Engineering Encyclopedia

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Water Produced With

Crude Oil Well Water For Desalting

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Process For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: LAB10505 R.A. Al-Husseini on 874-2792
Engineering Encyclopedia Process
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CONTENTS PAGES

EQUIPMENT USED TO SEPARATE PRODUCED WATER AND SALT FROM WET

CRUDE OIL .........................................................................................................................................1
Free Water and Emulsified Water in Crude Oil ......................................................................2
Production Traps.....................................................................................................................4
Dehydrator and Desalter .........................................................................................................5
Desalter Wash Water Requirements........................................................................................5
Effects of Electricity, Temperature, and Chemicals ................................................................6
Equipment for the Disposal of Wastewater.............................................................................9

PREVENTION OF WATER-RELATED PROBLEMS IN DESALTING OPERATIONS ................10

Control of Corrosion.............................................................................................................10
Prevention of Scale Formation..............................................................................................12
Prevention of Microbiological Problems ..............................................................................14

GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................................................16

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EQUIPMENT USED TO SEPARATE PRODUCED WATER AND SALT FROM

WET CRUDE OIL
Oil and gas are seldom produced from a reservoir by themselves; water and other impurities such as salt and
sediment are also produced. Once on the surface the water and impurities must be separated from the oil and
gas before they can be processed further in refineries or plants.
The water, called produced water, is usually very high in salinity. Figure 1 shows the analysis of a typically
produced water brine compared to two aquifer waters and seawater. Due to its high salinity and minor amounts
of oil and other impurities, produced water has little or no value and must be disposed of properly. Often it is
injected into disposal wells or back into a reservoir where it can help to improve the well’s yield of oil.

Oil
Aquifer 1 Aquifer 2 Bearing Seawater
Formation

Sodium
1,600 16,360 52,600 17,600
(Na)

Calcium
580 3,480 23,800 620
(Ca)

Magnesium
100 690 3,120 2,100
(Mg)

Barium
- - 10 -
(Ba)

Carbonate
- - - 20
(CO3)

Bicarbonate
180 180 130 120
(HCO3)

Chloride
2,890 32,470 132,000 31,000
(Cl)

Sulfate
1,090 1,100 320 4,280
(SO4)

Strontium
14 40 950 -
(Sr)

TDS 6,454 54,320 212,930 55,740

FIGURE 1. TYPICAL GEOCHEMICAL ANALYSES OF WATER FROM VARIOUS

SOURCES(SOURCE: REFERENCE NO. 1, “CORROSION IN WET CRUDE TRANSMISSION AND
PROCESSING”)

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The solids associated with crude oil are mostly sand and scale and are called basic sediment. The basic
sediment and water (BS&W) must be removed, and the oil and gas separated. Typically, facilities are designed
to process wet crude to less than 0.2 % BS&W and less than 10 PTB salt (pounds of salt per thousand barrels of
dry crude oil).
Free Water and Emulsified Water in Crude Oil
Water produced with reservoir fluids can also be associated with the oil and gas in three forms:
• Free water: The free water settles out of the oil rapidly. Since water is more dense than oil, free
water forms a separate phase below the oil if it is allowed to remain still in a vessel for a few
minutes.

• mulsified water: Some water may be tightly bound in the oil as a water-in-oil (w/o) emulsion.
A w/o emulsion is a mixture in which the water phase is spread out (dispersed) as tiny droplets
in a continuous (oil) liquid phase. In addition to simple hydrocarbons, crude oils contain polar
compounds containing oxygen and nitrogen atoms which have a greater affinity for water than
the hydrocarbons. These polar compounds act as surfactants which stabilize the droplets of
water in oil preventing them from coalescing and are called emulsifiers. The dispersed water
would settle out if given enough time; the separation can be speeded up through the use of
heat, chemicals, and other techniques. Depending on the amount of water and oil present and
the nature of the surfactants, emulsions with the oil dispersed in a continuous water phase are
also possible. These oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions are frequently encountered in oil field and
refinery wastewater.

