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Sotirios E. Louridas · Michael Th. Rassias

Problem-Solving
and Selected
Topics in Euclidean
Geometry
In the Spirit of the Mathematical
Olympiads
Foreword by Michael H. Freedman
Problem-Solving and Selected Topics
in Euclidean Geometry
Sotirios E. Louridas r Michael Th. Rassias

Problem-Solving
and Selected
Topics in Euclidean
Geometry

In the Spirit of the Mathematical

Olympiads

Foreword by Michael H. Freedman

Sotirios E. Louridas Michael Th. Rassias
Athens, Greece Department of Mathematics
ETH Zurich
Zurich, Switzerland

ISBN 978-1-4614-7272-8 ISBN 978-1-4614-7273-5 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-7273-5
Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013938266

Mathematics Subject Classification: 51-XX, 51-01

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection
with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered
and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of
this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the
Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer.
Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations
are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of pub-
lication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any
errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect
to the material contained herein.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Foreword

Geometry has apparently fallen on hard times. I learned from this excellent trea-
tise on plane geometry that U.S. President James A. Garfield constructed his own
proof of the Pythagorean Theorem in 1876, four years before being elected to an
unfortunately brief presidency.
In a recent lecture, Scott Aaronson (MIT) offered a tongue-in-cheek answer to the
question: “Suppose there is a short proof that P = NP?” with, “Suppose space aliens
assassinated President Kennedy to prevent him from discovering such a proof?”
I found it pleasant to wonder which half of the two clauses was less probable. Sadly
he concluded that it was more likely that space aliens were behind Kennedy’s as-
sassination than that a modern president would be doing mathematics. Perhaps this
book offers hope that what was possible once will be possible again.
Young people need such texts, grounded in our shared intellectual history and
challenging them to excel and create a continuity with the past. Geometry has
seemed destined to give way in our modern computerized world to algebra. As with
Michael Th. Rassias’ previous homonymous book on number theory, it is a pleasure
to see the mental discipline of the ancient Greeks so well represented to a youthful
audience.
Microsoft Station Q Michael H. Freedman
CNSI Bldg., Office 2245
University of California
Santa Barbara, CA 93106-6105
USA

v
Acknowledgements

We feel deeply honored and grateful to Professor Michael H. Freedman, who has
written the Foreword of the book.
We would like to express our thanks to Professors D. Andrica, M. Bencze,
S. Markatis, and N. Minculete for reading the manuscript and providing valuable
suggestions and comments which have helped to improve the presentation of the
book. We would also like to thank Dr. A. Magkos for his useful remarks.
We would like to express our appreciation to the Hellenic Mathematical Society
for the excellent program of preparation of the young contestants for their partici-
pation in Mathematical Olympiads.
Last but not least we would like to offer our thanks to Dr. F.I. Travlopanos for his
invaluable help and for his useful suggestions.
Finally, it is our pleasure to acknowledge the superb assistance provided by the
staff of Springer for the publication of the book.
Sotirios E. Louridas
Michael Th. Rassias

vii
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 The Origin of Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 A Few Words About Euclid’s Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1 Basic Concepts of Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.2 On Related Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.3 On Necessary and Sufficient Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Methods of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.1 Proof by Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.2 Proof by Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.3 Proof by Contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.4 Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3 Fundamentals on Geometric Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1 A Few Facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.1 Examples on Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3 Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3.1 Symmetry with Respect to a Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3.2 Symmetry with Respect to an Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4 Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4.1 Examples of Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.5 Homothety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.5.1 Examples of Homothety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.6 Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.6.1 Inverse of a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.6.2 Inverse of a Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.6.3 An Invariance Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.6.4 Basic Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

ix
x Contents

3.6.5 Another Invariance Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.6.6 Invertibility and Homothety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.6.7 Tangent to a Curve and Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.6.8 Inversion and Angle of Two Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.6.9 Computing Distance of Points Inverse to a Third One . . . 43
3.6.10Inverse of a Line Not Passing Through a Pole . . . . . . . 44
3.6.11Inverse of a Circle with Respect to a Pole Not Belonging
to the Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.6.12 Inverse of a Figure Passing Through the Pole of Inversion . 46
3.6.13 Orthogonal Circles and Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.6.14 Applications of the Inversion Operation . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.7 The Idea Behind the Construction of a Geometric Problem . . . . . 51
4 Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.1 Geometric Problems with Basic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.2 Geometric Problems with More Advanced Theory . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3 Geometric Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.1 Geometric Problems with Basic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.2 Geometric Problems with More Advanced Theory . . . . . . . . . 124
6.3 Geometric Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
A.1 The Golden Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Index of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Chapter 1
Introduction

μη μoυ τ oυς κ ύκλoυς τ άρατ τ .

(Do not disturb my circles.)
Archimedes (287 BC–212 BC)

In this chapter, we shall present an overview of Euclidean Geometry in a general,

non-technical context.

1.1 The Origin of Geometry

Generally, we could describe geometry as the mathematical study of the physical
world that surrounds us, if we consider it to extend indefinitely. More specifically,
we could define geometry as the mathematical investigation of the measure, the
properties and relationships of points, lines, angles, shapes, surfaces, and solids.
It is commonly accepted that basic methods of geometry were first discovered
and used in everyday life by the Egyptians and the Babylonians. It is remarkable that
they could calculate simple areas and volumes and they had closely approximated
the value of π (the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle).
However, even though the Egyptians and the Babylonians had undoubtedly mas-
tered some geometrical techniques, they had not formed a mathematical system of
geometry as a theoretical science comprising definitions, theorems, and proofs. This
was initiated by the Greeks, approximately during the seventh century BC.
It is easy to intuitively understand the origin of the term geometry, if we ety-
mologically study the meaning of the term. The word geometry originates from the
Greek word γ ωμ τρία, which is formed by two other Greek words: The word γ η,
which means earth and the word μ´ τρoν, which means measure. Hence, geometry
actually means the measurement of the earth, and originally, that is exactly what
it was before the Greeks. For example, in approximately 240 BC, the Greek math-
ematician Eratosthenes used basic but ingenious methods of geometry that were
developed theoretically by several Greek mathematicians before his time in order to
measure the Earth’s circumference. It is worth mentioning that he succeeded to do
so, with an error of less than 2 % in comparison to the exact length of the circumfer-
ence as we know it today. Therefore, it is evident that geometry arose from practical
activity.

S.E. Louridas, M.Th. Rassias, Problem-Solving and Selected Topics in 1

Euclidean Geometry, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-7273-5_1,
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
2 1 Introduction

Geometry was developed gradually as an abstract theoretical science by mathe-

maticians/philosophers, such as Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, Apollonius, Euclid, and
others. More specifically, Thales, apart from his intercept theorem, is also the first
mathematician to whom the concept of proof by induction is attributed. Moreover,
Pythagoras created a school known as the Pythagoreans, who discovered numerous
theorems in geometry. Pythagoras is said to be the first to have provided a deductive
proof of what is known as the Pythagorean Theorem.

