LOOKING AHEAD…

● After reading this chapter, you should be able to:Describe the basic physiology of muscles and
explain how strength training affects muscles
● Define muscular strength and endurance, and describe how they relate to wellness
● Assess muscular strength and endurance
● Apply the FITT principle to create a safe and successful strength training program
● Describe the effects of supplements and drugs that are marketed to active people and athletes
● Explain how to safely perform common strength training exercises using free weights and weight
machines
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
1. For women, weight training typically results in which of the following?

a. bulky muscles

b. significant increases in body weight

c. improved body image

2. To maximize strength gains, it is a good idea to hold your breath as you lift a weight. True or
false?

3. Regular strength training is associated with which of the following benefits?

a. denser bones

b. reduced risk of heart disease

c. improved body composition

d. fewer injuries

e. improved metabolic health

f. Increased longevity

Answers
1. c. ​ Because the vast majority of women have low levels of testosterone, they do not
develop large muscles or gain significant amounts of weight in response to a
moderate-intensity weight training program. Men have higher levels of testosterone, so they
can build large muscles more easily.

2. False. ​ Holding one's breath while lifting weights can significantly elevate blood pressure; it
also reduces blood flow to the heart and may cause faintness. You should breathe smoothly
and normally while weight training. Some experts recommend that you exhale during the
most difficult part of each exercise.

3. All six. ​ Regular strength training has many benefits for both men and women.

M​uscles make up more than 40% of your body mass. You depend on them for movement, and, because
of their mass, they are the site of a large portion of the energy reactions (metabolism) that take place in
your body. Strong, well-developed muscles help you perform daily activities with greater ease, protect you
from injury, and enhance your well-being in other ways.

As described in ​Chapter 2​, muscular strength is the amount of force a muscle can produce with a single
maximum effort; muscular endurance is the ability to hold or repeat a muscular contraction for a long time.
This chapter explains the benefits of strength training (also called ​resistance training​ or ​weight training​)
and describes methods of assessing muscular strength and endurance. It then explains the basics of
strength training and provides guidelines for setting up your own training program.
BASIC MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY AND THE EFFECTS OF
STRENGTH TRAINING
Muscles move the body and enable it to exert force because they move the skeleton. When a muscle
contracts (shortens), it moves a bone by pulling on the tendon that attaches the muscle to the bone, as
shown in ​Figure 4.1​. When a muscle relaxes (lengthens), the tension placed on the tendon is released
and the bone moves back to—or closer to—its starting position.

Muscle Fibers

Muscles consist of individual muscle cells, or ​muscle fibers,​ connected in bundles (see ​Figure 4.1​). A
single muscle is made up of many bundles of muscle fibers and is covered by layers of connective tissue
that hold the fibers together. Muscle fibers, in turn, are made up of smaller protein structures called
myofibrils.​Myofibrils are made up of a series of contractile units called ​sarcomeres,​ which are composed
largely of actin and myosin molecules. Muscle cells contract when the myosin molecules glide across the
actin molecules in a ratchetlike movement.

FIGURE 4.1
Components of skeletal muscle tissue.

Strength training increases the size and number of myofibrils, resulting in larger individual muscle fibers.
Larger muscle fibers mean a larger and stronger muscle. The development of large muscle fibers is called
hypertrophy;​ inactivity causes ​atrophy,​ the reversal of this process. For a depiction of the process of
hypertrophy, see page T4–4 of the color transparency insert “Touring the Musculoskeletal System” in this
chapter. In some species, muscles can increase in size through a separate process called
hyperplasia,​which involves an increase in the number of muscle fibers rather than the size of muscle
fibers. In humans, hyperplasia is not thought to play a significant role in determining muscle size. Each
muscle cell has many ​nuclei​ containing genes that direct the production of enzymes and structural
proteins required for muscle contraction.

Muscle fibers are classified as slow-twitch or fast-twitch fibers according to their strength, speed of
contraction, and energy source.

● Slow-twitch muscle fibers​ are relatively fatigue-resistant, but they don't contract as rapidly
or strongly as fast-twitch fibers. The principal energy system that fuels slow-twitch fibers is
aerobic (oxidative). Slow-twitch muscle fibers are typically reddish in color.

● Fast-twitch muscle fibers​ contract more rapidly and forcefully than slow-twitch fibers but
fatigue more quickly. Although oxygen is important in the energy system that fuels
fast-twitch fibers, they rely more on anaerobic (nonoxidative) metabolism than do
slow-twitch fibers. (See ​Chapter 3​ for a discussion of energy systems.) Fast-twitch muscle
fibers are typically whitish in color.

Most muscles contain both slow-twitch and fast-twitch fibers. The proportion of the types of fibers varies
significantly among different muscles and different individuals, and that proportion is largely fixed at birth,
although fibers can contract faster or slower following a period of training or a period of inactivity. The
type of fiber that acts during a particular activity depends on the type of work required. Endurance
activities like jogging tend to use slow-twitch fibers, whereas strength and ​power​ activities like sprinting
use fast-twitch fibers. Strength training can increase the size and strength of both fast-twitch and
slow-twitch fibers, although fast-twitch fibers are preferentially increased.

Motor Units

To exert force, a muscle recruits one or more motor units to contract. A ​motor unit​ is made up of a nerve
connected to a number of muscle fibers. The number of muscle fibers in a motor unit varies from two to
hundreds. Small motor units contain slow-twitch fibers, whereas large motor units contain fast-twitch
fibers. When a motor unit calls on its fibers to contract, all fibers contract to their full capacity. The number
of motor units recruited depends on the amount of strength required: When you pick up a small weight,
you use fewer and smaller motor units than when picking up a large weight.

Strength training improves the body's ability to recruit motor units—a phenomenon called ​muscle
learning—​which increases strength even before muscle size increases. The physiological changes and
benefits that result from strength training are summarized in ​Table 4.1​.
BENEFITS OF MUSCULAR STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE
Enhanced muscular strength and endurance can lead to improvements in the areas of performance,
injury prevention, body composition, self-image, lifetime muscle and bone health, and metabolic health.
Most important, greater muscular strength and endurance reduce the risk of premature death. Stronger
people—particularly men—have a lower death rate due to all causes, including cardiovascular disease
and cancer (see the box “Does Muscular Strength Reduce the Risk of Premature Death?”). The link
between strength and death rate is independent of age, physical activity, smoking, alcohol intake, body
composition, and family history of cardiovascular disease.

