length 2 and dipole moment p.

(i) At an axial point

1 2pr
Field at axial point A; E ax 
4 0  r 2   2 2

For a short dipole   r. Then

1 2p
E ax 
4 0 r 3

Direction of electric field at an axial point is same as the direction of dipole moment. But if the point lies
between the charges, direction of electric field will be opposite to that of dipole moment.
(ii) At an equatorial point
An equatorial line is a perpendicular bisector to the dipole.

At equatorial point A;

1 P
E eq 
40  r 2   2 3/ 2

For a short dipole;   r. Then

1 P
E eq 
4 0 r 3

Direction of electric field at an equatorial point is opposite to the direction of dipole moment
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(iii) At any point surrounding dipole

 
For p cos  component, A is an axial point and for p sin  component, A is an equatorial point. Let they
produce fields Er (radial component) and E  (angular component) at point A respectively..

1 2P cos  1 P sin 
Er  ; E 
4 0 r 3
4 0 r 3
net field at A

1 P
E  E 2r  E 2  E 3cos 2   1
4 0 r 3


 
Let, net field at A E makes an angle  with r . Then E r  E cos  and E   E sin  .

 1 P sin  
 
E  40 r 3  tan 
  tan   
Er  1 2P cos   2
 
 40
3
r 

1
 tan   tan 
2

Dipole placed in a uniform E

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Since equal and opposite forces are acting on the dipole, net force on the dipole is zero. But these
equal and opposite forces constitute a couple and produce a torque.
  qE  perpendicular distance between forces

 qE  2 sin    q  2  E sin 
  
  PE sin  or   P  E

 
If dipole is perpendicular to field   90 , torque is maximum. max  PE
0

If dipole is either parallel or perpendicular to field, torque will be zero.

Time period of rotation or vibration of dipole in a uniform field is;

I
T  2 I  moment of inertia of dipole about its centre of mass
PE
Hence in a uniform electric field dipole experience a net torque but zero net force (translational
equilibrium).    graph is a since curve. But in a non uniform electric field dipole experience both net
force and net torque.
Work done to rotate a dipole
When a dipole is placed at an angle  to a uniform electric field, it experience a torque. Work done by
an external agent to rotate the dipole through a small angle d against this torque

dW  d  PE sin d

Then total workdone to rotate the dipole from an initial angle 1 to final angle  2 with the field

2

W   dW   PE sin d
1

= PE  cos   1

W  PE  cos 1  cos 2 

Since E is conservative this work done appears as change in potential energy stored in the dipole.

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

U  PE  cos 1  cos 2 
To find the absolute potential energy of a dipole at a particular position with the field, let us assume that,
potential energy is zero when dipole is placed perpendicular to field. From there, let dipole is rotated to
a position where it makes an angle  with the field.

U 2  U1  PE  cos 1  cos 2 

When 1  900 , U1  0,  2  , U 2  U

U  0  PE  cos 90  cos  
 
U  PE cos  Or U  P  E

So potential energy -  graph is a cosine curve

Equilibrium of a dipole in a uniform field

Consider different positions of a dipole rotating in a uniform electric field

(i) When dipole is parallel to field (   00 )

  PEsin 0  0 , U = - PEcos0 = - PE(minimum)

So here dipole is in equilibrium with least potential energy and hence is in stable equilibrium.

(ii) When dipole is perpendicular to field (   900 )

  PEsin 90 = PE(maximum), U = - PEcos90 = 0

Here dipole is not in equilibrium

(iii) When dipole is antiparallel to field (   1800 )

  PE sin 80  0 , U = - PEcos180 = + PE (maximum)

So here also dipole is in equilibrium but with maximum potential energy and hence is in unstable
equilibrium
So in a uniform electric field, dipole is always in translational equilibrium. In two positions, dipole is in
rotational equilibrium also. So when a dipole rotates in a uniform electric field, there are two positions
of equilibrium, one is stable and the other is unstable.
Force on a dipole in a non uniform field