• Water vapor: Water vapor can be one of the gaseous components of the reservoir fluids which
must be removed by desiccants or glycol dehydrators. In this module, we will be concerned
with the separation and treatment of free water and emulsified water.

As reservoir fluids leave the wellhead, they enter a pipeline called a flowline. Fluids from different flowlines are
combined at trunklines and are mixed at a production header as they enter a Gas/Oil Separation Plant (GOSP)
or a Wet Crude Handling Facility (WCHF) for processing. Before entering the processing plant the stream may
contain a mixture of oil, emulsion, gas, and water. In the plant the crude then flows through a series of two or
three production traps where the gas and liquid phases are separated. The liquids flow through a desalting
train (dehydrator and desalter) where the water and salt are removed from the oil. The crude is washed with
added water in this process. The washed water and produced water must be disposed of, usually by injection
into wells.

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Figure 2 shows the simplified flow of water, oil, and gas through production traps, desalting train, and
wastewater treatment vessels in a typical WCHF.

FIGURE 2. TYPICAL SIMPLIFIED PROCESS FLOW IN A WET CRUDE HANDLING

FACILITY(SOURCE: REFERENCE NO. 1, “CORROSION IN WET CRUDE TRANSMISSION AND
PROCESSING”)

One simplified flow diagram of a WCHF does not accurately represent the various designs used in the many
Saudi Aramco GOSPs and WCHFs. It does illustrate how the basic processes are generally arranged. In Saudi
Aramco’s Southern Area, three-phase separation (i.e., separation of crude oil into gas, oil, and water phases),
dehydration, and desalting are conducted within GOSPs. Three-phase separation is conducted in high and low
pressure production traps. In Saudi Aramco’s Northern Area, most offshore GOSPs conduct only two-phase
separation (separation of crude oil into oil and gas phases). Some onshore GOSPs conduct both three-phase and
two-phase separation. Dehydration and desalting are conducted in WCHFs.

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Production Traps
The primary function of production traps is to degas the reservoir fluids by lowering the pressure in one or
more stages. Typically, the traps must reduce the gas to saturation at ambient temperature and near atmospheric
pressure so that the crude can be safely stored and transported. The two basic types of traps are two-phase and
three-phase traps or separators. A simplified drawing of two vertical traps is shown in Figure 3. A two-phase
trap separates the fluids into liquid and gas. The liquid - oil (emulsion or water) goes out the bottom and the gas
goes out the top. A three-phase trap separates the fluids into oil or emulsion, gas, and free water. The gas exits
the top, the oil or emulsion exits from the middle, and the free water exits at the bottom. When free water is
present, the three-phase trap may be used. If there is little or no free water, a two-phase trap may be used.

FIGURE 3. 2-PHASE & 3-PHASE TRAPS

(SOURCE: REFERENCE NO. 2, OIL AND GAS, THE PRODUCTION STORY)

Different shapes and designs for production traps are used: horizontal, vertical, and spherical. Horizontal traps
can be single or double tube designs. Horizontal separators are generally better at separating well fluids, but
they take up more space than vertical separators. Space and weight limitations are concerns in the design of
offshore platforms. Sizing depends on the volume of gas released, the foaming tendency of the crude, its water
content, and its viscosity and gravity.

