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CA 200 – ART COMMUNICATION AND SOCIAL MOBILIZATION

Lecture 7 & 8 Summary – Models of Communication

What is a Model?
A model is an informative representation of an object or a person or a system or a process.
Models provide a simplified view of something to be studied and help us understand complex
things, issues, occurrences, processes, systems, etc.

 A model is a symbolic representation of structures, operations, and objects

 A model is a description of a system

Communication Model
o Communication models seek to represent the structure and key elements of the
communication process.
o Different communication models illustrate different aspects of communication.
o Models are never perfect.

Three Types of Communication Models

1. Action / Linear models
2. Interaction models
3. Transaction models

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Examples of Communication Models

1. Action / Linear models

i. Aristotle’s Model of Communication

ii. Lasswell’s Model of Communication
iii. Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication
iv. Berlo’s Model of Communication

2. Interaction models
i. Osgood-Schramm Circular Model of Communication
ii. Schramm’s Model of Communication

3. Transaction models
i. Barnlund’s Model of Communication
ii. Dance’s Helical Model of Communication

1. Action / Linear model of communication

 A one-way or linear process
 The speaker speaks and the listener listens

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i. Aristotle’s Model of Communication (300BC)

Rhetoric - How to inform, persuade, or motivate specific audiences in specific situations

 Aristotle’s model is more focused on public speaking

 The sender sends the message to the receiver in an attempt to influence them to
respond accordingly
 The message has to be very impressive and convincing
 Therefore, the sender must know and understand their audience well
 The sender is active and the receiver is passive
 This model applies to public speaking, seminars, and lectures

Criticisms of Aristotle’s model

 There is no concept of feedback

 It is only one way from speaker to audience
 There is no concept of communication failure like noise and barriers
 This model has limited use

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ii. Lasswell’s Model of Communication (1948)

Lasswell's communication model was developed by communication theorist Harold

D. Lasswell (1902-1978) in 1948. Lasswell’s Model of Communication (also known as action
model or linear model or one way model of communication) is regarded as one of the most
influential communication models.

Aristotle vs. Lasswell

 Both view communication as an ‘object’ (not a process)
 Lasswell observed messages in the mass media
 Aristotle observed Orators (skilled and eloquent public speakers)

Lasswell wrote in 1948 that “a convenient way to describe an act of communication is to

answer the following questions.”

Lasswell’s questions:
 Who?
 Says What?
 In Which Channel?
 To Whom?
 With what effect?

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Though Lasswell’s model is simple, it applies for almost all types of communication. The major
drawbacks are: feedback and noise are not represented.

iii. Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication (1949)

This model was created by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver.

The basis for this model was a study of telephone conversations over a two year time period.
The team studied only what they deemed to be “important” or “significant” calls of some
length. Quick calls to a neighbor or a store were not considered for the study. The focus was on
the mechanics of the messages.

Shannon and Weaver’s model introduced the concept of “noise”.

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The Shannon-Weaver model is often called “Telephone Model” because it is based on the
experience of having the message interfered with by “noise” from the telephone switchboard in
the 1940s. In full, it is called “Shannon Weaver Mathematical Model of Communication”
because they tried to reduce the communication process to a set of mathematical formulas.

According to Shannon and Weaver's model, a message begins at an information source, which
is relayed through a transmitter, and then sent via a signal towards the receiver. But before it
reaches the receiver, the message must go through noise (sources of interference). Finally, the
receiver conveys the message to its destination.

E.g.
Suppose you have an idea in your head (information source) that you want to tell someone
about. You must first move the idea from your brain to your mouth (transmitter). Since you
cannot actually share your brain cells, you must select words for your transmitter to use. Once
you speak, your voice (signal) is carried through the air toward the listener's ear (receiver).
Along the way, your signal is joined by many other sounds and distractions (noises). The
receiver then takes everything it receives and tries to maximize the message and minimize the
noise. Finally, the receiver conveys its message to the other person's mind (destination).

Advantages of Shannon-Weaver Model

 The concept of noise helps in making the communication effective by removing the
noise or problem causing noise.
 Communication is taken as quantifiable in the Shannon& Weaver model.
(Quantifiable: can be measured, can be assessed)

Disadvantages of Shannon-Weaver Model

 It can be applied more for interpersonal communication than group communication and
mass communication.
 Receiver plays a passive part in the communication process as sender plays the primary
role that sends messages.
 Feedback is taken as less important in comparison to the messages sent by the sender.
 The model is taken by some critics as a "misleading misrepresentation of the nature of
human communication" as human communication is not mathematical in nature.