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Consider a dipole of charge q and dipole length dr placed in a non uniform field as shown. Let Er and
E(r + dr) are the electric fields at positions of - q and + q. So forces are ;
F - q = qEr; F+q = q E(r + dr)
net force; F = F-q - F+q = q[Er - E(r + dr)]

dr  dE 
F=q dE   q  dr   q × dr = P
dr  dr 

 dE 
F  P 
 dr 

Force between two dipoles

Consider two dipoles of moments P1 and P2 placed on the same axis at a separation r

Here each dipole is placed in the non uniform electric field produced by other. Field at the position of P2
due to P1

1 2P1
E
4 0 r 3 (non uniform)
So P2 experience a force

 dE  d  1 2P1 
F  P   P2  
 dr  dr  40 r 3 

1 d1 1 3
 2P1P2  3 2P1P2  4
4 0 dr  r  40 r

1 6P1P2 1
F F
4 0 r 4 r4

This is the force between the dipoles. If the second dipole is placed on the equatorial position of
dipole1, then force between them

1 3P1P2
F
4 0 r 4

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Charged bodies with continuous charge distribution

Coulomb’s law can be used only to find electric field due to point charges. But there are bodies with
larger size like sheet, ring, sphere etc. over which charges are continuously distributed. To find electric
field due to such bodies, we cannot use coulomb’s law. For such bodies we can define three type of
charge densities.

(i) Linear charge density   

Let a charge Q is distributed along a line of length L. Then its charge per unit length is the linear charge
densities.

Q dq
 or  
L d
For bodies like thin conductor, circular arc, ring etc we define 

(ii) Surface charge density   

Let a charge Q is distributed on the surface of body having area A. Then its charge per unit area is
called surface charge density   

Q

A
For bodies like thin sheet, thin disc etc, we define 

(iii) Volume charge density   

Let a charge Q is distributed over the entire volume of a body V. Then its charge per unit volume is
called volume charge density   

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+ + +
+
+ + +

Q
V
I. Field due to a line of charge

Q+ dx
+ + + +
P
+ + + + + r
E=?
x

To find E at P we cannot use coulomb’s law as the body is not a point charge. So we need to use
integration. Consider a small element dx as shown. It can be taken as a point charge. Charge on
element
Q
dq  dx

Field at P due to element

1 dq 1 Q  dx 
dE    
40 x 2
4 0   x 2 
Total field at P;
r  r 
1 Q dx 1 Q  1 
E
40  
r
x 2
  
40   x r

1  Q  1 1 1 Q
    
40     r   r  4 0 r  r   
II. Field due to a charged arc
Consider a charge circular arc of radius R, line density  , subtending an angle  at the centre.
+ +
+  +

 R

O
field at centre[o] of arc

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 Q Q
E sin   
 R 
2  0 R 2 ( : In radian)

III. Field due to a charged circular ring

Field at O can be calculated using the above equation, with   

 Q
E 
20 r R
IV. Field due to charged circular ring

+
+
+ R
E
+O + x P
+ +
Q

At axial point (P)

1 Qx
E
4 0  R 2  x 2 3/ 2

At centre (O)

X=0 E0

Field will be maximum; x   R / 2

V. Field due to charged circular disc

+
+R
o x P
++
+

At axial point (P)

  x 
E 1  
20  R2  x2 
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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

At centre (O)


x = 0, E  2
0

Electric field lines

If we place a (+) charge at a point, large number of invisible lines are sprayed out of it with the help of
these lines charge produces an electric field in its surrounding. If we draw a tangent at any point on this

line it gives the direction of E at that point.
An electric field line is a line or a curve surrounding a charge such that tangent drawn at any point gives
the direction of electric field at that point.
Properties
(i) Field lines start from a(+) charge and terminate on (-) charge.