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To remove droplets of liquid from the gas, a screen-like device called a mist eliminator or mist extractor is
provided. This device traps tiny droplets of liquid moving through it and collects them so they fall into the
liquid. Baffles are used to aid in removing the gas. By spreading the liquid out into a thin layer, the gas escapes
more readily.
Dehydrator and Desalter
After passing through the production traps, the wet crude generally flows through two horizontal electrostatic
treaters arranged in a series called the desalting train. The first vessel, where the majority of the water is
removed, is called the dehydrator. The crude coming into the dehydrator may contain from 3 to 30 volume
percent water. In special designs, higher levels can be handled. The primary function of the dehydrator is to
remove the bulk water from the crude, whether it is free water or emulsified water.
Whatever BS&W is carried over from the dehydrator may contain enough salt in the water to make the crude
unacceptable. In that case, a desalter is required to lower the salt to the required specification. In the desalter,
the salt level is reduced by washing the crude with a relatively low salinity water. The wash water is injected
into the charge to the desalter and passes through a mixing device (typically a globe valve), where an emulsion
is formed. This water dilutes the brine and provides sufficient water for the emulsified water to be coalesced
under the influence of an electrostatic field. The coalesced water is then separated by gravity. The desalter
effluent water is injected into the crude charge to the dehydrator. The effluent water from the dehydrator is sent
to a water/oil separator (WOSEP).
Desalter Wash Water Requirements
Requirements for the chemical characteristics and impurities in wash water must be established to minimize
corrosion and scale formation in the equipment. Specific requirements may vary from system to system.
The following are some general guidelines for wash water:
• pH: Generally, the target pH for wash water is 5.5 to 7.5. At higher levels the potential for
scale formation increases and emulsions become more difficult to break, due to the formation
of soaps. Any organic acid present in the crude, e.g., napthenic acid, will form a sodium salt (a
soap) at high pH. These soaps stabilize the (w/o) emulsion and reduce the dehydration
efficiency causing high water carryover. A low pH is not desirable since it would lead to
increased corrosion. Ammonia in wash water raises the pH and promotes soap formation.

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• Hardness: Excessive hardness in wash water can lead to scaling, which plugs equipment.
Precipitated salts can also stabilize (w/o) emulsions.

• Hydrogen sulfide: Moderate levels of hydrogen sulfide do not affect the desalting operation;
however, they can corrode downstream equipment. When hydrogen sulfide levels are
excessive, corrosion inhibitors are often required.

• Oxygen: Elimination of oxygen is required to minimize corrosion. Less than 10 ppb oxygen
will ensure low corrosion rates.

Effects of Electricity, Temperature, and Chemicals

In both desalters and dehydrators, electrostatic coalescence can be used to aid in breaking the w/o emulsions.
The internal circulation and the internal components of a Petreco Cylectric Desalter are shown in Figure 4.

OIL OUT

TURBULENT QUIET ZONE

FINE PARTICLE
COALESCING BAFFLE

ELECTRODES

COARSE
COALESCING
WEAK FIELD
WATER OUT

DISTRIBUTOR PIPE VELOCITY ADJUSTOR

EMULSION IN

FIGURE 4. INTERNAL CIRCULATION AND ELECTRIC FIELD,

PETRECO CYLECTRIC DESALTER
(SOURCE: REFERENCE NO. 3, INTRODUCTION TO DESALTER TECHNOLOGY)

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When a high voltage electrical field is applied to the emulsion, small droplets of water instantaneously coalesce
into much larger drops. The electrical field causes the droplets to form induced dipoles - each carrying equal but
opposite electrical charges or poles. In forming this dipole, the droplet is elongated (Figure 5), weakening or
breaking the stabilizing, interfacial film that separates the water and oil.

FIGURE 5. DIPOLES INDUCED BY AN ELECTRICAL FIELD APPLIED

TO A WATER-IN-OIL EMULSION
(SOURCE: REFERENCE NO. 4,
DESALTING: YOUR FIRST STEP IN COST-EFFECTIVE REFINING)

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The droplets coalesce when oppositely charged poles on neighboring droplets are attracted to each other. The
large drops are then separated by the force of gravity. The viscosity of the oil, and the density of the oil and
water influence the rate at which the water droplets fall. Stokes’s law can be used to predict the rate at which
droplets of water will fall out of the crude:
Rate of Settling = k(Pw - Po)gd2/µo
Where:
k = a constant which is system dependent (dimension less)
Pw = density of the aqueous phase (kg/m 3)
Po = density of the oil phase (kg/m 3)
g = acceleration by gravity (m/s2)
µo = coefficient of viscosity of oil (kg/ms)
d = diameter of the drop (m)
The viscosity can be decreased by heating the oil; this increases the rate of fall of the droplet. Separation is
faster for a light crude oil than for a heavier crude, as the rate of settling is inversely proportional to the
viscosity of the oil. Since the settling rate is proportional to the square of the drop diameter, this term greatly
affects the settling rate. For example, if a droplet diameter is increased by a factor of 10, the settling rate
increases by a factor of 100.
The distance between adjacent droplets of water is also an important factor in electrostatic coalescence. The
relationship is:
F = KE2d6/s4 (for s > d)
Where:
F = attractive force between droplets (kg•m/s2)
K = system dependent constant
E = voltage gradient (kg/s2m)
d = diameter of the droplet (m)
s = distance between droplet centers (m)