Improved Performance of Physical Activities

A person with a moderate to high level of muscular strength and endurance can perform everyday
tasks—such as climbing stairs and carrying groceries—with ease. Increased strength can enhance your
enjoyment of recreational sports by making it possible to achieve high levels of performance and to
handle advanced techniques. Strength training also results in modest improvements in maximal oxygen
consumption. People with poor muscle strength tire more easily and are less effective in both everyday
and recreational activities.

Injury Prevention

Increased muscular strength and endurance help protect you from injury in two key ways:

● By enabling you to maintain good posture

● By encouraging proper body mechanics during everyday activities such as walking and
lifting

Good muscle strength and, particularly, endurance in the abdomen, hips, lower back, and legs, maintain
the spine in proper alignment and help prevent low-back pain, which afflicts more than 85% of Americans
at some time in their lives. (Prevention of low-back pain is discussed in ​Chapter 5​.)

Training for muscular strength and endurance also makes the ​tendons, ligaments,​ and ​cartilage​ cells
stronger and less susceptible to injury. Resistance exercise prevents injuries best when the training
program is gradual and progressive and builds all the major muscle groups.

Improved Body Composition

As ​Chapter 2​ explained, healthy body composition means that the body has a high proportion of fat-free
mass (composed primarily of muscle) and a relatively small proportion of fat. Strength training improves
body composition by increasing muscle mass, thereby tipping the body composition ratio toward fat-free
mass and away from fat.
Building muscle mass through strength training also helps with losing fat because metabolic rate is
related to muscle mass: The greater your muscle mass, the higher your metabolic rate. A high metabolic
rate means that a nutritionally sound diet coupled with regular exercise will not lead to an increase in body
fat. Strength training can boost resting metabolic rate by up to 15%, depending on how hard you train.
Resistance exercise also increases muscle temperature, which in turn slightly increases the rate at which
you burn calories over the hours following a weight training session.

Enhanced Self-Image and Quality of Life

Strength training leads to an enhanced self-image in both men and women by providing stronger,
firmer-looking muscles and a toned, healthy-looking body. Women tend to lose inches, increase strength,
and develop greater muscle definition. Men tend to build larger, stronger muscles. The larger muscles in
men combine with high levels of the hormone ​testosterone​ for a strong tissue-building effect; see the box
“Gender Differences in Muscular Strength.”

KEY TERMS
Tendon ​A tough band of fibrous tissue that connects a muscle to a bone or other body part and
transmits the force exerted by the muscle.
Ligament ​A tough band of tissue that connects the ends of bones to other bones or supports
organs in place.
Cartilage ​Tough, resilient tissue that acts as a cushion between the bones in a joint.
Testosterone ​The principal male hormone, responsible for the development of secondary sex
characteristics and important in increasing muscle size.

Because strength training involves measurable objectives (pounds lifted, repetitions accomplished), a
person can easily recognize improved performance, leading to greater self-confidence and self-esteem.
Strength training also improves quality of life by increasing energy, preventing injuries, and making daily
activities easier and more enjoyable.

Improved Muscle and Bone Health with Aging

Research has shown that good muscular strength helps people live healthier lives. A lifelong program of
regular strength training prevents muscle and nerve degeneration that can compromise the quality of life
and increase the risk of hip fractures and other potentially life-threatening injuries.

In the general population, people begin to lose muscle mass after age 30, a condition called ​sarcopenia​.
At first they may notice that they cannot play sports as well as they could in high school. After more years
of inactivity and strength loss, people may have trouble performing even the simple movements of daily
life, such as walking up a flight of stairs or doing yard work. By age 75, about 25% of men and 75% of
women cannot lift more than 10 pounds overhead. Although aging contributes to decreased strength,
inactivity causes most of the loss. Poor strength makes it much more likely that a person will be injured
during everyday activities.
As a person ages, motor nerves can become disconnected from the portion of muscle they control. By
age 70, 15% of the motor nerves in most people are no longer connected to muscle tissue. Aging and
inactivity also cause muscles to become slower and therefore less able to perform quick, powerful
movements. Strength training helps maintain motor nerve connections and the quickness of muscles.
Osteoporosis (bone loss) is common in people over age 55, particularly postmenopausal women.
Osteoporosis leads to fractures that can be life-threatening. Hormonal changes from aging account for
much of the bone loss that occurs, but lack of bone mass due to inactivity and a poor diet are contributing
factors. Strength training can lessen bone loss even if it is taken up later in life, and if practiced regularly,
strength training may even build bone mass in postmenopausal women and older men. Increased muscle
strength can also help prevent falls, which are a major cause of injury in people with osteoporosis.

Metabolic and Heart Health

Strength training helps prevent and manage both cardiovascular disease (CVD) and diabetes by:
● Improving glucose metabolism
● Increasing maximal oxygen consumption
● Reducing blood pressure
● Increasing HDL cholesterol and reducing LDL cholesterol (in some people)
● Improving blood vessel health
Stronger muscles reduce the demand on the heart during ordinary daily activities such as lifting and
carrying objects. The benefits of resistance exercise to the heart are so great that the American Heart
Association recommends that healthy adults and many low-risk cardiac patients do strength training 2–3
days per week. Resistance training may not be appropriate for people with some types of heart disease.