Theorem 1.1 (Pythagorean Theorem) In any right triangle with sides of lengths a,
b, c, where c is the length of the hypotenuse, it holds

a 2 + b2 = c2 . (1.1)

The above theorem has captured the interest of both geometers and number theo-
rists for thousands of years. Hundreds of proofs have been presented since the time
of Pythagoras. It is amusing to mention that even the 20th president of the United
States, J.A. Garfield, was so much interested in this theorem that he managed to
discover a proof of his own, in 1876.
The number theoretic aspect of the Pythagorean Theorem is the study of the
integer values a, b, c, which satisfy Eq. (1.1). Such triples of integers (a, b, c) are
called Pythagorean triples [86]. Mathematicians showed a great interest in such
properties of integers and were eventually lead to the investigation of the solvability
of equations of the form

a n + bn = cn ,

where a, b, c ∈ Z+ and n ∈ N, n > 2.

These studies lead after hundreds of years to Wiles’ celebrated proof of Fermat’s
Last Theorem [99], in 1995.

Theorem 1.2 (Fermat’s Last Theorem) It holds

a n + bn = cn ,

for every a, b, c ∈ Z+ and n ∈ N, n > 2.

Let us now go back to the origins of geometry. The first rigorous foundation
which made this discipline a well-formed mathematical system was provided in
Euclid’s Elements in approximately 300 BC.
The Elements are such a unique mathematical treatise that there was no need
for any kind of additions or modifications for more than 2000 years, until the time
of the great Russian mathematician N.I. Lobac̆evskiĭ (1792–1856) who developed
a new type of geometry, known as hyperbolic geometry, in which Euclid’s parallel
postulate was not considered.
1.2 A Few Words About Euclid’s Elements 3

1.2 A Few Words About Euclid’s Elements

For more than 2000 years, the Elements had been the absolute point of reference
of deductive mathematical reasoning. The text itself and some adaptations of it by
great mathematicians, such as A.M. Legendre (1752–1833) and J. Hadamard (1865–
1963), attracted a lot of charismatic minds to Mathematics. It suffices to recall that
it was the lecture of Legendre’s Elements that attracted E. Galois (1811–1832), one
of the greatest algebraists of all time, to Mathematics.
Euclid’s Elements comprise 13 volumes that Euclid himself composed in Alexan-
dria in about 300 BC. More specifically, the first four volumes deal with figures, such
as triangles, circles, and quadrilaterals. The fifth and sixth volumes study topics such
as similar figures. The next three volumes deal with a primary form of elementary
number theory, and the rest study topics related to geometry. It is believed that the
Elements founded logic and modern science.
In the Elements, Euclid presented some assertions called axioms, which he con-
sidered to be a set of self-evident premises on which he would base his mathemati-
cal system. Apart from the axioms, Euclid presented five additional assertions called
postulates, whose validity seemed less certain than the axioms’, but still considered
to be self-evident.

The Axioms
1. Things that are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another.
2. If equals are to be added to equals, then the wholes will be equal.
3. If equals are to be subtracted from equals, then the remainders will be equal.
4. Things that coincide to one another are equal to one another.
5. The whole is greater than the part.

The Postulates
1. There is a unique straight line segment connecting two points.
2. Any straight line segment can be indefinitely extended (continuously) in a
straight line.
3. There exists a circle with any center and any value for its radius.
4. All right angles are equal to one another.
5. If a straight line intersects two other straight lines, in such a way that the sum
of the inner angles on the same side is less than two right angles, then the two
straight lines will eventually meet if extended indefinitely.
Regarding the first four postulates of Euclid, the eminent mathematical physicist
R. Penrose (1931–) in his book The Road to Reality—A Complete Guide to the
Laws of the Universe, Jonathan Cape, London, 2004, writes:
Although Euclid’s way of looking at geometry was rather different from the way that we
look at it today, his first four postulates basically encapsulated our present-day notion of
a (two-dimensional) metric space with complete homogeneity and isotropy, and infinite in
extent. In fact, such a picture seems to be in close accordance with the very large-scale
spatial nature of the actual universe, according to modern cosmology.
4 1 Introduction

The fifth postulate, known as the parallel postulate, has drawn a lot of attention
since Euclid’s time. This is due to the fact that the parallel postulate does not seem
to be self-evident. Thus, a lot of mathematicians over the centuries have tried to pro-
vide a proof for it, by the use of the first four postulates. Even though several proofs
have been presented, sooner or later a mistake was discovered in each and every one
of them. The reason for this was that all the proofs were at some point making use of
some statement which seemed to be obvious or self-evident but later turned out to be
equivalent to the parallel postulate itself. The independence of the parallel postulate
from Euclid’s other axioms was settled in 1868 by Eugenio Beltrami (1836–1900).
The close examination of Euclid’s axiomatics from the formalistic point of view
culminated at the outset of the twentieth century, in the seminal work of David
Hilbert (1862–1943), which influenced much of the subsequent work in Mathemat-
ics.
However, to see the Elements as an incomplete formalist foundation-building for
the Mathematics of their time is only an a posteriori partial view. Surely, a full of
respect mortal epigram, but not a convincing explanation for the fact that they are
a permanent source of new inspiration, both in foundational research and in that on
working Mathematics.
It is no accident that one of the major mathematicians of the twentieth century,
G.H. Hardy, in his celebrated A Mathematician’s Apology takes his two examples
of important Mathematics that will always be “fresh” and “significant” from the
Elements. Additionally, the eminent logician and combinatorist D. Tamari (1911–
2006) insisted on the fact that Euclid was the first thinker to expose a well-organized
scientific theory without the mention or use of extra-logical factors. Thus, according
to D. Tamari, Euclid must be considered as the founder of modern way of seeing
scientific matters. References [1–99] provide a large amount of theory and several
problems in Euclidean Geometry and its applications.
Chapter 2
Preliminaries

Where there is matter, there is geometry.

Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)

2.1 Logic

2.1.1 Basic Concepts of Logic

Let us consider A to be a non-empty set of mathematical objects. One may construct

various expressions using these objects. An expression is called a proposition if it
can be characterized as “true” or “false.”

Example
√
1. “The number 2 is irrational” is a true proposition.
2. “An isosceles triangle has all three sides mutually unequal” is a false proposition.
3. “The median and the altitude of an equilateral triangle have different lengths” is
false.
4. “The diagonals of a parallelogram intersect at their midpoints” is true.
A proposition is called compound if it is the juxtaposition of propositions con-
nected to one another by means of logical connectives. The truth values of com-
pound propositions are determined by the truth values of their constituting propo-
sitions and by the behavior of logical connectives involved in the expression. The
set of propositions equipped with the operations defined by the logical connectives
becomes the algebra of propositions. Therefore, it is important to understand the
behavior of logical connectives.
The logical connectives used in the algebra of propositions are the following:

∧(and) ∨(or) ⇒ (if . . . then)

⇔ (if and only if) and ¬(not).

The mathematical behavior of the connectives is described in the truth tables,

seen in Tables 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, and 2.5.