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iv. Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication (1960)

David Berlo proposed his Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) Model of Communication

from Shannon Weaver's Model of Communication.

He described factors affecting the individual components in the communication making the
communication more efficient. This model also focuses on encoding and decoding which
happens before the sender sends the message and before the receiver receives the message
respectively.

This model accounts for a variety of human variables that are present in person-to-person
communication. When one is attempting to convey an emotionally complex message, the Berlo
Model may be the more appropriate choice. It focuses on the influence of skills, attitude, and
knowledge on communication effectiveness.

Criticisms of Berlo’s SMCR model

 There is no concept of feedback, so the effect is not considered.
 There is no concept of noise or any kind of barriers in communication.
 It is a linear model of communication, there is no two way communication.
 Both of the people must be similar according to all the factors mentioned above.

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Weaknesses of linear models of communication

 Assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication

 Displays no feedback from the receiver
 Only applies to methods in which there is no possible way for feedback (even
nonverbally). Can’t apply to text messaging, letters, emails, etc.
 The speaker never listens
 Listeners never speak

2. Interaction Model of Communication

 Also known as Convergence Model

 Both the speaker and the listener take turns to speak and listen to each other
 Feedback is given either verbally or nonverbally, or in both ways
 Indicates that communication is a two way process
 Feedback is not simultaneous (not at the same time)
 The communication process takes place between humans or machines in both verbal
and non-verbal ways
 This is a relatively new model of communication for new technologies like the World
Wide Web
 Indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they have common fields
of experience, or fields which overlap

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i. Osgood-Schramm Circular Model of Communication (1954)

 This model was created by Charles Egerton Osgood and Wilbur Schramm.
 It does not follow the conventional pattern of communication from source to receiver.
 Charles Egerton Osgood popularized the notion that communication was circular rather
than linear, meaning that it required two participants taking turns sending and receiving
a message.
 It helps to remind of the process of interpretation which takes place whenever a
message is decoded.
 It stressed that each participant in a communication process sends as well as receives
messages and as such encodes, decodes, and interprets messages.
 Thus it is a dynamic process in which there is an interactive relationship between the
source and the receiver.
 A person may be a source one moment, a receiver the next, and again a source the
following moment.

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It is a circular model so that communication is something circular in nature.

Encoder: Does the coding or sends the message – origin of the message
Decoder: Receives the message
Interpreter: The one trying to understand or interpret (analyses, perceives)

ii. Schramm Model of Communication (1995)

Another example of Interactive model is that of Wilbur Schramm, who is considered the
“Father of Mass Communication”. He created five models, but the Schramm Model is our focus.

 Shows why communication breakdown occurs.

 Schramm asserts that communication can take place if and only if there is an overlap
between the Field of Experience of the speaker and the Field of Experience of the
listener.

Field of Experience: the things that influences the understanding and interpretation of the
message. EG: Culture, social background, beliefs, experiences, values and rules, etc.

Example: when a person who always eats with a spoon is informed that she has to eat with her
hands in a particular place gets offended because she thinks it is impolite to eat that way.

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 The overlapping field of experience in communication is known as empathy.

 The term “empathy” means the ability of an individual to project oneself into the role of
another.
 The overlapping field of experience (or empathy) is directly proportional to the extent of
communication efficiency.
 Schramm emphasized the need for communicators to consider and adapt to the
audience's field of experience for effective message delivery.

Example: A lecture on neurophysiology delivered to an audience of sixth grade children may

result in little or no communication. The lecturer has background knowledge of chemistry and
biology, and very specialized knowledge of biochemical processes in the nervous system. The
audience of six grade children would lack the vocabulary needed to make sense of the
information.

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Advantages of Schramm’s model

 Circular communication gives opportunity to both parties to give their opinion.
 It is a dynamic and ever changing model
 It is helpful in general practice
 Sender and receiver interchanges and both are equally active
 Feedback makes it easier to know if the message is interpreted by the receiver as
intended or not.
 Concept of interpretation makes the communication effective.
 Field of experience (psychological effect) helps to understand the communication
process in many other ways than the traditional ones
 Concept of context allows environmental factors to be included in interpretation of the
message, which can bring change in the message
 Semantic noise is included as a concept and this helps in understanding problems that
can occur during interpretation of the message.