ASSESSING MUSCULAR STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE

Muscular strength is usually assessed by measuring the maximum amount of weight a person can lift one
time. This single maximum effort is called a ​repetition maximum (RM).​ You can assess the strength of
your major muscle groups by taking the one–repetition maximum (1 RM) test for the bench press and by
taking functional leg strength tests. You can measure 1 RM directly or estimate it by doing multiple
repetitions with a submaximal (lighter) weight. It is best to train for several weeks before attempting a
direct 1 RM test; once you have a baseline value, you can retest after 6–12 weeks to check your
progress. See Lab 4.1 for guidelines on taking these tests. For more accurate results, avoid strenuous
weight training for 48 hours beforehand.
Muscular endurance is usually assessed by counting the maximum number of ​repetitions​ of an exercise
a person can do (such as in push-ups or kettlebell snatches) or the maximum amount of time a person
can hold a muscular contraction (such as in the flexed-arm hang). You can test the muscular endurance
of major muscle groups in your body by taking the curl-up test, the push-up test, and the squat endurance
test. See Lab 4.2 for complete instructions on taking these assessment tests.
CREATING A SUCCESSFUL STRENGTH TRAINING PROGRAM
When the muscles are stressed by a greater load than they are used to, they adapt and improve their
function. The type of adaptation that occurs depends on the type of stress applied.

Static Versus Dynamic Strength Training Exercises

Strength training exercises are generally classified as static or dynamic. Each involves a different way of
using and strengthening muscles.
Static Exercise​ Also called ​isometric​ exercise, ​static exercise​ involves a muscle contraction without a
change in the length of the muscle or the angle in the joint on which the muscle acts. In isometrics, the
muscle contracts, but there is no movement. To perform an isometric exercise, a person can use an
immovable object like a wall to provide resistance, or simply tighten a muscle while remaining still (for
example, tightening the abdominal muscles while sitting at a desk). The spine extension and the side
bridge are both isometric exercises.

KEY TERMS
Repetition Maximum (RM) ​The maximum amount of resistance that can be moved a specified
number of times.
Repetitions ​The number of times an exercise is performed during one set.
Static (isometric) exercise ​Exercise involving a muscle contraction without a change in the
muscle's length.

Static exercises are not used as widely as dynamic exercises because they don't develop strength
throughout a joint's entire range of motion. During almost all movements, however, some muscles
contract statically to support the skeleton so that other muscles can contract dynamically. For example,
when you throw, hit a ball, or ski, the core muscles in the abdomen and back stabilize the spine. This
stability allows more powerful contractions in the lower- and upper-body muscles. The core muscles
contract statically during dynamic exercises, such as squats, lunges, and overhead presses.
Static exercises are useful in strengthening muscles after an injury or surgery, when movement of the
affected joint could delay healing. Isometrics are also used to overcome weak points in an individual's
range of motion. Statically strengthening a muscle at its weakest point will allow more weight to be lifted
with that muscle during dynamic exercise. Certain types of calisthenics and Pilates exercises (described
in more detail later in the chapter) also involve static contractions. For maximum strength gains, hold the
isometric contraction maximally for 6 seconds; do 2–10 repetitions.
Dynamic Exercise​ Also called ​isotonic​ exercise, dynamic exercise involves a muscle contraction with a
change in the length of the muscle. Dynamic exercises are the most popular type of exercises for
increasing muscle strength and seem to be most valuable for developing strength that can be transferred
to other forms of physical activity. They can be performed with weight machines, free weights, or a
person's own body weight (as in curl-ups or push-ups).
There are two kinds of dynamic muscle contractions:
● A ​concentric muscle contraction​ occurs when the muscle applies enough force to
overcome resistance and shortens as it contracts.
● ​ liometric contraction)​ occurs when the
An ​eccentric muscle contraction​ (also called a p
resistance is greater than the force applied by the muscle and the muscle lengthens as it
contracts.
For example, in an arm curl, the biceps muscle works concentrically as the weight is raised toward the
shoulder and eccentrically as the weight is lowered.
CONSTANT AND VARIABLE RESISTANCE​ Two of the most common dynamic exercise techniques are
constant resistance exercise and variable resistance exercise.
● Constant resistance exercise​ uses a constant load (weight) throughout a joint's full range
of motion. Training with free weights is a form of constant resistance exercise. A problem
with this technique is that, because of differences in leverage, there are points in a joint's
range of motion where the muscle controlling the movement is stronger and points where it
is weaker. The amount of weight a person can lift is limited by the weakest point in the
range.
● In ​variable resistance exercise,​ the load is changed to provide maximum load throughout
the entire range of motion. This form of exercise uses machines that place more stress on
muscles at the end of the range of motion, where a person has better leverage and can
exert more force. Use elastic bands and chains with free weights to add variable resistance
to the exercises.

A concentric contraction An eccentric contraction

Constant and variable resistance exercises are both extremely effective for building strength and
endurance.

Pneumatic strength training machines use air pressure for resistance and are popular in many gyms and
health clubs. They build strength in beginners but are less effective for more advanced strength trainers.
The machines provide resistance only during the concentric (muscle shortening) phase of the exercise
and not during the eccentric (muscle lengthening) phase. Such machines do not preload the muscles with
resistance; they provide resistance only after the movement has been started.

OTHER DYNAMIC EXERCISE TECHNIQUES​ Athletes use four other kinds of isotonic techniques, primarily
for training and rehabilitation.

● Eccentric (pliometric) loading​ involves placing a load on a muscle as it lengthens. The

muscle contracts eccentrically in order to control the weight. Eccentric loading is practiced
during most types of resistance training. For example, you are performing an eccentric
movement as you lower the weight to your chest during a bench press in preparation for the
active movement. You can also perform exercises designed specifically to overload muscle
eccentrically, a technique called ​negatives.

● Plyometrics​ is the sudden eccentric loading and stretching of muscles followed by a

forceful concentric contraction. An example would be the action of the lower-body muscles
when jumping from a bench to the ground and then jumping back onto the bench. This type
of exercise is used to develop explosive strength; it also helps build and maintain bone
density.

● Speed loading​ involves moving a weight as rapidly as possible in an attempt to approach

the speeds used in movements like throwing a softball or sprinting. In the bench press, for
example, speed loading might involve doing five repetitions as fast as possible using a
weight that is half the maximum load you can lift. You can gauge your progress by timing
how fast you can perform the repetitions.Training with ​kettlebells​ is a type of speed loading.
Kettlebell training is highly ballistic, meaning that many exercises involve fast,
pendulum-type motions, extreme decelerations, and high-speed eccentric muscle
contractions. Kettlebell swings require dynamic concentric muscle contractions during the
upward phase of the exercise followed by high-speed eccentric contractions to control the
movement when returning to the starting position. Kettlebell training is very popular around
the world, but more research is needed to better understand its effects on strength, power,
and fitness.