S.E. Louridas, M.Th. Rassias, Problem-Solving and Selected Topics in 5

Euclidean Geometry, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-7273-5_2,
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
6 2 Preliminaries

Table 2.1 Truth table for ∧

a b a∧b

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Table 2.2 Truth table for ∨

a b a∨b

T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Table 2.3 Truth table for ⇒

a b a⇒b

T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Table 2.4 Truth table for ⇔

a b a⇔b

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Table 2.5 Truth table for ¬

a ¬a

T F
F T

In the case when

a⇒b and b ⇒ a (2.1)
are simultaneously true, we say that a and b are “equivalent” or that “a if and only
if b” or that a is a necessary and sufficient condition for b.
2.1 Logic 7

Let us now focus on mathematical problems. A mathematical problem is made

up from the hypothesis and the conclusion. The hypothesis is a proposition assumed
to be true in the context of the problem. The conclusion is a proposition whose
truth one is asked to show. Finally, the solution consists of a sequence of logical
implications
a ⇒ b ⇒ c ⇒ ··· . (2.2)
Mathematical propositions are categorized in the following way: Axioms, theo-
rems, corollaries, problems.
Axioms are propositions considered to be true without requiring a proof. Another
class of propositions are the lemmata, which are auxiliary propositions; the proof of
a lemma is a step in the proof of a theorem.
In Euclidean Geometry, we have three basic axioms concerning comparison of
figures:
1. Two figures, A and B, are said to be congruent if and only if there exists a trans-
lation, or a rotation, or a symmetry, or a composition of these transformations
such that the image of figure A coincides with figure B.
2. Two figures which are congruent to a third figure are congruent to each other.
3. A part of a figure is a subset of the entire figure.

2.1.2 On Related Propositions

Consider the proposition

p : a ⇒ b.
Then:
1. The converse of proposition p is the proposition

q : b ⇒ a. (2.3)

2. The inverse of proposition p is the proposition

r : ¬a ⇒ ¬b. (2.4)

3. The contrapositive of proposition p is the proposition

s : ¬b ⇒ ¬a. (2.5)

Example Consider the proposition

p: If a convex quadrilateral is a parallelogram then its diagonals bisect each other.

1. The converse proposition of p is q:

If the diagonals of a converse quadrilateral bisect each other, then it is a par-
allelogram.
8 2 Preliminaries

Fig. 2.1 Example 2.1.1

2. The inverse proposition of p is r:

If a convex quadrilateral is not a parallelogram, then its diagonals do not bisect
each other.
3. The contrapositive proposition of p is s:
If the diagonals of a convex quadrilateral do not bisect each other, then it is
not a parallelogram.

2.1.3 On Necessary and Sufficient Conditions

Proofs of propositions are based on proofs of the type

a ⇒ b,

where a is the set of hypotheses and b the set of conclusions. In this setup, we say
that condition a is sufficient for b and that b is necessary for a. Similarly, in the case
of the converse proposition
q : b ⇒ a, (2.6)
condition b is sufficient for a and condition a is necessary for b.
In the case where both
a⇒b and b ⇒ a (2.7)
are true, we have
a ⇔ b, (2.8)
which means that a is a necessary and sufficient condition for b.

Example 2.1.1 A necessary and sufficient condition for a convex quadrilateral to be

a parallelogram is that its diagonals bisect.

Proof Firstly, we assume that the quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram (see

Fig. 2.1). Let K be the point of intersection of its diagonals. We use the property
that the opposite sides of a parallelogram are parallel and equal and we have that

AB = DC (2.9)
2.2 Methods of Proof 9

and
 = KCD
KAB  (2.10)
since the last pair of angles are alternate interior. Also, we have

 = CDK
ABK  (2.11)

as alternate interior angles. Therefore, the triangles KAB and KDC are equal, and
hence

KB = DK and AK = KC. (2.12)

For the converse, we assume now that the diagonals of a convex quadrilateral ABCD
bisect each other. Then, if K is their intersection, we have that

KA = CK and KB = DK. (2.13)

Furthermore, we have
 = DKC
BKA  (2.14)
because they are corresponding angles. Hence, the triangles KAB and KDC are
equal. We conclude that
AB = DC (2.15)
and also that
AB DC (2.16)
since
 = KCD.
KAB  (2.17)
Therefore, the quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram. 

2.2 Methods of Proof

We now present the fundamental methods used in geometric proofs.

2.2.1 Proof by Analysis

Suppose we need to show that

a ⇒ b. (2.18)
10 2 Preliminaries

Fig. 2.2 Proof by analysis

(Example 2.2.1)

We first find a condition b1 whose truth guarantees the truth of b, i.e., a sufficient
condition for b. Subsequently, we find a condition b2 which is sufficient for b1 .
Going backwards in this way, we construct a chain of conditions

bn ⇒ bn−1 ⇒ · · · ⇒ b1 ⇒ b,

with the property that bn is true by virtue of a being true. This completes the proof.

Example 2.2.1 Consider the square ABCD. From the vertices C and D we consider
the half-lines that intersect in the interior of ABCD at the point E and such that

 = 15°.
 = ECD
CDE

Show that the triangle EAB is equilateral (see Fig. 2.2).

Proof We observe that

AD = BC, (2.19)
since they are sides of a square. Furthermore, we have (see Fig. 2.2)

CDE  = 15°
 = ECD (2.20)

hence
 = BCE
EDA  = 75°

and
ED = EC, (2.21)
since the triangle EDC is isosceles. Therefore, the triangles ADE and BEC are equal
and thus
EA = EB. (2.22)
2.2 Methods of Proof 11

Therefore, the triangle EAB is isosceles. In order to show that the triangle EAB is,
in fact, equilateral, it is enough to prove that

EB = BC = AB. (2.23)

In other words, it is sufficient to show the existence of a point K such that the
triangles KBE and KCB are equal. In order to use our hypotheses, we can choose K
in such a way that the triangles KBC and EDC are equal. This will work as long as
K is an interior point of the square.
Let G be the center of the square ABCD. Then, if we consider a point K such
that the triangles KCB and EDC are equal, we have the following:

GN < GB, (2.24)

and hence
 < GNB
GBN  = NBC.
 (2.25)

Therefore,
 < 45°,
2GBN (2.26)

so
 < 22.5°,
GBN (2.27)

and hence
 > 22.5°.
NBC (2.28)

Therefore,
 > KBC,
NBC  (2.29)
where M, N are the midpoints of the sides AB, DC, respectively. Therefore, the
 We observe that
point K lies in the interior of the angle EBC.
 = 90° − 15° − 15° = 60°,
KCE (2.30)

with
KC = CE. (2.31)
Therefore, the isosceles triangle CKE has an angle of 60° and thus it is equilateral,
implying that
EK = KC = CE (2.32)
and
 = 360° − 60° − 150° = 150°.
BKE (2.33)
12 2 Preliminaries

Fig. 2.3 Proof by synthesis

(Example 2.2.2)

Therefore, the triangles KCB and KBE are equal, and hence

EB = BC. (2.34)

2.2.2 Proof by Synthesis

Suppose we need to show that

a ⇒ b. (2.35)
The method we are going to follow consists of combining proposition a with a
number of suitable true propositions and creating a sequence of necessary conditions
leading to b.

 = 90° and let AD be the cor-

Example 2.2.2 Let ABC be a right triangle with BAC
responding height. Show that
1 1 1
2
= 2
+ .
AD AB AC2
Proof First, consider triangles ABD and CAB (see Fig. 2.3). Since they are both
right triangles and
 = ACB,
BAD 

they are similar. Then we have (see Fig. 2.3)

AB BC
= ,
BD AB
and therefore,
AB2 = BD · BC.
Similarly,
AC2 = DC · BC
2.2 Methods of Proof 13

and
AD2 = BD · DC.
Hence
1 1 1 1
+ = +
AB2 AC2 BD · BC DC · BC
BC
=
BD · BC · DC
1
= . 
AD2

2.2.3 Proof by Contradiction

Suppose that we need to show

a ⇒ b. (2.36)
We assume that the negation of proposition a ⇒ b is true. Observe that

¬(a ⇒ b) = a ∧ (¬b). (2.37)

In other words, we assume that given a, proposition b does not hold. If with this
assumption we reach a false proposition, then we have established that

a⇒b (2.38)

is true.

