B Electrical Motor Starting Methodologies

General Learning Objectives

• Understand the operation of various starters for electrical motors

• Trace Electrical Motor Starter Circuits

Topic: Electrical Motor Starting Methodologies

Sub-Topics: 1.1 Starters and Speed Controllers for AC and DC Motors

1.1 Explain why the starting current is high compared to the load current
1.2.4 Explain why a starter is required and the principle involved
• Necessity of Starter
When a dc motor is at rest the speed of the motor is zero, therefore the back
emf is zero.

We know that Back Emf, Eb= V - IaRa

Therefore, Ia = (V - Eb)/Ra

Armature resistance Ra is very small.

Therefore when the motor is directly connected to the supply lines a heavy current
will flow through the armature conductors. This heavy current is very dangerous.

When running back emf oppose the applied voltage and thus a small current flows.
Problems of heavy inrush current at the starting time
✈ Heavy sparking at the commutator and even flashovers.
✈ Damage to the armature windings.
✈ Damage to rotating parts of the motor.
✈ Large drop in supply voltage.
Hence for the protection of the motor from high current during starting period (say 5
to 10 seconds), it is necessary to connect a high resistance in series with the armature
of motor at the starting period. The resistance should gradually cut in steps as the
motor gains speed and develop back emf.

Hence, starter is essential for DC motors.

Operation

The motor is connected with the starter as shown in the

connection. Here the DC shunt motor is connected with the Three-
point starter. The supply main is connected with point L. The
shunt field (f1 and f2 ) of the motor is connected with point. The
armature (A1 and A2 ) is connected with the control spring.

The start the motor, the handle is slowly moved against the
control spring force, to make contact with first stud (on position)
of the variable starting resistance. At this point field winding gets
supply through the metal rod and the No-Volt coil is energized.
The metal rod forms parallel path with the starting resistance.
The this point entire starting resistance is available in the
armature circuit. As the handle moved further, it goes on making
contact with divisions 2, 3, 4 etc. When starter handle is at
division 3, the division to 1 and 2 are removed from the circuit.

If the starter handle reaches Run position, the entire starting

resistance is removed from the armature circuit. Now the motor
runs at rated speed. The starter is placed in the Run position with
the help of No – Volt magnet.
Q.1) A 230V DC shunt motor takes 32A at full load. Find the back emf on full load
if the resistances of motor armature and shunt field windings are 0.2 ohm and 115
ohm respectively.(Dec/Jan-2013-14) (May/June 2016) 3 marks

Solution-

Given Data
V=230V, IL=32A, Ra=0.2 Ω, Rsh=115 Ω
Eb=?

For A DC shunt Motor

Ish= V/Rsh
=230/115
=2A

IL=Ia+Ish Ia=IL-Ish Ia=32-2 Ia=30A

Eb=V-IaRa
=230-30*0.2
=224V
Automatic DC starters
Automatic DC starters
The Automatic DC Motor Starter is designed to allow the automatic
starting of the DC Motor/Generator, Model 8501, by sensing the motor
counter electromagnetic force (CEMF) to control the armature current.
In the event of loss of field, the control circuit protects the motor
against overspeed by removing power from the armature.
Thermal/magnetic circuit breakers completely protect the starter.
Connections are made through 4 mm color-coded jacks.

Figure shows the automatic DC starter circuit diagram. Contactor M is

closed to start the machine. After suitable time delays, contactors 1A
and then 2A close, reducing the armature circuit resistance in steps.
More than two steps of starting resistance could be included by
adding additional contactors.

Note that the field rheostat is shorted out until the final starting resistor
is shorted. This keeps the field current at a maximum value to help
create torque to accelerate the motor and load.
1.2 Electrical motor starting methodologies for
AC Motors
1.2.1 Explain the following starting methods for A.C. motors and its
characteristics:

- direct on line starting

- star- delta starting
-compensator starting(Autotransformer starter)

1.2.2 State what should be taken into consideration when selecting

starting methods for A.C. motors
`
• Advantages Auto transformer starter:

1) The autotransformer starter limits significantly the inrush current.

2) It is used for large motors, in which start by direct connection to the network
is not possible. For large motors also the star-delta starter cannot be used,
especially if they are started with a significant load.

3)The most effective ratio of the autotransformer is between 65-80%.

4) Highest torque per ampere of supply current.

5) Motor current larger than supply current.

6) This method is suitable for long starting periods.

7) Adjustment of starting voltage by selection of proper tap on the auto

transformer
• Disadvantages Auto transformer starter:

a ) One of its great disadvantages is the limitation of its operation

frequency. It is always necessary to know the operation frequency in
order to determine a suitably rated auto-transformer.

b ) The compensating switch is much more expensive than a Star-

Delta starter due to the auto-transformer.

c ) Due to the size of the auto-transformer starter, much larger

control panels are required which increases the price.
DIRECT ON LINE STARTER
• It consists of two buttons, GREEN for starting and RED for stopping
purpose of the motor.