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From this equation, if the distance between droplets (s) is very large relative to the droplet diameter (d), the
force required to pull the droplets together becomes very high. Simply increasing the electrical field is not the
answer to overcoming this force. A critical voltage exists, which if exceeded causes the droplets to disperse.
The key to decreasing the distance between drops is to add enough fresh water to generate more droplets. A
water-in-oil ratio of 3 % to 5 % should generally be maintained to ensure proper dehydration or desalting,
although as high as 10 % is sometimes required.
A demulsifier is often added to the crude oil to aid in separation of the (w/o) emulsion.
Equipment for the Disposal of Wastewater
The effluent water from the desalting train and the produced water from the production traps are generally
disposed of by injection into disposal wells. Separation of gas, oil, and water is never complete, even when the
crude is dried to pipeline specifications. The amount of oil remaining in the separated water is generally a
concern for two reasons:
• Produced water/oil ratios generally increase with time.

• Oil and oily solids in wastewater result in injection well plugging.

The oil remaining in wastewater is referred to as carryover oil.

The effluent water from the desalter and the produced water are collected in a water/oil separator (WOSEP).
This is often a large horizontal, gas blanketed vessel where water and oil separate by gravity. Recovered oil is
returned to the process stream and the water (wastewater) is injected into disposal wells. Sufficient wastewater
storage is required to hold water during short periods when injection capability is lost. A wastewater surge tank
(WWST) is generally provided for this purpose. This tank is normally held at a low level; it may hold a low
level of stagnant water for a prolonged period.
Chemical and mechanical factors can lead to the formation of (o/w) emulsions in wastewater contributing to
carryover. Certain corrosion inhibitors and demulsifying chemicals fed to the crude oil can act as surfactants
which stabilize (o/w) emulsions. Centrifugal pumps, running at excess speeds, can act as homogenizers and
promote the formation of stable emulsions.
Special equipment, such as parallel plate separators, flotation cells, and coalescers, are also used for the removal
of oil from water.

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Prevention of Water-Related Problems in Desalting Operations

Corrosion, scale formation, and microbiological fouling and corrosion are potential water-related problems in a
GOSP or WCHF desalting operation. Both design and operating factors must be considered for successful
control of these problems.
Control of Corrosion
Corrosion in water results from an electrochemical reaction between a metal and a corrosive agent. For
corrosion to occur there are three requirements: an anodic reaction, a cathodic reaction, and an electrolyte. The
oxidation of iron to a ferrous ion and an electron is an example of an anodic reaction:

FeO —> Fe++ + 2e–

Similar reactions can be written for the corrosion of other metals. The reduction of hydrogen ions from acids to
hydrogen gas or oxygen to hydroxide ions are typical cathodic reactions. In these reactions the electrons are
accepted by the corrodent.

2 H+ + 2 e– —> H2
O2 + 2 H2O + 4 e —> 4 OH–
Water, containing any dissolved solids, is a suitable electrolyte to complete the corrosion cell. In desalter
operations, the hydrogen ion can be provided by hydrogen sulfide, carbonic acid, or other acidic species.
Oxygen is not present in reservoirs, but can contaminate the water by any ingress of air.

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The following factors must be considered for the control of corrosion:

• Materials of construction must be selected to handle sour water and washwater. Deadlegs
should be minimized to avoid points where corrosive deposits could collect.