Example 2.2.3 Let ABC be a triangle and let D, E, Z be three points in its interior
such that
3SDBC < SABC , (2.39)

3SEAC < SABC , (2.40)

3SZAB < SABC , (2.41)

where SABC denotes the area of the triangle ABC and so on. Prove that the points D,
E, Z cannot coincide.

Proof Suppose that inequalities (2.39), (2.40), and (2.41) hold true and let P be the
point where D, E, Z coincide, that is,

D ≡ E ≡ Z ≡ P.
14 2 Preliminaries

Fig. 2.4 Proof by

contradiction (Example 2.2.3)

Then (see Fig. 2.4),

3[SPBC + SPAC + SPAB ] < 3SABC (2.42)
and thus
SABC < SABC , (2.43)
which is a contradiction. Therefore, when relations (2.39), (2.40), and (2.41) are
satisfied, the three points D, E, Z cannot coincide. 

Now, we consider Example 2.2.1 from a different point of view.

Example 2.2.4 Let ABCD be a square. From the vertices C and D we consider the
half-lines that intersect in the interior of ABCD at the point E and such that

 = 15°.
 = ECD
CDE

Show that the triangle EBA is equilateral.

Proof We first note that the triangle EBA is isosceles. Indeed, since by assumption

 = ECD
CDE  = 15°

one has
 = BCE
EDA  = 75° ⇒ ED = EC. (2.44)

We also have that AD = BC, and therefore the triangles ADE and BEC are equal and
thus EA = EB, which means that the point E belongs to the common perpendicular
bisector MN of the sides AB, DC of the square ABCD.
Let us assume that the triangle EBA is not equilateral. Then, there exists a point
Z on the straight line segment MN, Z different from E, such that the triangle ZAB
is equilateral. Indeed, by choosing the point Z on the half straight line MN such that
√
AB 3
MZ = < AB = AD = MN,
2
2.2 Methods of Proof 15

Fig. 2.5 Proof by

contradiction (Example 2.2.4)

the point Z is an interior point of the straight line segment MN and the equilaterality
of the triangle ZBA shall be an obvious consequence (see Fig. 2.5).
We observe that

 = ZBC
DAZ  = 30° and DA = ZA = AB = BZ = BC.

Thus

 = 180° − 30° ⇒ ZDA

2ZDA  = 75°,

which implies that

 = 90° − 75° = 15°.

CDZ (2.45)

Hence the points E, Z coincide, which is a contradiction. Therefore, the triangle

EBA is equilateral. 

2.2.4 Mathematical Induction

This is a method that can be applied to propositions which depend on natural num-
bers. In other words, propositions of the form

p(n), n ∈ N. (2.46)

The proof of proposition (2.46) is given in three steps.

1. One shows that p(1) is true.
2. One assumes proposition p(n) to be true.
3. One shows that p(n + 1) is true.
16 2 Preliminaries

Remarks
• If instead of proposition (2.46) one needs to verify the proposition

p(n), ∀n ∈ N \ {1, 2, . . . , N}, (2.47)

then the first step of the process is modified as follows:

Instead of showing p(1) to be true, one shows p(N + 1) to be true. After that,
we assume proposition p(n) to be true and we prove that p(n + 1) is true.
• Suppose p(n) is of the form

p(n) : k(n) ≥ q(n), ∀n ≥ N, (2.48)

where n, N ∈ N.
Suppose that we have proved

k(N ) = q(N). (2.49)

We must examine the existence of at least one natural number m > N for which
k(m) > q(m).
This is demonstrated in the following example.

 = 90°, with lengths of sides

Example 2.2.5 Let ABC be a right triangle with BAC
BC = a, AC = b, and AB = c. Prove that

a n ≥ bn + cn , ∀n ∈ N\{1}. (2.50)

Proof Applying the induction method we have.

• Evidently, for n = 2, the Pythagorean Theorem states that Eq. (2.50) holds true
and is, in fact, an equality. We shall see that for n = 3 it holds

a 3 > b3 + c3 .

In order to prove this, it suffices to show

 
a b2 + c2 > b3 + c3 . (2.51)

To show (2.51), it is enough to show

ab2 + ac2 − b3 − c3 > 0, (2.52)

for which it is sufficient to show

b2 (a − b) + c2 (a − c) > 0. (2.53)

This inequality holds because the left hand is strictly positive, since a > c and
a > b.
2.2 Methods of Proof 17

• We assume that
a n > bn + cn (2.54)
for n ∈ N \ {1, 2}.
• We shall prove that
a n+1 > bn+1 + cn+1 . (2.55)
For (2.55) it suffices to show that
 
a bn + cn − bn+1 − cn+1 > 0, (2.56)

for which, in turn, it is enough to show that

bn (a − b) + cn (a − c) > 0. (2.57)

Again, in the last inequality the left hand side term is greater than 0, since
a > c and a > b. Therefore, (2.50) is true. 
Chapter 3
Fundamentals on Geometric Transformations

Geometry is knowledge of the eternally existent.

Pythagoras (570 BC–495 BC)

A topic of high interest for problem-solving in Euclidean Geometry is the determi-

nation of a point by the use of geometric transformations: translation, symmetry,
homothety, and inversion. The knowledge of geometric transformations allows us
to understand the geometric behavior of plane figures produced by them.

3.1 A Few Facts

1. In order to create a geometric figure, it is enough to have a point and a clear
mathematical way (see Fig. 3.1) in which the point moves on the plane in order
to produce this shape. We can then say that the point traverses the planar shape.
2. Two points of the plane that move in the plane in the same mathematical way
traverse the same or equal planar shapes.
3. A bijective correspondence (bijective mapping) is defined between two shapes if
there is a law that to each point of the one shape corresponds one and only one
point of the other shape, and conversely. The shapes are then called correspond-
ing.
Between two equal shapes, there is always a bijective correspondence. The con-
verse is not always true. For example, see Fig. 3.2. It is clear that the easiest way
to establish a bijective transformation between the straight line segment AB and the
crooked line segment KLM, where A, B are the projections of K, M on AB, re-
spectively, is to consider the projection of every point of KLM to the corresponding
point of AB.
The projection is unique because from every point of the plane there exists a
unique line perpendicular to AB.
If AB l, then the semi-circumference with center O and diameter AB, with A, B
excluded, can be matched to l in the following way: From the point O, we consider
half-lines Ox (see Fig. 3.3 and Fig. 3.4).
Then to each intersection point M of Ox with the semi-circumference, one can
select the unique point N which is the intersection of l with Ox, and conversely.

S.E. Louridas, M.Th. Rassias, Problem-Solving and Selected Topics in 19

Euclidean Geometry, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-7273-5_3,
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
20 3 Fundamentals on Geometric Transformations

Fig. 3.1 A few facts

(Sect. 3.1)

Fig. 3.2 A few facts

(Sect. 3.1)

Observation We shall say that two corresponding shapes are traversed similarly if
during their traversal their points are traversed in the same order.
• A circumference
(i) is traversed in the positive direction if a “moving” point traverses it anticlock-
wise.
(ii) is traversed in the negative direction if a “moving” point traverses it clock-
wise. We think of the clock as lying on the same plane as our shape (see
Fig. 3.1).