• The DOL starter comprises of an MCCB or circuit breaker, contactor

and an overload relay for protection. These two buttons, i.e. Green and
Red or start and stop buttons control the contacts. To start the motor,
we close the contact by pushing Green Button, and the full line voltage
appears to the motor.

• Contactor can be of 3 poles or 4-pole. Below given contactor is of 4-

pole type. It contains three NO (normally open) contacts that connect
the motor to supply lines, and the fourth contact is "hold on contact"
(auxiliary contact) which energizes the contactor coil after the start
button is released.

• If any fault occurs, the auxiliary coil gets de-energized, and hence the
starter disconnects the motor from supply mains.
 Working of DOL Starter
• The above wiring connection is of DOL starter. The DOL starter connects the 3-
phase main with the motor.

• The control circuit is connected to any two phases and energized from them
only.

• When we press the start button, the current flows through contactor coil
(Magnetizing Coil) and control circuit also. The current energizes the contactor
coil and leads to close the contacts, and hence 3-phase supply becomes
available to the motor.

• If we press the stop button, the current through the contact becomes
discontinued, hence supply to the motor will not be available, and the similar
thing will happen when overload relay operates, Since the supply of motor
breaks, the machine will come to rest.
• The contactor coil (Magnetizing Coil) gets supply even though we release start
button because when we release start button, it will get supply from the primary
contacts as illustrated in the diagram of the Direct Online Starter.
• Overload Protection When motor draws excessive current to meet the load requirement and If load
requirement goes beyond the rated limit, termed as Overload.

• Overload protection is a type of security when motor draws over current or excessive current and
causes overheating of the equipment. Overload is also the type of over current. So overload relays are
employed to limit the amount of current drawn. But that does not mean that protects the short circuit.

• Fuse or MCB used in the system protects the over current. Overload protection opens a circuit at
relatively low currents that are a little higher than the rating of the motor.

• Overload currents are likely to damage if they persist for a long time, i.e. it will not trip if a high value
of current flows for a short period such as starting of the motor.

• We often provide the overload protection by an overload relay. Overload relays may be solid-state
devices with adjustable trip setting also called as the electronic relay or by interacting with related
temperature sensors called as a thermal relay or if only operates for excess current flow then called
as a magnetic relay.

• For most motors, the maximum rating of the overload protection device is 125% of the full load
ampere rating.
 Advantages of DOL Starter
• Simple and most economical starter.
• More comfortable to design, operate and control.
• Provides nearly full starting torque at starting.
• Easy to understand and troubleshoot.
• DOL starter connects the supply to the delta winding of the motor.

Disadvantages of DOL Starter

• High starting current (5-8 times of full load current).
• DOL Starter causes a significant dip in voltage, hence suitable only for small motors.
• DOL Starter reduces the lifespan of the machine.
• Mechanically tough.
• Unnecessary high starting torque

Applications of DOL Starter

• We use the DOL starter where high inrush currents do not cause any harm, like to
start small water pumps, compressors, fans and conveyor belts etc.
 1.1.1 Explain the basic reason for the provision of motor protection

FAULTS IN THREE PHASE MOTOR

• The types of electric propulsion and supplemental motors usually used
nowadays in ships are induction (asynchronous) motors, synchronous
motors, and permanently excited synchronous motors (permanent magnet
motors).

• Induction motors (IMs) are currently the most widespread motors. This is
due to their low cost, simple manufacturing, reliability, and robustness,
while their efficiency is up to 96%.

• Permanent magnet (PM) motors have similar stator construction as the

induction machines, but the conventional rotor is replaced by an
arrangement of permanent magnets, thus achieving higher torque density
and relatively improved efficiency (up to 98%).

• Finally, synchronous motors achieve fairly high efficiency (about 97%),

requiring, though, a DC excitation source (in the rotor).
Electrical faults in motor

Electrical Faults : These faults are further sub divided into types such as,
• Single Phasing Fault: Single phasing fault is occurred when any one phase of
supply voltage is getting lost because three phases voltage supply is must require
for normal working of three phase induction motor. Due to this fault the motor could
be burned or heat up.

• Reverse Phase Sequencing Fault: Reverse phase sequencing fault is occurred

when any one phase of three phase voltage supply is reversed means the phase
order of supply voltages are swapped. Due to this fault the direction of rotation of
motor has changed.

• Under or Over Supply Voltages Fault: This fault is occurred when supply voltages
are under or over the specific limit. The limit of three phase ac supply voltages is
380 to 440 so when supply voltages are crossed this limit then motor could be
burned or heart up.
• Over Load Fault: This fault is occurred when motor is over loaded means the
higher load is connected at output side of motor and due to this load motor
could be heat up or excessive vibration .