• Phenolic epoxy coatings can be used to protect vessels from corrosion and hydrogen damage.

• Corrosion resistant alloys can be used to protect pumps and valves in sour water or high
chloride water. Cathodic protection can be used to protect vessels and tanks.

• Corrosion inhibitors are frequently added to desalting train wash water. Inhibitors can be
added continuously at a low concentration at the surface, or they can be added batchwise at a
higher concentration. The frequency of treatment should be based on historical corrosion
problems and ongoing corrosion monitoring.

• Elimination of oxygen is essential in the control of corrosion. Oxygen can be removed from
desalter wash water by stripping with inert gas in the same manner oxygen is removed from
injection water. Tanks and vessels should be blanketed and pressurized with inert gas. Leaking
pumps should be repaired to prevent ingress of air. In addition to mechanical stripping,
oxygen scavengers can be added to the water. However, scavengers are not effective in
treating water when more than about 2 ppm H 2S are present.

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Prevention of Scale Formation

Since brines and well waters contain slightly soluble minerals and ions, precautions must be considered to
prevent scale formation.
Calcium carbonate and sulfate are two common scales formed in water systems by the reaction of soluble ions
to form insoluble mineral scales:
Ca+2 + CO3–2 —> CaCO3 (solid)
Ca+2 + SO4–2 —> CaSO4 (solid)
The activity (related to concentration) of scale-forming ions (calcium, carbonate, sulfate), pH, temperature,
pressure, total dissolved solids, and other factors govern whether or not a scale will form. In the case of calcium
carbonate, the formation of scale is related to the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the gas in equilibrium
with the water.
This partial pressure governs the concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide which in turn determines the
carbonate activity. Due to large number of complex chemical equilibria involved, computer programs are
required to rapidly determine if scale formation is likely based on the chemical composition of the stream and
the gas in equilibrium with it.

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Barium and strontium sulfate scales can also form in oil field waters. Iron oxides, hydroxides, and sulfides
which are corrosion products may also be present. Figure 6 shows the four mineral scales sometimes present in
oil field desalting operations, and the primary factors governing when a scale will form.

Calcium Carbonate Calcium Sulfate Barium Sulfate Strontium Sulfate

Pressure Drop Causes + + + +

Temperature Increase Causes + + – +
TDS Increase Causes – – – –
pH Increase Causes + N N N

+ = more scale formation

– = less scale formation
N = no effect

FIGURE 6. FACTORS GOVERNING SCALE FORMATION(SOURCE: REFERENCE NO. 5,

“CORROSION IN WET CRUDE TRANSMISSION AND PROCESSING”)
Several courses of action can be used to prevent scale formation:
• Scale control chemicals (crystal-growth inhibitors and dispersants) can be added to prevent
scale formation. Often scale control inhibitors are injected continuously at the production
header and into the water wash stream. Since a pressure drop can induce scale formation,
occasionally a scale inhibitor is added upstream of a production trap or pump where a pressure
drop occurs.

• Operating a vessel above a minimum predetermined pressure may be necessary to minimize

scale.

• In some cases, it is necessary to dilute a stream which contains scale-forming ions with
another stream which contains a lower concentration of these ions.

• Occasionally, scale formation can be prevented by avoiding the mixing of two incompatible
waters. Split systems can be used where the incompatible waters are separated in different
systems. Also, sequential injection of two incompatible waters can be used to avoid mixing.

• pH control can be used. High pH favors formation of calcium carbonate scale and low pH may
prevent scale formation.

• The scale-forming ions can be removed from water by softening, demineralization, or other
processes. This is seldom practical with large volumes of oil field waters.