Remark Assume that we have two congruent shapes. Then we can construct a cor-
respondence between their points in the following way:

A1 A2 . . . An = B1 B2 . . . Bn , (3.1)

with

A1 A2 = B1 B2 ,
A2 A3 = B2 B3 ,
...
An−1 An = Bn−1 Bn ,
An A1 = Bn B1 ,

and assume that from their vertices A1 , B1 two points start moving at the same
speed, traversing their respective circumferences. Then at a given point in time t0
the points have covered equal paths.
3.2 Translation 21

Fig. 3.3 A few facts

(Sect. 3.1)

Fig. 3.4 A few facts

(Sect. 3.1)

Fig. 3.5 Translation

(Sect. 3.2)

3.2 Translation
−
→ →
1. Let A be a point and let −→a be a vector. Consider the vector AB = − a . Then the
point B is the translation of A by the vector −
→a.
2. Let S be a shape and let −→a be a vector. The translation S1 of the shape S is the
shape whose points are the translations of the points of S by the vector − →a . If S1
−
→
is the translation of S by a , then S2 is the opposite translation of S if S2 is the
translation of S by −− →
a (see Fig. 3.5).
3. The translation of a shape gives a shape equal to the initial shape.
22 3 Fundamentals on Geometric Transformations

Fig. 3.6 Translation

(Sect. 3.2)

4. If l1 and l2 are parallel lines, then these lines are translations of each other (see
Fig. 3.6).

−−−→
Proof Let A1 be a point on l1 and let A2 be a point on l2 . Consider the vector A1 A2 .
Let Bx be a point on l1 . We consider By to be a point such that
−−−→ −−−→
Bx By = A1 A2 . (3.2)

This implies that the point By lies on l2 , since

−−−→ −−−→
A1 A2 = Bx By

implies
A2 By A1 Bx .
Now, from the well-known axiom of Euclid (see Introduction), there exists only one
parallel line to l1 that passes through A2 , and that line is l2 . The point By is a unique
−−−→
point of l2 , corresponding to Bx with respect to the translation by the vector A1 A2 .
Therefore, the line l2 is a translation of the line l1 . 

Definition 3.1 Two translations are said to be consecutive if the first one translates
the shape S to the shape S1 and the second translates S1 to the shape S2 .

Theorem 3.1 Two consecutive translations defined by vectors of different directions

can be replaced by one translation, which is defined by one vector which is the vector
sum of the other two vectors.

−−→ −−→
Proof We consider the vectors OA1 and OA2 that have a common starting point O
and are equal to the vectors defining the translation (see Fig. 3.7). Let M be a point
of the initial shape. After the first translation, M is translated to M1 so that
−−→ −−→
MM 1 = OA1 . (3.3)

After the second translation, M1 is translated to the point M2 so that

−−−→ −−→
M1 M2 = OA2 . (3.4)
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 Falsehood and Wickedness

AFTER good old father Noah had completed the building of the ark, the animals were
gathered together near it by the angels appointed over them. They came in pairs,
and Noah stood at the door of the ark to see that each one entered with its mate. As
soon as the waters of the flood rose upon the surface of the earth, the children of
men hid themselves in their homes for safety. All traffic and business ceased, for the
angel of death was abroad. This state of affairs caused Falsehood to realize that
henceforth there was no chance of her plying her trade. Was it not quite evident that
the ever-increasing waters of the flood would soon sweep away the wicked folk
[20]whohad rebelled against their Heavenly Creator? Where should Falsehood
betake herself for safety?

Forthwith she hastened to the ark, but its door was shut. What was to be done?

Falsehood knocked at the door with trembling hand. Noah opened the window of the
ark, and put out his head to see who was knocking. It was a strange creature before
his door. Noah had never seen her before, because he was a righteous man who
never told lies.

“What dost thou want?” he cried.

“Let me come in, please,” she replied.

“Gladly,” cried Noah, “would I admit thee if thy mate were with thee, for only pairs are
admitted here.”

In grief and disappointment Falsehood went away. She had not gone a few yards
before she met her old friend Wickedness, who was now out of employment.

“Whence cometh thou, dear friend Falsehood?” asked Wickedness.

“I come,” said Falsehood, “from old father Noah. Just listen. I asked him to let me
come into the ark, but he refused unless I complied with his rules.”

“What does he require?” asked Wickedness.

“The good old man stipulated that I must have a mate, because all the creatures
admitted [21]into the ark are in pairs,” Falsehood replied.

“Now, dear friend, is this the truth?” queried Wickedness with a merry twinkle in his
evil eye.

“Of course it is the truth, on my word of honour,” rejoined Falsehood. “Come now,”
she added, “wilt thou be my mate? Are we not just fit to be joined together, two
honest and poor creatures?”

“If I agree,” said Wickedness, “what wilt thou give me in return?”

Falsehood thought awhile and with a cunning look at her friend she exclaimed,—

“I faithfully promise to give to thee all that I earn in the ark. Have no fear, I shall do
excellent business even there, because I feel very fit and energetic.”
Wickedness agreed to the terms immediately, and there and then a proper
agreement was drawn up, and duly signed and sealed. Without further delay they
both hastened to Noah, who readily admitted the happy pair.

Falsehood soon began to be very busy and earned good money. She often thought
of her agreement with Wickedness with regret, as she realized that she alone did all
the business. She even said to him one day,—

“Look here, how easily can I carry on my trade single-handed?”

He merely reminded her of the agreement, [22]and day by day he wrote down in his
ledger the sum total of the day’s takings.

At the end of the year, for the flood lasted twelve months, they came out of the ark.
Falsehood brought home much treasure, but Wickedness came with her and claimed
the whole of the hard-earned fortune. Thereupon Falsehood said to herself, “I will ask
my mate to give me some of my earnings.”

She approached Wickedness and in a gentle voice said,—

“Dearest friend, please give me a share of what I have so honestly earned, for I alone
did all the work.”

Wickedness looked at her in contempt and with harsh voice cried aloud,—

“Thy share is nought, O cheat! Did we not solemnly agree that I was to take
everything which thou shouldst earn? How could I break our agreement? Would this
not be a very wicked thing to do, now would it not?”

Falsehood held her peace and went away, well knowing that she had been foiled in
her attempt to cheat her friend Wickedness. True indeed is the proverb: “Falsehood
begets much, but Wickedness taketh all that away.”

(Yalḳuṭ, Psalms § 638.) [23]

[Contents]
 THE WICKED KING AND HIS BRIDE

[24]
 THE QUEEN SPRINKLING THE WATER OF LIFE ON
CHANINAH.

[25]

The Wicked King and his Bride

LONG, long ago there lived in the Holy Land an old peasant and his wife. They had
an only son who was also married. The family all lived happily together in a little
house in a village near Samaria. The son, whose name was Chaninah, was a very
good man, deeply learned in the Holy Scriptures and the ancient lore of Israel.

In course of time the old father, feeling his end drawing near, called his beloved son
to his bedside and said to him,—

“Hearken, my son, to the words which I am [26]about to speak. Your mother and I will
soon die. After our death and burial you will observe the customary period of
mourning and lamentation. On the day following go to the nearest market-place and
buy the first thing offered to you, be the price what it may. I also charge you to
continue the study of the Holy Word of the Bible by day and by night, keep the Divine
Commandments, support the poor and be kind to the dumb creatures.”