• Earth Fault: Earth fault is occurred when any one phase of supply voltages is
connected to the housing of the motor then motor is totally shorted. In this
condition when any one will touch this motor then he will feel the heavy shock
beside this, the motor would take over current that could be dangerous for
induction motor.

• Inter Turn Short Circuit Fault: Inter turn short circuit fault is the such type of
fault when two turns of same phase or different phases are short circuited.
During this fault the motor could be totally damaged, or coils of that specific
phase could be damaged.

• Crawling Fault: Crawling fault is basically an electromechanical fault in three

phase induction motor. This fault is occurred when motor is fully loaded with
full supply voltages then it does accelerate but it runs nearly one seventh of its
synchronous speed. This specific phenomenon of induction motor is called
crawling.
Surge Voltages
• Surge voltage is any higher-than-normal voltage that temporarily exists on one or
more of the power lines. Lightning is a major cause of large surge voltages. A
lightning surge on the power lines comes from a direct hit or induced voltage.

• The lightning energy moves in both directions on the power lines, much like a
rapidly moving wave. This traveling surge causes a large voltage rise in an
extremely short period of time. The large voltage does the most damage on the first
few turns of the motor windings, destroying the insulation and burning out the
motor.
The main faults in the a forementioned electric machines can be classified as

• stator faults resulting in the open or short circuits on one or more stator
windings
• broken rotor bar or end-ring faults on induction motors
• static or/and dynamic air-gap irregularities (rotor eccentricity)
• bearing and gearbox failures
• short circuit in the rotor field windings
• defects of the permanent magnets of PM motors.

• Each fault disturbs the motor’s normal operation producing several

symptoms, like unbalanced line currents and air-gap voltages, torque and
speed pulsations, decreased efficiency and average torque, excessive
heating, and increased losses.
 1.3 Explain the basic reason for the provision of motor protection

• Motor protection is used to prevent damage to the electrical motor,

such as internal faults in the motor. Also external conditions when
connecting to the power grid or during use have to be detected and
abnormal conditions must be prevented.
• Additionally, the protection relay prevents the disturbance to spread
back into the grid. The protection relays provide main protection for
synchronous and asynchronous motors.
• They can be used for circuit-breaker and contactor-controlled motors
in a variety of drive applications, such as, motor drives for pumps, fans,
compressors, mills and crushers.
 1.1.4 Explain the principles of the most common overcurrent relays
• A protective relay that operates when the current flowing in the circuit reaches a
predetermined value is called Overcurrent Relay. The predetermined value of the
current at which the relay starts operating by initiating a trip signal is known as its
pick-up value.

• A relay that operates or picks up when it’s current exceeds a predetermined value
(setting value) is called Over Current Relay.

• It is essential to protect each and every electrical equipment from overcurrent's,

hence overcurrent relay is the most widely used protective relay in a power system.

• Over current protection protects electrical power systems against excessive

currents which are caused by short circuits, ground faults, etc. Over current relays
can be used to protect practically any power system elements, i.e. transmission
lines, transformers, generators, or motors.

• The applications of overcurrent relay include protection of distribution lines,

industrial systems, large motors, power equipment, etc. Most of the overcurrent
relays used for overcurrent protection are of electromagnetic type. But due to the
rapid evolution of technology, numerical overcurrent relays based on
microprocessors or microcontrollers are used nowadays for overcurrent protection.
OVERCURRENT RELAY
Electromechanical relay
• An electromechanical relay transfers signals between its contacts through a
mechanical movement. It has three sections viz. input section, control
section and output section.

• The input section consists of input terminals where a small control signal is
to be applied. The control section has an electromagnetic coil which gets
energized when control input signal is applied to the input terminals and
the output section consists of an movable armature and mechanical
contacts – movable and stationary, the movement of the armature makes
or breaks the electrical circuit.

• When an input control voltage is applied to the electromagnetic coil, it gets

magnetized and the armature is attracted by the magnetic field produced
by the coil. The movable mechanical contacts are attached to the armature,
thus when the armature moves towards the electromagnet, the contacts
closes, making the output circuit switched on. When the control signal is
removed, the armature comes back to its original position by the force of
spring, making output circuit off.
 OVERCURRENT RELAY

Samundra Institute of Maritime Studies Lonavala

 1.1.5 Explain the difference between the largest possible overload
current and a fault current
What is Overcurrent?
Overcurrent is the condition where excessive current starts to flow in the circuit due
to overload and especially short circuit.
In case of short circuit, a very high current starts to flow in the circuit where the voltage level
becomes almost zero across the load terminals which leads to the insulation failure, fire,
damage the equipment and power system even serious and hazardous explosion.

For instance, a 125A circuit breaker tripping point (magnetic trip) rated for 200% is
connected to a 100A load circuit. When the load current increase and reach the limit of
125A, it will trip eventually. If the current increase up to 200A, the breaker will operate
instantly and protect the circuit from overcurrent due to short circuit etc.