+ - + -

(ii) Field lines are continuous but they never form closed loops
(iii) Number of field lines surrounding a charge is directly proportional to the magnitude of charge
(iv) In a strong field, lines are closely spaced and in a weak field, they are far separated

1
If d is the separation between field lines, then E 
d

(v) In a uniform E , lines are parallel and equally spaced
(vi) Two field lines never intersect
(vii) Lines between two unlike charges contact longitudinal causing an attraction
(viii) Lines from two like charges exert lateral pressure on one another causing a repulsion
(ix) Electric field lines always start or terminate perpendicular to the surface of a conducting body
(x) Field lines never penetrate into the inside regions of a conducting body

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

Electric flux   
Flux is generally an amount of a vector field passing normally through a surface. Consider a plane

surface of area A placed in a uniform field E . Then electric flux of that surface is the total number of
field lines passing normally through that surface

  EA cos 
 
  E.A

For calculating flux, area is taken as a vector, whose direction is perpendicular to the plane of surface
 
outwards. Here  is the angle between E and A


  90 0 - angle between E and plane of surface.
Case 1 : If plane of surface is perpendicular to field

  90  90  00
  EA cos 0  EA (maximum)
Case 2 : If plane of surface is parallel to field

  90  0  900
  EA cos 90  0 (minimum)
Electric flux for a volume enclosing surface
For a two dimensional planar surface, flux is the total number of field lines passing through it. But for a
three dimensional volume enclosing surface, flux can be defined in three ways.
(i) flux entering (ii) flux leaving (iii) net flux

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

consider a cubical surface in an electric field. Lines can enter and leave the cube through all six faces.
Flux entering and flux leaving gives the total number of lines entering and leaving the surface. Then net
flux is; net  leaving  entering

leaving     , entering  

 net  leaving  entering

Case 1 :

Here leaving  entering

net    
This indicates that a net positive charge is present inside the cube.
Case 2 :

Here leaving  entering

 net    
This indicates that a net negative charge is present inside the cube.
Case 3 :

Here leaving  entering

 net  0

So net charge inside is zero. If a volume enclosing surface is placed in a uniform E , then net  0 for
it .

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

Gauss’s law
Consider a charge (q) placed at a point. Let it is placed inside a closed spherical surface. Consider a

small elementary area ds on its surface. If E is the electric field over the element, then flux through the
element
 
d  E .ds
Net outward flux through the surface
 
   E.ds
S

1
According to Gauss, the net outward flux from a charge enclosing surface is equal to
0 times the net
charge enclosed by the surface.

1
 q net
0

  1
 E.ds  q net
0

To find the number of field lines coming from a (+ 1C) charge, we can use this law. For that let us first
enclose this (+ 1C) inside a closed surface.

Then it is equal to net outward flux from that closed surface.

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

1 1
 q net  12
 1  1.13  1011
0 8.85  10
Case 1 : Flux of a closed surface depends only on the charges enclosed. But if we consider any point
on the surface, the electric field will be due to all the charges in the region. Flux of this surface depends
only on q1 and -q2. But if we find field at P, it is due to all the charges q1, -q2 and q3.

Case 2 :

Here total flux of cube is due to q1 only. But if we consider flux of right face, it depends on both q1 and
q2
Case 3 : Let a point charge is placed at the centre of a cube.

1
q
Total flux of cube =
 0 . Since q is at centre, this flux will be equally shared by all 6 faces.  flux

q
through one face =
6 0

Case 4 : Let a dipole is placed inside a closed surface. Since q net  0, net  0
Case 5 : Let a point charge is placed at a distance of a/2 below the centre of a square face of side a.