After he had spoken these words he blessed his son and closed his eyes in the sleep
of death.

Chaninah went to tell his mother of the death of his father. The sad news was too
much for the poor woman and the shock killed her instantly. The pious son buried his
beloved parents in the village cemetery and returned home to keep the customary
period of mourning and lamentation, which lasted seven days.

Mindful of his father’s dying words, Chaninah went on the following morning to the
nearest market-place. One of the merchants, carrying a beautiful silver casket in his
hands, came to him and said,—

“Will you buy this casket?”

“What is the price?” asked Chaninah.

“I will take eighty pieces of silver for it,” answered the merchant, and he added, “I will
not accept any less.” [27]

Chaninah agreed, and there and then paid the large sum of money demanded,
thinking all the while of his dear father’s last wish. The money which he had spent in
buying the casket was nearly all the fortune he possessed.

Without any further delay he returned home with his purchase, which he was anxious
to show to his wife.

“Look here,” he cried, “I have spent nearly all our money in buying this casket, even
as dear father told me to do just before he died.”
“Open it,” said his wife; “there is sure to be something very valuable inside it.”

He lifted the lid of the casket and was astonished to find that it contained another
silver box. He took this out and opened it, curious to learn what was inside. To their
great surprise a little green frog leapt out.

“Well, I never,” cried Chaninah, “this is an expensive creature.”

“Do not forget,” his wife said, “your father’s command to be kind to the dumb
creatures.”

“Quite right,” says her husband, “we will provide for the frog even as though the little
fellow were one of us.”

The frog grew larger and larger and the silver box was no longer large enough for its
quarters. Chaninah therefore made a nice roomy cupboard for their new friend’s
abode. After a [28]while the wife told her husband that there was no more money left
to buy food. With a very sad heart the good man called the frog to his side and said,
—

“I am awfully sorry to tell you, dear little friend, that we cannot feed you any longer
because we have no food left even for ourselves.”

“Please don’t worry,” cried the frog, “I hope you will believe me when I tell you that I
am indeed more than grateful to you both, for all your kindness and hospitality. Let
me prove my gratitude by giving you this piece of advice. In the box where you found
me, you will see a strip of parchment. If you place it in the fold of your turban you will
be able to understand not only the different languages of mankind but also the
speech of birds, fish and beasts.”

Chaninah did exactly as the frog told him, and calling his wife told her that they would
accompany the frog to his new home wherever it might be. The frog said this should
be in a pond in the wood near by.

They all went to the wood feeling sad that poverty was forcing them to part company.

As soon as they came to the wood the frog told them to rest themselves. Then at the
bidding of the frog, the birds and beasts in the wood brought to Chaninah and his
wife an immense [29]quantity of valuable gems and an assortment of roots and herbs.
The kind-hearted frog gave these gifts to his good friends, explaining how the herbs
and roots were to be used for healing purposes. Then at last the frog bids his friends
farewell and tells them that he was really a son of Adam and the demon Lilith, and
that he had the power of changing himself into any shape.
Chaninah and his wife gathered up the precious gems, roots and herbs and returned
home. On the way they met a caravan and offered some of the gems for sale. A good
bargain was struck and Chaninah and his wife found themselves with plenty of
money. They left their old home and bought a nice house. Riches did not spoil them,
for their hearts were kind. Moreover Chaninah kept faithfully the charge of his
beloved father. He studied the holy words of Scripture by day and by night and
observed the Divine precepts with a good will. Their home was always open to the
poor. The good fortune of Chaninah spread far and wide. His reputation as a
charitable man reached the ears of the King who invited him to visit his Court.

The King took a great fancy to Chaninah and persuaded him to take up his abode in
the palace. The King was by no means a pious [30]man, in fact he was very wicked
and cruel. He was unmarried, and this fact alone displeased his subjects. His
counsellors urged him to find a good wife, saying to him,—

“Let us, O King, remind you that we require not only a king but also a queen and little
princes; for there will surely come a time when a new king will have to be found—
because kings and queens are mortals and they cannot live for ever.”

They did not tell the King what their real motive was in advising him to marry. They
thought that if the King were to find a true and good wife it might be possible for her
to use her influence and make him a better man.

The King dismissed his counsellors, promising to see them again in a week’s time,
when he would tell them whether he would marry or not. When they came to the
palace at the appointed time the King’s valet met them and told them that His Majesty
would receive them in the palace garden.

They went there and found the King sitting on his throne. As they approached he
rose up and bade them welcome. At that moment a beautiful bird flew over the King
and dropped a long golden hair upon his shoulder. The King took the hair in his hand
and turning to his counsellors said,— [31]

“I will marry only the maiden to whom this golden hair belongs. No other wife shall be
mine. You wish me to marry—well and good—so be it. I now command you to
discover the owner of this golden hair, and mark you, if you do not bring her to me
within a year from to-day I will have you and all your families put to death.”

The counsellors were greatly distressed at the turn of events. They feared that their
lives would be forfeit. How were they to find the lady whose golden hair had brought
misfortune to them and their families? With sad hearts they left the royal presence,
and when they were outside the palace they asked one another, “What is to be
done?”

Chaninah, who was now one of the King’s counsellors, offered to find the lady
destined to be their queen. He hastened home to bid his wife farewell and to prepare
for his journey. He took a bag into which he put six loaves, a small assortment of his
precious herbs and roots and twelve silver coins. Having blessed his wife he set out
on his quest.

He walked during the best part of the day and at sunset, feeling very tired, he sat
down on a large stone beneath a tree. He was just about to doze off when he was
suddenly startled by hearing a raven’s croak. He listened and [32]understood that the
bird had not found any food for three days. He at once opened his bag and gave the
raven a large piece of bread. On the morrow Chaninah met a dog howling miserably.

“Come and tell me,” he said to the dog, “all your troubles. I understand the speech of
beasts and birds.”

The dog said that he was very ill and hungry, for it was just a week since he had
eaten any food. Chaninah gave him one of the healing roots and a loaf of bread. The
dog devoured the bread and ate the root and thanked his good friend.

Next day Chaninah came to a river and found some fishermen trying in vain to pull in
their net, which contained a large fish. The fishermen pulled so hard that they feared
their net would break. Chaninah lent them a willing hand and then they were able to
pull in the net. The fishermen shouted with joy,—

“We have enough now for dinner to-day and to-morrow.”

Chaninah asked them to sell the fish and he would give them twelve pieces of silver
as its price. They agreed and gave him the fish as soon as he had paid them. They
could hardly believe their eyes when they saw Chaninah throwing the fish back into
the river. [33]Bidding them farewell he continued his journey.

At last he came to a large town where, unknown to him, dwelt the maiden whom he
was seeking. She was a princess, the only daughter of the King of that country.

Chaninah came to the courtyard of the palace and stood still awhile gazing around.
The Princess was looking out of the window of her room, and saw Chaninah, whose
strange attire attracted her attention. She sends her chamberlain to bring him to her
presence.
In reply to her inquiry as to the why and wherefore of his visit to her father’s land,
Chaninah tells her the story of his quest. Looking at her he sees that she is the very
lady whom he has to find to be the wife of the King, his master, for her tresses were
golden even like the hue of the hair which the King found upon his shoulder.