● Isokinetic​ exercise involves exerting force at a constant speed against an equal force
exerted by a special strength training machine. The isokinetic machine provides variable
resistance at different points in the joint's range of motion, matching the effort applied by the
individual while keeping the speed of the movement constant. Isokinetic exercises are
excellent for building strength and endurance.
Comparing Static and Dynamic Exercise​ Static exercises require no equipment, so they can be done
virtually anywhere. They build strength rapidly and are useful for rehabilitating injured joints. On the other
hand, they have to be performed at several different angles for each joint to improve strength throughout
its entire range of motion. Dynamic exercises can be performed without equipment (calisthenics) or with
equipment (weight training). They are excellent for building strength and endurance, and they tend to
build strength through a joint's full range of motion. Most people develop muscular strength and
endurance using dynamic exercises. Ultimately, the type of exercise a person chooses depends on
individual goals, preferences, and access to equipment.

Kettlebells are growing in popularity. They provide a fast,

effective workout when used properly.

Weight Machines Versus Free Weights

Muscles get stronger when made to work against resistance. Resistance can be provided by free weights,
your own body weight, or exercise machines. Many people prefer weight machines because they are
safe, convenient, and easy to use. You just set the resistance, sit down at the machine, and start working.
Machines make it easy to isolate and work specific muscles. You don't need a ​spotter​—someone who
stands by to assist when free weights are used—and you don't have to worry about dropping a weight on
yourself. Many machines provide support for the back.

Free weights require more care, balance, and coordination to use, but they strengthen your body in ways
that are more adaptable to real life. They are also more popular with athletes for developing functional
strength for sports, especially sports that require a great deal of strength. Free weights are widely
available, inexpensive, and convenient for home use.

Other Training Methods and Types of Equipment

You don't need a fitness center or expensive equipment to strength train. If you prefer to train at home or
like low-cost alternatives, consider the following options.

Resistance Bands​ Resistance or exercise bands are elastic strips or tubes of rubber material that are
inexpensive, lightweight, and portable. They are available in a variety of styles and levels of resistance.
Some are sold with instructional guides or DVDs, and classes may be offered at fitness centers. Many
free weight exercises can be adapted for resistance bands. For example, you can do biceps curls by
standing on the center of the band and holding one end of the band in each hand; the band provides
resistance when you stretch it to perform the curl.

Exercise (Stability) Balls​ The exercise or stability ball is an extra-large inflatable ball. It was originally
developed for use in physical therapy but has become a popular piece of exercise equipment for use in
the home or gym. It can be used to work the entire body, but it is particularly effective for working the core
stabilizing muscles in the abdomen, chest, and back—muscles that are important for preventing back
problems. The ball's instability forces the exerciser to use the stability muscles to balance the body, even
when just sitting on the ball. Moves such as crunches are more effective when performed with an exercise
ball.

When choosing a ball, make sure that your thighs are parallel to the ground when you sit on it; if you are a
beginner or have back problems, choose a larger ball so that your thighs are at an angle, with hips higher
than knees. Beginners should use caution until they feel comfortable with the movements and take care
to avoid poor form due to fatigue. See ​Chapter 7​ for more on incorporating stability balls into a fitness
program.

Pilates​ Pilates (​pil LAH teez​) was developed by German gymnast and boxer Joseph Pilates early in the
twentieth century. It often involves the use of specially designed resistance training devices, although
some classes feature just mat or floor work. Pilates focuses on strengthening and stretching the core
muscles in the back, abdomen, and buttocks to create a solid base of support for whole-body movement;
the emphasis is on concentration, control, movement flow, and breathing. Mat exercises can be done at
home, but because there are hundreds of Pilates exercises, some of them strenuous, it is best to begin
with some qualified instruction. The Pilates Method Alliance (​www.pilatesmethodalliance.org​) offers
advice on finding a qualified teacher.

Medicine Balls, Suspension Training, Stones, and Carrying Exercises​ Almost anything that provides
resistance to movement will develop strength. Rubber medicine balls weigh up to 50 pounds and can be
used for a variety of functional movements, such as squats and overhead throws. Suspension training
uses body weight as the resistance and involves doing exercises with ropes or cords attached to a hook,
bar, door jam, or sturdy tree branch. Stones can provide resistance to almost any movement, are free,
and can be found in many shapes and sizes. Walking while carrying dumbbells, farmer's bars, or heavy
stones is an easy and effective way to develop whole body strength.

No-Equipment Calisthenics​ You can use your own body weight as resistance for strength training.
Exercises such as curl-ups, push-ups, squats, step-ups, heel raises, chair dips, and lunges can be done
anywhere.
Applying the FITT Principle: Selecting Exercises and Putting Together a
Program

A complete weight training program works all the major muscle groups. It usually takes about 8–10
different exercises to get a complete full-body workout. Use the FITT principle—frequency, intensity, time,
and type—to set the parameters of your program.

Frequency of Exercise​ For general fitness, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM)
recommends a frequency of at least 2 nonconsecutive days per week for weight training. Allow your
muscles at least one day of rest between workouts; if you train too often, your muscles won't be able to
work with enough intensity to improve their fitness, and soreness and injury are more likely to result. If
you enjoy weight training and want to train more often, try working different muscle groups on alternate
days—a training plan called a ​split routine.​ For example, work your arms and upper body one day, work
your lower body the next day, and then return to upper-body exercises on the third day.

Intensity of Exercise: Amount of Resistance​ The amount of weight (resistance) you lift in weight
training exercises is equivalent to intensity in cardiorespiratory endurance training. It determines how your
body will adapt to weight training and how quickly these adaptations will occur.

Choose weights based on your current level of muscular fitness and your fitness goals. Choose a weight
heavy enough to fatigue your muscles but light enough for you to complete the repetitions with good form.
(For tips on perfecting your form, see the box “Improving Your Technique with Video.”) To build strength
rapidly, you should lift weights as heavy as 80% of your maximum capacity (1 RM). If you're more
interested in building endurance, choose a lighter weight (perhaps 40–60% of 1 RM), and do more
repetitions.