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

Here we cannot directly apply Gauss’s law because q is not enclosed inside a closed surface. So let
us consider five other similar faces to complete a cube such that q will be at the centre of cube. Then
1
out of the total flux q /  0 through entire face, will come through the given square face.
6

q
Flux through given square face = 6
0

Case 6 : Let a point charge q is placed at one corner of a cube. Consider 7 other similar cubes sharing
that corner. Then q will be at the centre of a closed surface formed by 8 cubes. So the net charge
enclosed by one cube qnet = q/8

1 q q
 Net flux from cube =   8   8
0   0

If we consider the 3 faces which contain the corner in which charge is placed, no flux will be associated.
So the total flux will be equally shared by 3 other faces.

1 q  q
 each face  0 OR each face   
3  80  24 0
Case 7 : Let a point charge q is placed at the centre of the base of a hemisphere.

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

Imagine a similar hemisphere to complete a sphere with q at centre. Then out of total flux q /  0 through

entire sphere, half  q / 2 0  will come through given hemisphere.

Applications of Gauss’s theorem
Coulomb’s theorem can be used to find the electric field due to point charges only. To find the field
produced by charged bodies of larger size, we use Gauss’s theorem. This theorem is applied in two
steps.
Step 1 : Imagine a closed surface called Gaussian surface enclosing the large. For this we can use
the points
(i) The point at which field is to be calculated must appear on the surface of the Gaussian surface
(ii) It should not pas through discrete charges but can pass through continuous charges
(iii) It is better to use symmetric Gaussian surface. It is a surface over which field value is the same at
every point
  1
Step 2 : Apply the equation 
 E.ds 
 0 qnet over the surface and find E
I. Field due to infinite line of charge

 1
Field at P; E  2 r E
0 r

II. Field due to infinite thin conducting sheet


field at P E  2
0

E is independent of r

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021


For a thick sheet; E  
0


For a non conducting sheet; E 
2 0

PRODUCTION OF UNIFORM E

Consider two infinite thin conducting sheet placed parallel and are given with equal and opposite surface

charge densities. Field due to the sheet are, E1  E 2 
2 0


So in the region between the plates, field is uniform with a value E 
 0 and direction from the positive
plate to negative plate. Beyond the plates field is zero.
Charge distribution over conducting bodies
A conducting body contains a large number of free electrons inside. So if a charge is given to any
inside point of a conducting body, free electrons will take these charges to its outer surface.
(i) Charges do not stay inside a conducting body
(ii) If a charge is given to a conducting body, these charges will be distributed only over its outer
surface
(iii) For an isolated regular conducting sphere, such a charge will be uniformly distributed over its
outer surface. But if surface is irregular or any surrounding charges are present, distribution will become
nonuniform
III. Electric field due to conducting sphere/hollow sphere
For a spherical charge distribution, Gaussian surface is a concentric sphere with the point where the
field is to be calculated on its surface.
Let a charge Q is given to an isolated conducting sphere of radius R. It will be uniformly distributed only
over its outer surface. So we can define only surface charge density (  ) and not volume charge
density (  ).
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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

+
+ r P1

+
O
P2
R
a
R
+
P3
+

Q

4R 2
To find the field at a point, imagine a Gaussian sphere through that point. Then only the charges
enclosed by that sphere will produce field at that point.

Outside point (P1) Surface point (P2)

1 Q r=R
E out  1 Q Q  4R 2 
4 0 r 2 Esurface 
4 0 R 2 
E out  1/ r 2
E surface 
0

Inside point (P3) Centre (0)

Gaussian sphere through P3 E=0
encloses no charge. So
E in  0
Not only for a conducting sphere, for every conducting body, net electric field at an inside point is
always zero

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

Field due to concentric thin conducting spheres

To find field at a point, imagine a concentric Gaussian sphere through that point only the charges
enclosed by that sphere constitute field at that point and is given by
1 Q net
E
4 0 R 2
Qnet  net charge enclosed by the gaussian sphere
R  distance to that point from centre

P2
r2
r r1 r3
P3
P P1
Q1
-Q2
Q3

Point P Point P1
Gaussian sphere through P Gaussian sphere through P1
encloses no charge enclose a charge Q1
 Q net  0  Q net  Q1 , R  r1