Overcurrent Protection:
Overcurrent protection is generally a protection against short circuit where excessive current
starts to flow in the circuit which leads to damage the connected equipment.

Fuses, circuit breakers, overcurrent relays, current limiters, temperature sensors and solid
state power switches are used against overcurrent protection devices. In addition, a thermal
magnetic circuit breaker is used for both overcurrent and overload protection.
What is Overload?

• An electrical overload is the condition where the load takes more current than
the normal or rated current.

• For example, a #12 gauge wire can safely carry 20 amperes current. The circuit can
be protected by minimum of 20A or 125% of load amperage i.e. (20A of load current x
125% = 25A). In this case, we must use maximum of 25A circuit breaker for
protection. Now if we use 30A – 35A circuit breaker instead of the rated CB, it means
the circuit breaker will allow about 30 to 35 amperes current to the load circuit which
flows in the wires rated for 20A. In other words, the circuit breaker may allow more
current than the nominal current which can only handle up to 20A. In this case, the
wires may heats up and caught fire or damage the circuit and connected appliances
while the breaker won’t trip as we didn’t use the proper size and rating of circuit
breaker for protection.
• Another example of overload is connecting a 1.5kW load to the 1kW alternator,
inverter or transformer etc or when up to 1.5 times higher current flows through the
circuit rather than the rated current.
• Overload is the overcurrent flow in the circuit which causes overheating in the
connected device hence, overload is a type of overcurrent.
Overload Protection:
• Overload protection is actually a protection against overheat due to the
flow of overcurrent in the circuit for specific time.
• Slow blow fuses and overload relays are used against overload protection
whereas, thermal magnetic circuit breaker are used for both overcurrent
and overload protection. The “magnetic” element provides protection
against overcurrent and “thermal” element protects the circuit from
“overload” where it operate on inverse time curve i.e. the tripping time
becomes less when current increases.
• Typically, overload protection circuit activated when 120% – 160% greater
current starts to flow in the circuit than the rated current by power supply.
What is Overvoltage?

• Overvoltage is the condition where the operating or supply voltage is higher than
the rated voltage of the system specified by the manufacturer.
• As the name suggests, overvoltage is the higher supply voltage to a device than its nominal
rated voltage. In short, voltage higher than the permissible voltage is known as overvoltage.
• Generally, when the supply voltage increases up to 1.1 (which is 110%) of the rated voltage of
a device is known the overvoltage unless specified by the manufactures.
• For instance, if the rated voltage printed on the nameplate data rating of a machine is 230V
AC ±10%. Now, If the supply voltages increase up to 250V+, the system becomes unstable
due to overvoltage (iron losses) which leads to excessive heat and may damage the device
and equipment.
• Overvoltage Protection:
• overvoltage caused by lightning strikes, power system and switching surges and insulation
failure etc can be protected by avalanche diodes, voltage dependent resistors (VDR), gas
discharge valves, lightning rods, arcing horns etc.
• Generally, zener diode based electronic circuit are mostly used for small level overlarge
protection. An overvoltage protection circuit will operate when the supply voltage increases up
to 110% to 130% above the rated voltage of a device. This way, it will cut off the power supply
to protect the device from overvoltage which may cause to damage the connected device.
1.6 Describe the function of overcurrent trip, time delays and fuses
with both overload and fault currents
What is the function of the over current trip?

Connection of overcurrent protection device. In the event of an overcurrent

situation, fuses will blow or circuit breakers will trip. Although these devices
protect the circuit against overcurrent conditions, they only open the circuit and
disconnect the supply of electricity
1.1.7 Explain the basis upon which fuses are chosen
• Fuses are overcurrent devices that protect electrical and electronic devices by melting and
opening a circuit to prevent excessive current from causing damage or starting fires. Fuses
serve two main purposes:

• 1. To protect components, equipment and people from risk of fire and electric shock
2. To isolate sub systems from the main system.

• The fusing action begins when the circuit current is high enough to heat the fuse element
and starts it to melt. Once melting begins, a gap is created that the current will “arc”
across. Melting continues and the gap grows wider until it is too wide to sustain the arc. At
that point, current ceases to flow and the overcurrent event is “cleared,” opening and
making the circuit safe.