Semantic Barriers to Communication

 The symbolic obstacles that distort the sent message in a way not intended and makes
the message difficult to understand.
 The meanings of words, signs, and symbols might be different from one person to
another
 The same word might have multiple meanings.

E.g. “The research led to the discovery of lead”

E.g. The word “concha” in Spanish means “shell” but in Argentina it is an offensive way to refer
to a woman.

Symbol with different meaning to different people

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Disadvantages of Schramm’s model

 This model cannot deal with multiple levels of communication and complex
communication processes.
 There can only be two sources communicating, many sources complicates the process
and the model cannot be implemented.
 Message sent and received might be interpreted differently than intended.

Weaknesses of interaction models

 Does not indicate that communicators can both send and receive messages
simultaneously(at the same time)
 Fails to show that communication is a dynamic process which changes over time.

3. Transaction Model of Communication

 Shows that the elements in communication are interdependent where there can be no
source without a receiver, and no message without a source
 Each person in the communication acts as both a speaker and a listener, and can be
simultaneously (at the same time) sending and receiving messages.
 “Transactional” means that communication is an ongoing and continuously changing
process
 Each element exists in relation to all the other elements
 Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors such as their
background, prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs, and self esteem

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Transaction Model of Communication

i. Barlund’s model of communication (1970)

• Dean Barlund proposed a transactional model of communication in 1970 for basic
interpersonal communication
• The model shifted from the trend of linear model to dynamic
and two way communication model.
• Articulates that sending and receiving of messages happens simultaneously between
people
• Popularly known as Barlund's Transactional Model of Communication.
• Layers of feedback consist of verbal and non-verbal cues
• The model has been further adapted and reformed by other theorists as
General Transactional Model.

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Advantages of Barlund’s model

• The model shows shared field experience of the sender and receiver.
• Indicates simultaneous message sending, noise, and feedback.
• Barnlund’s model is taken by critics as the most systematic model of communication.

Disadvantages of Barlund’s model

• Barnlund’s model is very complex.
• Both the sender and receiver must understand the codes sent by the other.
• So they must each possess a similar "code book" (The concept of code book is not
mentioned in the model but understood.)

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ii. Dance’s helical model of communication (1967)

• Frank Dance proposed a communication model inspired by a helix, known as Helical
Model of Communication.
• A helix is a three dimensional spring like curve in the shape of a cylinder or a cone.

• A helix is compared with the evolution of communication of a human from birth to the
existing moment.
• Communication progresses with age as our experience and vocabulary increases.
• The model is linear as well as circular combined, and disagrees with the concept of
linearity and circularity individually.
• Communication is taken as a dynamic process
• Communication process similar to a helix, which shows communication is a dynamic
non-linear process
• Communication evolves from the very birth of an individual, and continues until his/her
current existing moment
• Understands communication is a broader perspective and considers almost all the
activities of an individual in his/her entire lifetime
• Includes the concept of time: communication is largely dependent on the past
• Communication process starts small then gradually develops (which takes time)
• Communication is directly dependent on a person’s past behavior as a child but can also
modify as the person grows

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Advantages of Helical Model

• Communication is two-way
• Communication is interchangeable between sender and receiver
• Reflects how communication develops and changes in real life
• Accounts for the role of past interactions and future potential
• Applicable to personal, professional, and societal contexts

Disadvantages of Helical Model

• Purpose of communication is not always growth
• Too abstract, not symmetric/orderly, therefore difficult to visualize or apply practically
• The model doesn’t detail how specific factors (e.g., noise, medium) impact
communication

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SUMMARY OF MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

1. ACTION / LINEAR (one-directional, no feedback)

• Aristotle – focus on speeches
• Lasswell – focus on mass media
• Shannon & Weaver – introduction of “noise”
• Berlo – factors that affect the elements/components

2. INTERACTION (feedback, circular, take turns)

• Osgood-Schramm – circular
• Schramm – field of experience, empathy, semantic noise

3. TRANSACTION (dynamic, two-way, simultaneous)

• Barlund – systematic, complicated
• Dance’s Helical – abstract, communication evolves over time
(*There are more models of communication than the 8 above)

Comparison of Models
Model Type Feedback Emphasis Example Scenario

Action/Linear None Message delivery A television advertisement

Interaction/Interactive Present Mutual understanding Email exchanges

Transaction/Transactional Simultaneous Co-creation of meaning A video call or live debate

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