 EP  0 1 Q1
E P1 
4 0 r12

Point P2 Point P3
Gaussian sphere through P2 Gaussian sphere through P3
encloses charges Q1 and - Q2 encloses all charges
 Q net  Q1  Q 2 , R  r2  Q net  Q1  Q 2  Q3

1  Q1  Q2  R = r3
E P2    1  Q1  Q 2  Q3 
40  r22  E P3   
40  r32 
IV Field due to nonconducting sphere of uniform density
A nonconducting body lacks free electrons. So if a charge is given to any inside point of such a body,
that charge will bound to that point. Let a charge Q is uniformly distributed over the entire volume (V).
Then its volume charge density
Q
P
4 3
 R 
3 

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

Outside point (P1) Surface point (P2)

1 Q
E
4 0 r 2 1 Q
E surface 
4 0 R 2
E out  1/ r 2
Inside point (P3) Centre (0)

a
E in 
3 0
E=0
Ein  a

Note : Consider a non conducting sphere of volume charge density  . Let a small portion is removed from
it to form a cavity inside

Consider a point P inside the cavity

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021


Field at P  (OO) and is directed along the line OO. So it is independent of the position of P. So
30
every where inside the cavity field is uniform.
Electrostatic shielding
Consider a uniform electric field (E0) applied between two identical metallic plates. If we consider the
field lines between the plates, all the field lines starting from the (+) plate will terminate all the (-) plate.
E0
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
Q -Q

Now a conducting sheet  K    is inserted in the region between the plates. Then induction happens
and induced charges are accumulated as shown. Then all the electric field lines starting from the (+)
plate will terminate at the (-) ve induced charge. But an equal number of field lines start from the (+)
induced charge on the other side of the conductor and terminate on the (-) plate. So no field lines
penetrate into the inside regions of the conducting sheet. So net electric field at the inside region of the
conducting sheet is zero. Hence we can conclude that the inside regions of the conducting sheet is
free from the electric effects outside. This is called electrostatic shielding and such a conducting
cavity is called a Faraday’s cage.

Q conductor -Q
- +
+ -
E net=0
- +
+ -
- +
+ -
- +
+ -

-Qin +Qin

In actual practice E0 will surely enter the region inside the conductor. Then an another electric field is
developed inside the conductor due to the induced charges accumulated at the surface.

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

 
 
Direction of this field E in is opposite to the direction of E 0 so that net field in the region,

 1
Enet = E0 - Ein, where E in  E 0  1  
 K

for a conductor, K    E in  E 0

 E net  E 0  E 0  0
Hence Ein cancels E0 before it make any effects
Charge distribution in parallel conducting plates
If a charge Q is given to an isolated conducting plate, that charge will be equally distributed in its two
surfaces.

But for more than one parallel conducting plates, this is not the case because charge distribution in
one plate is influenced by the charges on the neighbouring plates by induction. In such a case charge
distribution is done using the following rules
Q
(i) Charges appearing at the two extreme surface are equal and is given by . [  Q = algebraic
2
sum of all charges]
(ii) Charges appearing at the near by surfaces of the neighbouring plates are equal and opposite
(iii) Total charge in any plate will be conserved

eg :  Q  6Q

Charge distribution on concentric conducting spherical shells

Consider an isolated conducting spherical shell. It has an inner surface as well as outer surface. If a
charge Q is given to it, the charge will be distributed only over its outer surface.

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

No charge will appear on the inner surface.

If we consider concentric conducting spherical shells, the charge distribution is done using the following
rules.
(i) Charge directly given to a shell will be distributed only its outer surface
(ii) Charges will appear at the inner surface only due to induction. Charge appearing at the inner surface
of a conducting shell will be equal and opposite to the charge appearing on the outer surface of its
neighbouring inner shell. But an induced charge of same sign will appear on the outer surface also.

eg : Q1, Q2  Charges given

Q1

Q2

Charges after distribution

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