• 1. There are two types of overcurrent events:

1) Overload - simply drawing excessive current beyond the designed capacity of the circuit,
2) Short-circuit, or fault current.
• Regardless of the overcurrent event, fuses are designed and specified to be a circuit’s
“weakest link.” These “thermally operated” devices typically employ a metal wire or strip
element in their construction.
• In short, the following factors should be considered when
selecting a fuse for a given system:
1. Normal operating current
2. Operating Voltage
3. Ambient Temperature
4. Inrush Currents
5. Maximum Fault Current
6. Length of time in which the fuse must open
7. Maximum allowable I2t (expression of the available thermal
energy resulting from current flow)
1.8 Explain the principle of a thermal relay, including the means of
its adjustment
• Thermal Overload is widely used for Motor Protection. Basically Thermal Overload Relay
is an overcurrent protection of the simplest type. The working principle of Thermal
Overload Relay is quite simple but interesting. Figure below shows a typical Thermal
Overload Relay. An adjustment dial located on the unit allows the ampere trip setting. A
manual test button is provided to test the operation of the overload relay control contacts.

• As we know that different material have different coefficient of thermal expansion. So if

two different metals joined together are heated then the metal having the greater value of
coefficient of thermal expansion will expand more as compared to other and this will cause
a bend in the bimetallic strip. This phenomenon is used in Thermal Overload Relay.

• It can be seen from the above figure that metal having greater coefficient of thermal
expansion has more expansion when heated. Now we want to use this feature in the
protection of a Motor.
• A bimetallic overload relay consists of a small heater element wired in series with the motor
and a bimetal strip that can be used as a trip lever. The bimetal strip is made of two dissimilar
metals bonded together. The two metals have different thermal expansion characteristics, so
the bimetal strip bends at a given rate when heated. Under normal operating conditions, the
heat generated by the heater element will be insufficient to cause the bimetal strip to bend
enough to trip the overload relay.

• As current rises, heat also rises. The hotter the bimetal strip becomes, the more it bends. In
an overload condition, the heat generated from the heater will cause the bimetal strip to bend
until the mechanism is tripped, stopping the motor. Some overload relays equipped with a
bimetal strip are designed to reset the circuit automatically when the bimetal strip has cooled
and reshaped itself, restarting the motor. If the cause of the overload still exists, the relay will
trip again and reset at given intervals. Care must be exercised in the selection of this type of
overload relay, since repeated cycling will eventually damage the motor.

• It should be noted that the bimetallic strip of Overload Relay will not instantly heat up to bend
rather will take some finite time to heat up and bend and therefore Thermal Overload Relay is
proffered where overcurrent for some short duration is permitted.

• If overload or over current falls down to normal value before this predetermined time, the relay
will not be operated to trip the protected equipment. A typical application of thermal relay is
overload protection of electric motor.
• 1.1.7 Explain what is meant by single phasing and its effects on a motor:
- when running
- when starting
- if continued attempts to start are made
• For proper working of any 3 phase induction motor, it must be connected to a 3
phase alternating current (ac) power supply of rated voltage and load. Once
these three-phase motors are started, they will continue to run even if one of the
three-phase supply lines gets disconnected. The loss of current through one of
these phase supplies is described as single phasing.
• The ship is fitted with hundreds of motors which are responsible for running
different pumps, machinery, and systems. The critical machinery such as steering
gear, main engine, generator, boiler etc. have 3 phase motors attached to them
which run one or the other main or auxiliary system for them.
• Causes of Single Phasing
• Single phasing is a power supply-related electrical fault in case of an induction motor. It occurs
when one of the 3 phase circuits in a three-phase motor is opened; hence the remaining
circuits carry excess current. This condition of Single Phasing is usually caused when:-
• – One or more out of the three back up fuse blows (or fuse wire melts if the fuse is of wire
type)
• – The motor circuit has contactors which supply the current. One of the contactors is open
circuited.
• – A wrong or improper setting of any of the protection devices provided on the motor can
also lead to single phasing
• – If contactor routines are not performed regularly, they might get covered or get coated
with oxidation layer leading to single phasing.
• – The relay contacts for the motor is damaged or broken
• -- One of the wire for the motor circuit is broken
• – Due to equipment failure of the supply system
• – Due to the short circuit in one phase of the star-connected or delta-connected motor
• Effect of Single Phasing
• If the motor is in a stopped condition, it cannot be started as a single phase motor
cannot be a self-starter and also due to the safety system provided in 3 phase
motor to protect it from overheating
• If the single phasing faults occur while the motor is operating, it will continue to
run (unless provided by additional safety cut-out system) because of the torque
produced by the remaining two phases which is produced as per the demand by
the load
• – As the remaining two phase are doing additional work of the one default phase,
they will be overheated which might result in critical damage to the windings
• – The single phasing will lead to increase in the current flow by 2.4 times the
average current value in the remaining two phases
• Single Phasing reduces the speed of the motor, and its rpm will fluctuate
• – The noise and vibration from the motor will be abnormal. This is the result of
uneven torque produced by the remaining two phases
• – Almost all the motor system in the ship has a standby arrangement. If
the motor is selected for standby, with single phasing problem – It will not
start leading to failure of the related system
• – If the problem is not addressed and motor operation is continued,
windings will melt due to overheating and can lead to short-circuiting or
earthing
• In such condition, if the crew of a ship comes in contact with the motor,
he will get an electrical shock which can even be fatal. Overheating of
winding is primarily due to the flow of negative sequence current.
• – It may cause overloading of the power generation machine, i.e.
auxiliary engine, and its alternator
1.1.9 Describe the principle the protection against running with a phase
open circuited
How to Protect Motor from Damage Due to Single Phasing?
• Such a condition requires that the motor is provided with protection that
will disconnect it from the system before the motor is permanently
damaged.
• All motors above 500 KW are to be provided with protection devices or
equipment to prevent any damage due to single phasing.
• The rule stated above does not apply to motors of the steering gear
system installed on the ship. Only on the detection of the single phasing,
an alarm will be sounded; however, the motor will not stop as the
continued operation of the steering motor is essential for safety or
propulsion of the ship, especially when the vessel is in congested waters
or under manoeuvring.
• 1) Electromagnetic Overload Device