“Come, good lady, with me,” he cries, “and save my people, the wise men of Israel
and their families, who are in mortal danger. Come and be Queen in our land and
save the soul of our lord the King.”

The Princess had listened very attentively to all the strange story told by Chaninah,
and in reply she said,—

“Well do I remember drying my hair one day [34]last month in the garden of our
palace, and whilst doing so a strange bird flew over my head three times and then
plucked out one of my hairs. He flew away with the hair and I can now believe that
this is the very bird which brought my hair to the King of your land. I will accede to
your wish and consent to become the Queen of your land if you fulfil two tasks which
I will set you. The first I will mention at once. Here I have two empty flasks. You must
bring them back to me full of water. I do not mean the water of the brook or well, but
the one flask must contain water from Paradise and the other must be filled with
water from Hell. When you have done this task I will tell you all about the second
one.”

With a kind word of farewell the Princess dismissed Chaninah. He left the palace with
a sad heart and prayed to God to help him in his difficulty. Was he not trying to save
the lives of his brethren in the Holy Land?

After a little while he hears the croak of a raven speaking as follows:—

“Dear friend! do you no longer remember me? Did you not give me bread when you
met me? I was so hungry then, for I had not tasted any food for three days. Now just
tell me, How can I be of service? I will gladly do my best to please you.” [35]

Chaninah told the raven all about the task which the Princess had set him to do.

“Here are the flasks,” he said; “one must be filled with water from Paradise and the
other must be filled with water from Hell.”

The raven told him to tie a flask to each wing and at sunset to be at the spot where
they were conversing. The raven flew to the netherworld and singed his wings in
passing through the flames of Hell. At last he reached the black boiling waters in the
centre of Hell and filled one flask. He then flew to the gates of Paradise and found
the spring which flows from its midst and bathed in its cool water to heal his wings.
He then filled the other flask and flew to the spot where he had arranged to meet his
friend. He gave the flasks filled with the desired water to Chaninah, who returned to
the palace and told the Princess that the task was done.

The Princess was in doubt whether the water of each flask was genuine. She
proposed to test the contents there and then. Opening the flask containing the water
from Hell, she poured a few drops upon the palm of her hand. The water burnt her
skin and she quickly put some of the water of the other flask upon the burnt spot and
healed it at once. She told Chaninah that she was quite satisfied with this
performance. [36]

“But now,” she said, “you have to perform a much more difficult task. Just listen.
Some years ago I was playing with my ring in a boat and by accident I dropped it into
the water. It was a golden ring with my initials engraved on the gold and set with a
beautiful pearl. Restore this ring, and when I have it again I will comply with your
request.”

The Princess thought that it would be impossible to find her ring and that she would
not be bothered to accede to the wish of Chaninah. She again dismissed him with a
few kind words and told him not to be disappointed if he failed to find the ring.

Chaninah at once turned his thoughts to God and prayed for Divine help. He then
went to the nearest river, hoping that his good fortune would not forsake him. As
soon as he came to the water he beheld the large fish which he had purchased and
thrown back into the river.

“Tell me,” said the fish, “what you desire, and I will try to help you.”

Chaninah told the fish the story of the ring of the Princess, and said that he must
have this ring as soon as possible.

“Meet me at yonder bridge,” said the fish, “to-morrow morning at daybreak and I will
bring you news concerning the ring.”

The fish then swam away and made for the [37]bottom of the great sea in order to
seek the help of Leviathan, the monster king of the deep.

Leviathan welcomed the fish, and having heard his story promised to help him. He
issued an order throughout his vast kingdom compelling every fish to report to him if
any such ring had been heard of or discovered. If he should discover that a fish had
the ring and failed to produce it, very severe penalties were sure to follow. Within an
hour the ring was brought to the palace of Leviathan and placed before his throne.
Leviathan then gave it to the fish which had promised to help Chaninah.
Next morning at daybreak the fish delivered the ring to Chaninah, who rejoiced
greatly at the cleverness of the fish. How glad he was that he had fulfilled his dear
father’s wishes in being kind to birds, beasts and fish.

At noon Chaninah entered the palace and was brought at once to the Princess.

“Behold,” he cried in a joyful voice, “your Royal Highness! is this not your ring? Your
initials are engraved on the gold.”

The Princess admitted that this was her ring, and as the two tasks, which she had
imposed, had been satisfactorily accomplished, she now consented to accompany
Chaninah to the Holy Land.

On the way they were attacked by robbers. [38]Chaninah, fearing that he would be
overpowered, called for help. At that moment a dog ran up to his side and barked so
furiously that the robbers made off. The dog was glad to repay Chaninah for having
fed him and healed him in days gone by.

At last they came to the Holy Land, and when the King saw the beautiful princess
with the golden hair he was very happy. Amidst general rejoicing the royal wedding
took place. The King rewarded Chaninah by making him his chief counsellor of State.
The good man’s success, however, was marred by a great misfortune which had
befallen him during his absence. His good wife had died. Moreover, some of the royal
servants were envious of his advancement in the King’s favour. They resolved to hire
some ruffians who were to waylay him. One day as he was leaving the palace the
ruffians attacked him and killed him in the courtyard. As soon as the news of the sad
event was told to the Queen, she cried,—

“Never mind! let me see what can be done.”

She went to her cabinet and took out the flask containing the water from Paradise.
She then went to the courtyard where the King and nobles were gathered around the
corpse.

“Make way for Her Majesty the Queen!” the people cried. [39]

When the Queen saw the dead body of her friend she smiled. All eyes were fixed on
her. She sprinkled some of the precious water upon the corpse and immediately
Chaninah opened his eyes and arose. Now the people understood why the Queen
had smiled.

“Come now,” said the King to his wife, “kill me and restore me to life again. I should
just like to know how it feels to be dead.”
The Queen declined to murder her husband, and turning to him she cried,—

“Do not be so wicked. Life is sacred. Moreover, the wonderful water will only bring a
person back to life provided his life had been good.”

“Your Majesty,” she added, “must repent and mend your ways, otherwise you will not
be restored to life in the hereafter.”

The King went away in anger and returned to his royal apartments. Here he ordered
one of his servants to kill him.

“If you refuse,” cried the wicked King, “I will instantly kill you.”

Whereupon the servant obeyed the King and slew him.

The Queen was at once informed of the wicked death of the King. She was truly
sorry to find that he had not allowed himself to be influenced by her advice, but that
he had [40]trifled with his life. She therefore fetched the flask containing water from
Hell. Then she sprinkled its contents upon the body of the wicked King. His body
immediately was burnt to ashes. She thereupon turned to the astonished members of
the Court who were looking on, and in a gentle voice she said,—

“Do you not see, good friends, that if my husband had been a good and holy man he
would have been restored to life, just like Chaninah. But the fact is that he was a
cruel and bad man. You all knew this even before I came here from my father’s land.”

After the burial of the King, the counsellors came to the Queen and urged her to
marry Chaninah, who had proved such a trusty friend. The suggestion pleased the
Queen, who gladly gave her heart and hand to the good man. They ruled the people
in justice and kindness, and as long as they reigned there was peace in the land.

(From the Jewish Chap Book, Ma’aseh Book, § 143.)

[41]
[Contents]
 THE TWO JEWELS

[43]

The Two Jewels

IN the early period of the Middle Ages there was a King of Spain, Pedro by name. He
was a wise and tolerant ruler. In his kingdom Christians, Jews and Mohammedans
were to be found. It was a time when brotherly love was to be discovered in the Holy
Scriptures only.