For example, if your maximum capacity for the leg press is 160 pounds, you might lift 130 pounds to build
strength and 80 pounds to build endurance. For a general fitness program to develop both strength and
endurance, choose a weight in the middle of this range, perhaps 70% of 1 RM. Or you can create a
program that includes both higher-intensity exercise (80% of 1 RM for 8–10 repetitions) and
lower-intensity exercise (60% of 1 RM for 15–20 repetitions); this routine will develop both fast-twitch and
slow-twitch muscle fibers.

Because it can be tedious and time-consuming to continually reassess your maximum capacity for each
exercise, you might find it easier to choose a weight based on the number of repetitions of an exercise
you can perform with a given resistance.

Time of Exercise: Repetitions and Sets​ To improve fitness, you must do enough repetitions of each
exercise to fatigue your muscles. The number of repetitions needed to cause fatigue depends on the
amount of resistance: The heavier the weight, the fewer repetitions to reach fatigue. In general, a heavy
weight and a low number of repetitions (1–5) build strength and overload primarily fast-twitch fibers,
whereas a light weight and a high number of repetitions (15–20) build endurance and overload primarily
slow-twitch fibers.
For a general fitness program to build both strength and endurance, try to do about 8–12 repetitions of
each exercise; a few exercises, such as abdominal crunches and calf raises, may require more. To avoid
injury, older (approximately age 50–60 and above) and frailer people should perform more repetitions
(10–15) using a lighter weight.

In weight training, a ​set​ refers to a group of repetitions of an exercise followed by a rest period. To
develop strength and endurance for general fitness, you can make gains doing a single set of each
exercise, provided you use enough resistance to fatigue your muscles. (You should just barely be able to
complete the 8–12 repetitions—using good form—for each exercise.) Doing more than one set of each
exercise will increase strength development, and most serious weight trainers do at least three sets of
each exercise (see the section “More Advanced Strength Training Programs” for guidelines on more
advanced programs).

If you perform more than one set of an exercise, you need to rest long enough between sets to allow your
muscles to work with enough intensity to increase fitness. The length of the rest interval depends on the
amount of resistance. In a program to develop a combination of strength and endurance for wellness, a
rest period of 1–3 minutes between sets is appropriate. If you are lifting heavier loads to build strength,
rest 3–5 minutes between sets. You can save time in your workouts by alternating sets of different
exercises. One muscle group can rest between sets while you work on another group.

Training volume is one method of quantifying the total load lifted during weight training. Use this formula
to calculate the training volume for a workout:

For example, if you did three sets of 10 repetitions for biceps curls using 50 pounds, the training volume
for the exercise would be 1500 pounds (3 × 10 × 50 = 1500). Do the same calculation for every exercise
in your program and add the results together to determine the total training volume for the entire workout.

Overtraining—doing more exercise than your body can recover from—can occur in response to heavy
resistance training. Possible signs of overtraining include lack of progress or decreased performance,
chronic fatigue, decreased coordination, and chronic muscle soreness. The best remedy for overtraining
is rest; add more days of recovery between workouts. With extra rest, chances are you'll be refreshed and
ready to train again. Adding variety to your program, as discussed later in the chapter, can also help you
avoid overtraining with resistance exercise.

Type or Mode of Exercise​ For overall fitness, you need to include exercises for your neck, upper back,
shoulders, arms, chest, abdomen, lower back, thighs, buttocks, and calves—about 8–10 exercises in all.
If you are also training for a particular sport, include exercises to strengthen the muscles important for
optimal performance ​and​ the muscles most likely to be injured. Weight training exercises for general
fitness are presented later in this chapter.

It is important to balance exercises between ​agonist​ and ​antagonist​ muscle groups. When a muscle
contracts, it is known as the agonist; the opposing muscle, which must relax and stretch to allow
contraction by the agonist, is known as the antagonist. Whenever you do an exercise that moves a joint in
one direction, also select an exercise that works the joint in the opposite direction. For example, if you do
knee extensions to develop the muscles on the front of your thighs, also do leg curls to develop the
antagonist muscles on the back of your thighs.

The order of exercises can also be important. Do exercises for large-muscle groups or for more than one
joint before you do exercises that use small-muscle groups or single joints. This allows for more effective
overload of the larger, more powerful muscle groups. Small-muscle groups fatigue more easily than larger
ones, and small-muscle fatigue limits your capacity to overload large-muscle groups. For example, lateral
raises, which work the shoulder muscles, should be performed after bench presses, which work the chest
and arms in addition to the shoulders. If you fatigue your shoulder muscles by doing lateral raises first,
you won't be able to lift as much weight and effectively fatigue all the key muscle groups used during the
bench press.

Also, order exercises so that you work agonist and antagonist muscle groups in sequence, one after the
other. For example, follow biceps curls, which work the biceps, with triceps extensions, which exercise the
triceps—the antagonist muscle to the biceps.

The Warm-Up and Cool-Down

As with cardiorespiratory endurance exercise, you should warm up before every weight training session
and cool down afterward (​Figure 4.2​). You should do both a general warm-up—several minutes of
walking or easy jogging—and a warm-up for the weight training exercises you plan to perform. For
example, if you plan to do one or more sets of 10 repetitions of bench presses with 125 pounds, you
might do one set of 10 repetitions with 50 pounds as a warm-up. Do similar warm-up exercises for each
exercise in your program.

To cool down after weight training, relax for 5–10 minutes after your workout. Although this is
controversial, a few studies have suggested that including a period of post-exercise stretching may help
prevent muscle soreness; warmed-up muscles and joints make this a particularly good time to work on
flexibility.
Getting Started and Making Progress

The first few sessions of weight training should be devoted to learning the movements and allowing your
nervous system to practice communicating with your muscles so you can develop strength effectively. To
start, choose a weight that you can move easily through 8–12 repetitions, do only one set of each
exercise, and rest 1–2 minutes between exercises. Gradually add weight and (if you want) sets to your
program over the first few weeks until you are doing one to three sets of 8–12 repetitions of each
exercise.