• In this device, all the three phases of the motor are fitted with an overload relay. If there is
an increase in the value of the current, then this relay activates automatically and the
motor trips.
• This device works on the principle of the electromagnetic effect produced due to the
current.
• As the current value increases, the electromagnet in the coil also increases which pulls the
relay and activates the trip relay, and the motor is stopped.
• The time delay is provided in this system because while starting the motor draws a lot of
currents which can trip the motor.
 • 2) Thermistors

Thermistors are small thermal devices which are used together with an electromagnetic
overload relay. The thermistors are inserted in the three windings of the motor. Any
increase in the current will cause heating in the windings, which is detected by the
thermistors that send signals to the amplifier.

The amplifier is connected to the electromagnetic relay. As soon as a signal is received from
thermistor about overheating, this amplifier increases the current value in the coil of an
electromagnetic relay which activates the trip and the motor stops or trips.
 • 3) Bi-metal strip

In this method, the bimetallic strip is placed in such a way that it detects the
overheating in the circuit. As soon as overheating is detected, this bimetallic strip tries
to expand due to two different metal used and because they have a different
coefficient of expansion. The strip attempts to bend towards the metal having a high
coefficient of expansion and finally completes the trip circuit and the motor trips.
4) Standard motor starter overload protection
• It is provided in 3 phase motor to takes care of the single phasing condition.
Overload heaters are provided in all the phases which detect any overload in
the phase, and if the load goes far above spec for the motor, the heaters trip
the starter off before the motor winding is damaged
1.10 Explain why under voltage trips are necessary
1.11 Suitable Operating conditions with respect to speed
1.1.1 State applications where the following speeds are suitable:

- single fixed speed

- two or three fixed speeds
- infinitely variable speed
What are Constant Speed Motors(single fixed speed) ?
• Constant Speed Motors refer to standard electric motors which have normal
operating speed that is theoretically or practically constant. An example is
synchronous motors; low slip induction motors or conventional parallel winding
DC motors(DC shunt motor).

• In this case, you can call an induction motor, which is defined as a constant
speed motor. The rotor flux rate lags slightly behind the stator flux and there is a
relative velocity between the stator and the rotor. The difference in engine speed
changes slightly with increasing engine load. In a vacuum, this is called sliding
speed(slip speed). There is very little slip at idle and the torque generated by the
engine matches idle and friction losses. Consequently, at idle speed, the motor
rotates at almost synchronous speed (Ns = 120f / P).

• When the load increases, the motor tries to transfer the load to the mechanical
load, and in this process the motor speed decreases. Decreasing the motor speed
causes slip to increase and the motor draws a large current from the rotor to
transmit torque, which tends to return the motor speed to its original speed.

• The slip of the induction motor ranges from 3% to 5% of the synchronous speed.
As the inductive load increases, the slip decreases within the specified slip range.
Therefore, an induction motor can be called a constant speed motor.
What is two or three fixed speeds Motors?
Dual-speed motors are a cost-effective choice for applications that
only require two speeds, while also lowering the chance of failure.
These motors are often constructed with an operational speed and a
slower speed for easier starting. Without the need of a frequency
converter, dual speed motors may push fans, pumps, hoists, and
other machinery at two distinct speeds.

Dual-speed motors are intended to run at two, occasionally three,

consistent speeds that can be switched back and forth. The motor’s
relative number of pole pairs determines the speeds. They are a
cost-effective alternative to frequency inverters since they may
operate at two or three speeds in industrial machinery and systems.

With a two-speed motor, speed and power may be readily adjusted

to the application’s needs, resulting in significant energy savings.
• Separate Winding Two Speed Motors
• A motor with two windings is designed in such a way that there are actually two
motors wound on one stator. One winding, when energized, gives one of the
speeds. When the second winding is energized, the motor picks up speed, which is
determined by the second winding. A switch directed toward either the high or low
speed coil is used in two-speed motors. You, the machinist, are in charge of
deciding what speed you want the engine to operate at.