King Pedro was one day about to set out at the head of his army to attack his
enemies in a neighbouring land. Nicholas of Valencia, one of the royal counsellors,
came to Pedro and exclaimed,—

“O most gracious sire! May I ask your Majesty a question?”

“Ask, good friend Nicholas,” said the King.

“What need is there for your Majesty to leave your kingdom to fight your enemies
beyond the border, when you have so many dangerous enemies within your
kingdom?” [44]
“To whom do you refer?” cried the King.

“I refer to all disbelievers in Spain, the heretics, the Jews and the followers of
Mahommet—people who deny the divinity of our Lord, our Saviour, and His Holy
Mother. Do we not, as good Christians, hate the Jews and Moslems and do they not
hate us? Does not your Majesty know that the Jews are commanded in their holy
Bible to abstain from greeting the Christians?”

“How can that be true,” said the wise King, “since the Hebrew Bible was written at a
time when there were no Christians?”

“Nevertheless,” continued Nicholas, “I have heard it said, that even though a Jew
would greet a Christian saying to him, ‘Peace be unto you,’ he immediately adds
under his breath, ‘but may the Devil take you.’ ”

“How do you know this?” exclaimed the King in astonishment.

“I was told this,” replied Nicholas, “by a most saintly man, one Geronimo, a converted
Jew.”

“No, no,” interrupted Pedro, “I would not believe such a man. Any one who changes
his religion will not scruple to change his word, twisting the truth into falsehood. Do
you not also realize that the testimony of such a convert is probably unreliable,
because he is now [45]anxious to show how intensely he loves his new faith, and this
he does best by hating the religion which he has abandoned?”

“Your Majesty may be right,” said Nicholas, “but,” he added, “there is nothing which
vexes my soul so much as the unbounded impudence of the Jews, who would not
hesitate to tell your Majesty that their Religion is better than our Holy Faith.”

“Do not let this vex you, good Nicholas,” said Pedro; “prove your statement by
bringing a Jew before me and let me hear from his own lips this glorification of his
religion, and then I will tell you whether I feel vexed or not.”

Nicholas left the King in order to fetch a Jew as commanded by his royal master.
After a few minutes had elapsed, he returned, bringing with him a venerable man
with a long beard, white as the driven snow.

“Welcome!” exclaimed King Pedro; “be seated, noble Jew, and answer me without
fear or favour any questions I may put to you.”

“May it please your Majesty,” said the Jew, who had risen from his seat when about
to speak, “life is dear to me and mine, but truth and honour are dearer still. For nearly
ninety years have I remained steadfast to the faith of my fathers. I most humbly beg
your Majesty to suffer me and my people to continue to be [46]loyal not only to God,
our Heavenly King, but also to your Majesty.”

“Have no fear, good Jew, but now tell me your name,” says King Pedro.

“I am called,” he replies, “Ephraim, the son of Sancho.”

“Now will you tell me,” asks the King, “which religion, Judaism or Christianity, is more
true and real?”

After a moment’s thought Ephraim replies,—

“My religion is the only good one for me in view of my circumstances. Your Majesty
knows that my ancestors, the children of Israel, were once slaves in the land of
Egypt. God in His great mercy redeemed my people from that land of bondage with
signs and wonders. My religion is bound up with this wonderful love of God, who not
only redeemed us, but He also gave us our laws and commandments. In keeping
these laws and commandments we serve God, and this is our religion, and it is the
most natural for the people of Israel. For your Majesty, however, who is born to rule
nations and creeds, your religion is the most suitable, because Christianity is the
predominant faith which has cramped my religion in Ghettos and darkness.
Christianity has even resolved in this land to drive out the Mohammedans, so [47]that
a believer in the Koran shall not be found in Catholic Spain.”

“You have spoken wisely and daringly,” says the King, “but I did not ask you to
discuss the various religions from the point of view of the individual believer, but I
wished to know which religion, in your opinion, is the best. You can limit your reply by
discussing whether Judaism is better than Christianity, or, as we think, vice versa.”

Ephraim replied,—

“In three days’ time, if it please your Majesty, I will return and give you my humble
opinion. I cannot promise to satisfy your Majesty, but I will do my best to justify my
conscience.”

The King consented to this proposal, and dismissed the Jew with a friendly farewell.

Three days later the King and Nicholas were anxiously awaiting the promised reply.
At the hour appointed, Ephraim appeared. He was very much agitated and gasped
for breath.
“Most heartily welcome,” cries Pedro in his most friendly voice; “come and sit near
my throne and tell me your answer to my question.”

Ephraim sat in silence and failed to control his agitation.

“What is the matter, good Ephraim?” asked the King, who was now beginning to feel
concerned [48]at the Jew’s prolonged silence and unusual excitement.

At last by a great effort Ephraim exclaimed,—

“I grieve to tell your Majesty that I am ill. I have this day been most grossly insulted
and abused. I am perfectly innocent of having done any wrong to the men who have
been so cruel and unjust to me. Gracious King! I appeal to you to hear my complaint
and to see that justice is done.”

“Have no fear,” cried the King. “I am the fountain of justice, and every one in my
realm may look to me for impartial judgment. What is your complaint?”

The King and Nicholas turned to Ephraim and anxiously awaited his reply.

“My story is as follows,” says the Jew. “A month ago my neighbour went away from
home on a very long journey. In order to give some comfort and consolation to his
two sons during his absence, he gave a precious jewel to each of them. Early this
day the two sons of my good neighbour came to my house and asked to see me. I
received them very politely in my humble apartment and asked them how I could be
of service. They showed me their jewels and demanded that I should there and then
explain to them both the various characteristics of the gems. I was also to point out
the beauties [49]and flaws—if any—in the precious stones. They asked me to
appraise their value and to decide which of the two was the better and the more
valuable. I told them that there was no one so well qualified to answer all their
questions as their dear father who happens to be an eminent authority on gems, for
he is a jeweller. ‘Go,’ I said, ‘to your beloved father and let him decide, for he will tell
you all you desire to know about the jewels, and whatever he tells you will be right
and true.’ No sooner had I said this, when the two sons attacked me, striking me
upon my head. They abused me, calling me ‘heretic and Jew,’ just because I tried to
answer their question to the best of my ability.”

“Truly,” cried the King in a passion, “they have acted most shamefully; they deserve
to be most severely punished.”

“Listen, O sire, to the words of your mouth,” rejoined Ephraim. “Two brothers were
Esau and Jacob, and to each one did their father give a precious jewel. Now your
Majesty likewise asks me to decide which is the better? Let your Majesty send a
messenger to our Father in Heaven, for He is the greatest owner of jewels, and He
will be able to explain exactly how the two jewels differ, and He will also tell your
Majesty which of the two is the more precious.” [50]

With a smile on his face, King Pedro turned to Nicholas and said to him,—

“Do you not see how wisely this learned Jew has answered my question? He
deserves to be rewarded not only for his wisdom but also for his toleration, for he
implies that our religion and his own have both been given to humanity by our
Heavenly Father, who, in His own good time, will decide which is the best religion.
Meanwhile, let all men, be their faith what it may, learn to be brothers and friends,
trusting that the time may come when love and charity will lead every one to the
truth.”

Shebet Jehudah, pages 53, 54 (ed. Wiener).

[51]

[Contents]
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