As you progress, add weight according to the “two-for-two” rule: When you can perform two additional
repetitions with a given weight on two consecutive training sessions, increase the load. For example, if
your target is to perform 8–10 repetitions per exercise, and you performed 12 repetitions in your previous
two workouts, it would be appropriate to increase your load. If adding weight means you can do only 7 or
8 repetitions, stay with that weight until you can again complete 12 repetitions per set. If you can do only
4–6 repetitions after adding weight, or if you can't maintain good form, you've added too much and should
take some off.

You can add more resistance in large-muscle exercises, such as squats and bench presses, than you can
in small-muscle exercises, such as curls. For example, when you can complete 12 repetitions of squats
with good form, you may be able to add 10–20 pounds of additional resistance; for curls, on the other
hand, you might add only 3–5 pounds. As a general guideline, try increases of approximately 5%, which is
half a pound of additional weight for each 10 pounds you are currently lifting.

You can expect to improve rapidly during the first 6–10 weeks of training—a 10–30% increase in the
amount of weight lifted. Gains will then come more slowly. Your rate of improvement will depend on how
hard you work and how your body responds to resistance training. Factors such as age, gender,
motivation, and heredity also will affect your progress.

After you achieve the level of strength and muscularity you want, you can maintain your gains by training
2–3 days per week. You can monitor the progress of your program by recording the amount of resistance
and the number of repetitions and sets you perform on a workout card like the one shown in ​Figure 4.3​.
FIGURE 4.3
A sample workout card for a general fitness strength training program.

More Advanced Strength Training Programs

The program just described is sufficient to develop and maintain muscular strength and endurance for
general fitness. Performing more sets and fewer repetitions with a heavier load will cause greater
increases in strength. Such a program might include three to five sets of 4–6 repetitions each; the load
should be heavy enough to cause fatigue with the smaller number of repetitions. Rest long enough after a
set (3–5 minutes) to allow your muscles to recover and work intensely during the next set.
Experienced weight trainers often practice some form of cycle training, also called ​periodization,​ in which
the exercises, number of sets and repetitions, and intensity vary within a workout and/or between
workouts. For example, you might do a particular exercise more intensely during some sets or on some
days than others. You might also vary the exercises you perform for particular muscle groups. For more
detailed information on these more advanced training techniques, consult a strength coach certified by
the National Strength and Conditioning Association or another reliable source. If you decide to adopt a
more advanced training regimen, start off slowly to give your body a chance to adjust and to minimize the
risk of injury.

Weight Training Safety

Injuries happen in weight training. Maximum physical effort, elaborate machinery, rapid movements, and
heavy weights can combine to make the weight room a dangerous place if proper precautions aren't
taken. To help ensure that your workouts are safe and productive, follow the guidelines in the box “Safe
Weight Training” and the following suggestions.

Use Proper Lifting Technique​ Every exercise has a proper technique that is important for obtaining
maximum benefits and preventing injury. Your instructor or weight room attendant can help explain the
specific techniques for different exercises and weight machines.

Perform exercises smoothly and with good form. Lift or push the weight forcefully during the active phase
of the lift and then lower it with control. Perform all lifts through the full range of motion and strive to
maintain a neutral spine position during each exercise.

Use Spotters and Collars with Free Weights​ Spotters are necessary when an exercise has potential for
danger; a weight that is out of control or falls can cause a serious injury. A spotter can assist you if you
cannot complete a lift or if the weight tilts. A spotter can also help you move a weight into position before
a lift and provide help or additional resistance during a lift. Spotting requires practice and coordination
between the lifter and the spotter(s).

Collars are devices that secure weights to a barbell or dumbbell. Although people lift weights without
collars, doing so is dangerous. It is easy to lose your balance or to raise one side of the weight faster than
the other. Without collars, the weights can slip off and crash to the floor.

Be Alert for Injuries​ Report any obvious muscle or joint injuries to your instructor or physician, and stop
exercising the affected area. Training with an injured joint or muscle can lead to a more serious injury.
Make sure you get the necessary first aid. Even minor injuries heal faster if you use the R-I-C-E principle
of treating injuries described in ​Chapter 3​.

Consult a physician if you have any unusual symptoms during exercise or if you're uncertain whether
weight training is a proper activity for you. Conditions such as heart disease and high blood pressure can
be aggravated during weight training. Immediately report symptoms such as headaches; dizziness;
labored breathing; numbness; vision disturbances; and chest, neck, or arm pain.
A Caution About Supplements and Drugs

Many active people use nutritional supplements and drugs in the quest for improved performance and
appearance. ​Table 4.2​ lists a selective summary of “performance aids” along with their potential side
effects. Most of these substances are ineffective and expensive, and many are dangerous (see the box
“Dietary Supplements: A Consumer Dilemma”). A balanced diet should be your primary nutritional
strategy.
WEIGHT TRAINING EXERCISES
A general book on fitness and wellness cannot include a detailed description of all weight training
exercises. The following pages present a basic program for developing muscular strength and endurance
for general fitness using free weights and weight machines. Instructions for each exercise are
accompanied by photographs and a listing of the muscles being trained. See pages T4–2 and T4–3 of the
color transparency insert “Touring the Musculoskeletal System” in this chapter for a clear illustration of the
deep and superficial muscles referenced in the exercises.

Labs 4.2​ and ​4.3​ will help you assess your current level of muscular endurance and design your own
weight training program. If you want to develop strength for a particular activity, your program should
contain exercises for general fitness, exercises for the muscle groups most important for the activity, and
exercises for muscle groups most often injured. Regardless of the goals of your program or the type of
equipment you use, your program should be structured so that you obtain maximum results without
risking injury.
WEIGHT TRAINING EXERCISES FREE WEIGHTS

EXERCISE 1​ Bench Press

Instructions​: (a) Lying on a bench on your back with your feet on the floor, grasp the bar with palms
upward and hands shoulder-width apart. If the weight is on a rack, move the bar carefully from the
supports to a point over the middle of your chest or slightly above it (at the lower part of the sternum). (b)
Lower the bar to your chest. Then press it in a straight line to the starting position. Don't arch your back or
bounce the bar off your chest. You can also do this exercise with dumbbells.