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Prevention of Microbiological Problems

Produced water and desalter wash water are environments which are very conducive to the growth of bacteria.
Bacteria are microscopic organisms which can rapidly grow and multiply in most waters. They are extremely
small (about 0.5 to 2.0 microns) and thousands of species exist. They can exist in water having a wide range of
temperature (-10° to 99 °C [14 to 210 °F]), pH (about 1.0 to 10.5), and oxygen concentration (0 % to
saturation).
Bacteria live in colonies either attached to a surface (called sessile organisms) or freely floating in water (called
planktonic organisms). The sessile organisms produce a gelatinous substance called a polysaccharide which
forms a “biofilm” surrounding the bacteria. This film can reach a thickness of 1 mm and can trap suspended
matter in water. The result is plugging and fouling. For every colony detected free floating, there may be 1,000
to 10,000 sessile colonies attached to surfaces in a system.
Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) are particularly troublesome. Along with producing a biofilm, they excrete
corrosive acids. These bacteria convert sulfate ions to sulfide with hydrogen sulfide as a by-product. They cause
the following three types of problems:
• Pitting of the metal surface beneath a bacterial colony.

• Sulfide cracking and blistering of steel.

• Plugging of water systems.

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Bacterial fouling and corrosion can be minimized by the addition of bactericides. Stagnant areas are highly
prone to bacterial growth. Since it is impossible to sterilize (destroy all the bacteria) any equipment, regularly
scheduled treatments are required.
Oxidizing biocides such as chlorine are very effective in seawater and cooling water systems; however, it is
very difficult to control bacteria with an oxidizing biocide when more than a few ppm of oil are present because
the oil consumes the oxidizer. Consequently, nonoxidizing biocides are frequently used in oily waters.
A combination of chemical or mechanical cleaning with the application of a nonoxidizing bactericide is much
more effective than the application of a bactericide alone. Surfactants are sometimes effective in aiding the
penetration of the biomass by the bactericides. Application of the bactericide after mechanical cleaning is often
most effective. Regularly scheduled cleaning of pipelines by scraping is a common practice. Often biocide
application is most effective when coordinated with such mechanical cleaning.
Figure 7 shows typical injection points for corrosion inhibitors, scale inhibitors, bactericides, and oxygen
scavengers in a WCHF.

FIGURE 7. INJECTION POINTS FOR CONTROL OF CORROSION, SCALE AND

MICROBIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

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glossary
Bactericide A material which destroys bacteria.
Basic Sediment The impurities in crude oil which are removed in a and water
(BS&W)desalting operation.
Coupon A small representative piece of metal used to evaluate the corrosivity
of a system, material performance, and/or effectiveness of a
corrosion control program.
Dehydrator A vessel in which the bulk of produced water is removed from wet
crude oil.
Desalter A vessel in which salt and sediment are removed from crude oil.

Electrostatic Coalescence A rapid coalescence of small droplets of emulsified water in oil by

the application of an electrical field.
Emulsion A mixture of two liquids where both are mutually insoluble and
either may be dispersed in the other (e.g., oil and water).
Free Water Water which separates from crude oil on standing.
GOSP Gas/oil separation plant.
Production Trap A vessel in which reservoir fluids are separated into different phases.
Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria Anaerobic bacteria which produce corrosive hydrogen sulfide.
WCHF Wet crude handling facility.
WOSEP Water/oil separator.
WWST Wastewater surge tank.

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REFERENCES
1. Bansal, K. M., Holland, S., Chen, E. Y., “Corrosion in Wet Crude Transmission and
Processing”, Arabian American Oil Company, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, presented as Paper
Number 36, Corrosion 85, Boston Massachusetts, USA

2. Baker, Ron, Oil and Gas, The Production Story, Petroleum Extension Service, The University
of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, 1983

3. Mobil Technical Center, Introduction to Desalter Technology, Mobil Research and

Development Corporation, Engineering Department, Princeton, New Jersey, January 1991,
USA

4. Desalting: Your First Step in Cost-Effective Refining, Petrolite Equipment and Services,
Petrolite Equipment and Instruments Group, 5455 Old Spanish Trail, P. O. 25465, Houston,
Texas, 77023

5. Bansal, K. M., Holland, S., Chen, E. Y., “Corrosion in Wet Crude Transmission and
Processing”, Arabian American Oil Company, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, presented as Paper
Number 36, Corrosion 85, Boston Massachusetts, USA

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