This sort of motor uses coils to create two distinct magnetic fields, resulting in two
separate speeds. A two-speed motor with two windings can be used to obtain
almost any combination of normal motor speeds, and the two different speeds do
not need to be related to each other by a 2: 1 speed ratio. Thus, a two-speed
motor requiring 1750 rpm and 1140 rpm would need to be a dual-winding motor.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Dual-Speed Motors
motors offer an advantage over other speed control technologies, such as variable
frequency drives, in that they lose less power. This is because the motor consumes
the majority of the power and no electrical pulse switching is performed. In
comparison to other alternative speed control solutions, the system is significantly
simpler and easier to operate.

motor, on the other hand, has the disadvantage of rapid mechanical wear and tear
as a result of changing speeds in such a drastic ratio; this type of connection also
produces high harmonic distortion during pole shifting as the angular distance
between the power generated increases as the poles are decreased in the motor;
this type of connection also produces high harmonic distortion during the shifting of
poles as the angular distance between the power generated increases as the poles
are decreased in the motor.
1.12 Describe briefly how stepped speeds can be provided
• A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which
converts electrical pulses into discrete mechanical
movements.
• The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete
step increments when electrical command pulses are
applied to it in the proper sequence.
• The motors rotation has several direct relationships to
these applied input pulses. The sequence of the applied
pulses is directly related to the direction of motor shafts
rotation.
• The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related
to the frequency of the input pulses and the length of
rotation is directly related to the number of input pulses
applied
• A stepper motor is a digital device. Digital information is processed by the stepper motor
to accomplish an end result, in this case, controlled motion. One may assume that a
stepper motor will dependably follow digital instructions, just as a computer is expected.
This is the distinguishing feature of a stepper motor.

• The stepper motor is an electrical motor that is driven by digital pulses rather than a
continuously applied voltage. Inherent in this concept is open-loop control, wherein a
train of pulses translates into so many shaft revolutions, with each revolution requiring a
given number of pulses.

• Each pulse equals one rotary increment, or step (hence named, stepper, stepping, or step
motor), which is only a portion of one complete rotation.

• Therefore, counting pulses can be applied in the stepper motor to achieve a desired
amount of shaft rotation. The count automatically represents how much movement has
been achieved, without the need for feedback information, as would be the case in servo
systems, and other technologies.
• Although not required, most stepper motors can accommodate an encoder when
desired.
 VARIABLE RELUCTANCE STEPPER
MOTORS
• Variable reluctance stepper motors have the simplest design of the three
types, with a soft iron, non-magnetic, toothed rotor and a wound,
electromagnetic stator. Because the rotor is not magnetized, there’s no
attraction between the rotor and stator when the windings aren’t
energized, so variable reluctance motors don’t produce detent torque.

• Their dynamic torque production is relatively low, but they have less
torque drop-off at higher motor speeds, so for mid- to high-speed
applications, they are often a better choice than permanent magnet
designs. Variable reluctance steppers are known, however, for their
relatively high noise levels, so they’re not suitable for applications where
noise is a concern.
•
VARIABLE RELUCTANCE
STEPPER MOTOR
1.13 Basic Speed Control Methods
• The Speed of Induction Motor is changed from Both Stator and
Rotor Side.
• The speed control of three phase induction motor from stator
side are further classified as :
➢ V / f control or frequency control.
➢ Changing the number of stator poles.
➢ Controlling supply voltage.
➢ Adding rheostat in the stator circuit.

• The speed controls of three phase induction motor from rotor

side are further classified as:
➢ Adding external resistance on rotor side.
➢ Cascade control method.
➢ Injecting slip frequency emf into rotor side.
1.14 Describe the principle of the Ward-Leonard drive
• The speed of motor M1 is to be controlled which is powered by the
generator G. The shunt field of the motor M1 is connected across
the DC supply lines. Now, generator G is driven by the motor M2.
The speed of the motor M2 is constant.

• When the output voltage of the generator is fed to the motor M1

then the motor starts to rotate. When the output voltage of the
generator varies then the speed of the motor also varies.

• Now controlling the output voltage of the generator the speed of

motor can also be controlled. For this purpose of controlling the
output voltage, a field regulator is connected across the generator
with the DC supply lines to control the field excitation. The direction
of rotation of the motor M1 can be reversed by excitation current of
the generator and it can be done with the help of the reversing
switch R.S. But the motor-generator set must run in the same
direction.
• Motor terminal voltage is controlled by adjusting the field current of the generator. When
field winding voltage is smoothly varied in either direction, the motor terminal voltage and
therefore, speed can be steplessly varied from full positive to full negative.