Muscles developed:​ Pectoralis major, triceps, deltoids

Note:​ ​To allow an optimal view of exercise technique, a spotter does not appear in these demonstration
photographs; however, spotters should be used for most exercises with free weights.
EXERCISE 2​ Pull-Up

Instructions:​ (a)​ Begin by grasping the pull-up bar with both hands, palms facing forward and elbows
extended fully. ​(b)​ Pull yourself upward until your chin goes above the bar. Then return to the starting
position.

Assisted pull-up:​ (c)​ This is done as described for a pull-up, except that a spotter assists the person by
pushing upward at the waist, hips, or legs during the exercise.

Muscles developed:​ Latissimus dorsi, biceps

EXERCISE 3​ Shoulder Press (Overhead or Military Press)

Instructions:​ This exercise can be done standing or seated, with dumbbells or a barbell. The shoulder
press begins with the weight at your chest, preferably on a rack. ​(a)​ Grasp the weight with your palms
facing away from you. ​(b)​ Push the weight overhead until your arms are extended. Then return to the
starting position (weight at chest). Be careful not to arch your back excessively.

If you are a more advanced weight trainer, you can “clean” the weight (lift it from the floor to your chest).
The clean should be attempted only after instruction from a knowledgeable coach; otherwise, it can lead
to injury.

Muscles developed:​ Deltoids, triceps, trapezius

EXERCISE 4​ Upright Rowing

Instructions:​ From a standing position with arms extended fully, grasp a barbell with a close grip (hands
about 6–12 inches apart) and palms facing the body. Raise the bar to about the level of your collarbone,
keeping your elbows above bar level at all times. Return to the starting position.

This exercise can be done using dumbbells, a weighted bar (shown below), or a barbell.

Muscles developed:​ Trapezius, deltoids, biceps

EXERCISE 5​ Biceps Curl

Instructions:​ (a)​ From a standing position, grasp the bar with your palms facing away from you and your
hands shoulder-width apart. ​(b)​ Keeping your upper body rigid, flex (bend) your elbows until the bar
reaches a level slightly below the collarbone. Return the bar to the starting position.

This exercise can be done using dumbbells, a curl bar (shown), or a barbell; some people find that using
a curl bar places less stress on the wrists.

Muscles developed:​ Biceps, brachialis

EXERCISE 6​ Lateral Raise

Instructions:​ (a)​ Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and a dumbbell in each hand. Hold the dumbbells
in front of you and parallel to each other. ​(b)​ With elbows slightly bent, slowly lift both weights until they
reach shoulder level. Keep your wrists in a neutral position, in line with your forearms. Return to the
starting position.

Muscles developed:​ Deltoids

EXERCISE 7​ Squat

Instructions:​ If the bar is racked, place the bar on the fleshy part of your upper back and grasp the bar at
shoulder width. Keeping your back straight and head level, remove the bar from the rack and take a step
back. Stand with feet slightly more than shoulder-width apart and toes pointed slightly outward. ​(a)​ Rest
the bar on the back of your shoulders, holding it there with palms facing forward. ​(b)​ Keeping your head
level and lower back straight and pelvis back, squat down until your thighs are below parallel with the
floor. Let your thighs move laterally (outward) so that you “squat between your legs.” This will help keep
your back straight and keep your heels on the floor. Drive upward toward the starting position, hinging at
the hips and keeping your back in a fixed position throughout the exercise.

Muscles developed:​ Quadriceps, gluteus maximus, hamstrings, gastrocnemius

EXERCISE 8​ Heel Raise

Instructions:​ Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and toes pointed straight ahead. ​(a)​ Rest the bar on
the back of your shoulders, holding it there with palms facing forward. ​(b)​ Press down with your toes while
lifting your heels. Return to the starting position.

Muscles developed:​ Gastrocnemius, soleus

EXERCISE 9​ Curl-Up or Crunch

Instructions:​ (a)​ Lie on your back on the floor with your arms folded across your chest and your feet on
the floor or on a bench. ​(b)​ Curl your trunk up, minimizing your head and shoulder movement. Lower to
the starting position. Focus on using your abdominal muscles rather than the muscles in your shoulders,
chest, and neck.

Muscles developed:​ Rectus abdominis, obliques

EXERCISE 10​ Spine Extension (“Bird Dog”) (Isometric Exercise)

Instructions:​ Begin on all fours with your knees below your hips and your hands below your shoulders.

Unilateral spine extension:​ (a) Extend your right leg to the rear and reach forward with your right arm.
Keep your spine neutral and your raised arm and leg in line with your torso. Don't arch your back or let
your hip or shoulder sag. Hold this position for 10–30 seconds. Repeat with your left leg and left arm.

Bilateral spine extension:​ (b) Extend your left leg to the rear and reach forward with your right arm.
Keep your spine neutral and your raised arm and leg in line with your torso. Don't arch your back or let
your hip or shoulder sag. Hold this position for 10–30 seconds. Repeat with your right leg and left arm.

Muscles developed:​ Erector spinae, gluteus maximus, hamstrings, deltoids

EXERCISE 11​ Isometric Side Bridge

Instructions:​ Lie on the floor on your side with your knees bent and your top arm lying alongside your
body. Lift and drive your hips forward so your weight is supported by your forearm and knee. Hold this
position for 3–10 seconds, breathing normally. Repeat on the other side. Perform 3–10 repetitions on
each side.

Muscles developed:​ Obliques, quadratus lumborum

Variation:​ You can make the exercise more difficult by keeping your legs straight and supporting yourself
with your feet and forearm (see Lab 5.3) or with your feet and hand (with elbow straight). You can also do
this exercise on an exercise ball.

WEIGHT TRAINING EXERCISES WEIGHT MACHINES

EXERCISE 1​ Bench Press (Chest or Vertical Press)

Instructions:​ Sit or lie on the seat or bench, depending on the type of machine and the manufacturer's
instructions. Your back, hips, and buttocks should be pressed against the machine pads. Place your feet
on the floor or the foot supports.

Muscles developed:​ Pectoralis major, anterior deltoids, triceps

EXERCISE 2​ Lat Pull

Instructions:​ Begin in a seated or kneeling position, depending on the type of lat machine and the
manufacturer's instructions.

Muscles developed:​ Latissimus dorsi, biceps

(a)​ Grasp the bar of the machine with arms fully extended. ​(b)​ Slowly pull the weight down until it reaches
the top of your chest. Slowly return to the starting position.

Note​: ​This exercise focuses on the same major muscles as the assisted pull-up (Exercise 3); choose an
appropriate exercise for your program based on your preferences and equipment availability.
EXERCISE 3​ Assisted Pull-Up

Instructions:​ Set the weight according to the amount of assistance you need to complete a set of
pull-ups—the heavier the weight, the more assistance provided.

(a)​ Stand or kneel on the assist platform, and grasp the pull-up bar with your elbows fully extended and
your palms facing away. ​(b)​ Pull up until your chin goes above the bar, and then return to the starting
position.

Muscles developed:​ Latissimus dorsi, biceps

EXERCISE 4​ Overhead Press (Shoulder Press)

Instructions:​ Adjust the seat so your feet are flat on the ground and the hand grips are slightly above
your shoulders.

(a)​ Sit down, facing away from the machine, and grasp the hand grips with your palms facing forward.
(b)​Press the weight upward until your arms are extended. Return to the starting position.

Muscles developed:​ Deltoids, trapezius, triceps

EXERCISE 5​ Biceps Curl

Instructions:​ (a)​ Adjust the seat so that your back is straight and your arms rest comfortably against the
top and side pads. Place your arms on the support cushions and grasp the hand grips with your palms
facing up. ​(b)​ Keeping your upper body still, flex (bend) your elbows until the hand grips almost reach
your collarbone. Return to the starting position.

Muscles developed:​ Biceps, brachialis

EXERCISE 6​ Pullover

Instructions:​ Adjust the seat so your shoulders are aligned with the cams. Push down on the foot pads
with your feet to bring the bar forward until you can place your elbows on the pads. Rest your hands
lightly on the bar. If possible, place your feet flat on the floor. ​(a)​ To get into the starting position, let your
arms go backward as far as possible. ​(b)​ Pull your elbows forward until the bar almost touches your
abdomen. Return to the starting position.

Muscles developed:​ Latissimus dorsi, pectoralis major and minor, triceps, rectus abdominis
EXERCISE 7​ Lateral Raise

Instructions:​ (a)​ Adjust the seat so the pads rest just above your elbows when your upper arms are at
your sides, your elbows are bent, and your forearms are parallel to the floor. Lightly grasp the handles. ​(b)
Push outward and up with your arms until the pads are at shoulder height. Lead with your elbows rather
than trying to lift the bars with your hands. Return to the starting position.

Muscles developed:​ Deltoids, trapezius

EXERCISE 8​ Triceps Extension

Note​: ​This exercise focuses on some of the same muscles as the assisted dip (Exercise 9); choose an
appropriate exercise for your program based on your preferences and equipment availability.

Instructions:​ (a)​ Adjust the seat so your back is straight and your arms rest comfortably against the top
and side pads. Place your arms on the support cushions and grasp the hand grips with palms facing
inward. ​(b)​Keeping your upper body still, extend your elbows as much as possible. Return to the starting
position.

Muscles developed:​ Triceps

EXERCISE 9​ Assisted Dip

Instructions:​ Set the weight according to the amount of assistance you need to complete a set of
dips—the heavier the weight, the more assistance provided. ​(a)​ Stand or kneel on the assist platform with
your body between the dip bars. With your elbows fully extended and palms facing your body, support
your weight on your hands. ​(b)​ Lower your body until your upper arms are approximately parallel with the
bars. Then push up until you reach the starting position.

Muscles developed:​ Triceps, deltoids, pectoralis major

EXERCISE 10​ Leg Press

Instructions:​ Sit or lie on the seat or bench, depending on the type of machine and the manufacturer's
instructions. Your head, back, hips, and buttocks should be pressed against the machine pads. Loosely
grasp the handles at the side of the machine. ​(a)​ Begin with your feet flat on the foot platform about
shoulder-width apart. Extend your legs, but do not forcefully lock your knees. ​(b)​ Slowly lower the weight
by bending your knees and flexing your hips until your knees are bent at about a 90-degree angle or your
heels start to lift off the foot platform. Keep your lower back flat against the support pad. Then extend your
knees and return to the starting position.

Muscles developed:​ Gluteus maximus, quadriceps, hamstrings

EXERCISE 11​ Leg Extension (Knee Extension)

Instructions:​ (a)​ Adjust the seat so the pads rest comfortably on top of your lower shins. Loosely grasp
the handles. ​(b)​ Extend your knees until they are almost straight. Return to the starting position.

Knee extensions cause kneecap pain in some people. If you have kneecap pain during this exercise,
check with an orthopedic specialist before repeating it.

Muscles developed:​ Quadriceps

EXERCISE 12​ Seated Leg Curl

Instructions:​ (a)​ Sit on the seat with your back against the back pad and the leg pad below your calf
muscles. ​(b)​ Flex your knees until your lower and upper legs form a 90-degree angle. Return to the
starting position.

Muscles developed:​ Hamstrings, gastrocnemius

EXERCISE 13​ Heel Raise

Instructions:​ (a)​ Stand with your head between the pads and one pad on each shoulder. The balls of
your feet should be on the platform. Lightly grasp the handles. ​(b)​ Press down with your toes while lifting
your heels. Return to the starting position. Changing the direction your feet are pointing (straight ahead,
inward, and outward) will work different portions of your calf muscles.

Muscles developed:​ Gastrocnemius, soleus

Note​: ​Abdominal machines, low-back machines, and trunk rotation machines are not recommended
because of injury risk. Refer to the “Free Weights” exercise section for appropriate exercises to
strengthen the abdominal and low-back muscles. For the rectus abdominus, obliques, and transvere
abdominus, perform curl-ups (Exercise 9 in the “Free Weights” section), and for the erector spinae and
quadratus lumborum, perform the spine extension and the isometric side bridge (Exercises 10 and 11 in
the “Free Weights” section).