• Block diagram of a Ward-Leonard scheme employing an ac motor for driving dc generator

is shown in Fig. One of the important features of this drive is the inherent ability for
regenerative braking down to very low motor speeds. This combined with the variation of
armature voltage in either direction allows efficient operation of drive in all the four
quadrants of speed-torque plane.

• For regenerative braking, the output voltage of generator G is reduced below the induced
voltage of motor M by decreasing the generator field current. This reverses the current
flowing through the armatures of machines G and M. Now machine M works as a
generator and G as a motor. Mechanical energy provided to machine M, either from the
kinetic energy of rotating parts or due to an active load acting on its shaft, is converted into
electrical energy. Electrical energy supplied by Machine M is converted into mechanical
energy by machine G. The ac motor, which now works as a generator, converts the
mechanical energy to electrical energy and feeds it to the ac source.
• Advantages of Ward Leonard System
1. It is a very smooth speed control system over a very wide range (from
zero to normal speed of the motor).
2. The speed can be controlled in both the direction of rotation of the motor
easily.
3. The motor can run with a uniform acceleration.
4. Speed regulation of DC motor in this Ward Leonard system is very good.
5. It has inherent regenerative braking property.

• Disadvantages of Ward Leonard System

1. The system is very costly because two extra machines (motor-generator
set) are required.
2. Overall efficiency of the system is not sufficient especially if it is lightly
loaded.
3. Larger size and weight. Requires more floor area.
4. Frequent maintenance.
5. The drive produces more noise.
1.15 Explain the principle of a variable-frequency motor
It is important to know the working of VFDs or Variable frequency
drives (VFDs), as they are extensively used in the AC motor-driven
applications, like variable frequency drive for motor control, owing to
their wide variety characteristics.
Compared to conventional motor drives, VFD has greater functionality
and operation capabilities. In addition to adjustable speed control,
variable frequency drives offer protections like phase, under, and
over-voltage protection. Software and interfacing options of the VFD’s
allow the user to control the motors at desired levels.
• What is Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)
• AC motor speed is controlled in two ways – either by controlling the
voltage or frequency. Frequency controlling gives better control due to
constant flux density than voltage control. This is where the working of
VFDs comes to play. It is a power conversion device that converts the
fixed voltage, fixed frequency of the input power to the variable voltage,
the variable frequency output to control AC induction motors.

• It consists of power electronic devices (like IGBT, MOSFET), high speed

central controlling unit (such as a microprocessor, DSP), and optional
sensing devices depending on the application used.

• Most of the industrial applications require variable speeds at peak load

conditions and constant speeds at normal operating conditions. Closed-
loop working of VFDs maintains the speed of the motor at a constant level,
even in case of input and load disturbances.
• Working of VFDs
• The two main features of variable frequency drive are adjustable
speeds and soft start/stop capabilities. These two features make VFD’s
a powerful controller to control the AC motors. VFD consists of mainly
four sections; those are rectifier, intermediate DC link, inverter, and
controlling circuit.

• Rectifier:
• It is the first stage of a variable frequency drive. It converts AC power
fed from mains to DC power. This section can be unidirectional or
bidirectional based on the application used like the four-quadrant
operation of the motor. It utilizes diodes, SCR’s, transistors, and other
electronic switching devices.
• If it uses diodes, converted DC power is uncontrolled output while using
SCR, DC output power is varied by gate control. A minimum of six
diodes are required for the three-phase conversion, so the rectifier unit
is considered as six pulse converter.
• DC bus:
• DC power from the rectifier section is fed to the DC link. This section
consists of capacitors and inductors to smooth against ripples and store
the DC power. The main function of the DC link is to receive, store and
deliver DC power.

• Inverter:
• This section comprises of electronic switches like transistors, thyristors,
IGBT, etc. It receives DC power from DC link and converts into AC which is
delivered to the motor. It uses modulation techniques like pulse width
modulation to vary output frequency for controlling the speed of induction
motor.

• Control circuit:
• It consists of a microprocessor unit and performs various functions like
controlling, configuring drive settings, fault conditions, and interfacing
communication protocols. It receives a feedback signal from the motor as
current speed reference and accordingly regulates the ratio of voltage to
frequency to control motor speed.
1.3 Effect of varying frequency and voltage of A.C. motors
• 1.3.1 Explain Speed

• 1.3.2 Explain Temperature

• 1.3.3 Explain Torque
• 1.3.4 Explain Power Output

• 1.3.5 Explain Starting Time, Current

1.4 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) motor speed control
1.5 Explain Application of thyristors in motor speed control
• The main advantages of using the Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistor over other types of transistor devices are its high voltage
capability, low ON-resistance, ease of drive, relatively fast switching
speeds and combined with zero gate drive current makes it a good
choice for moderate speed, high voltage applications such as in pulse-
width modulated (PWM), variable speed control, switch-mode power
supplies or solar powered DC-AC inverter and frequency converter
applications operating in the hundreds of kilohertz range.