Mathematical Problems

Shailesh Kumar
November 30, 2024

Questions and Solutions

1. (a) Supremum and Infimum
Question: Define the supremum of a bounded set. For any set S ⊆ R and a ∈ R, show that

sup(S + a) = sup(S) + a,

where S + a = {s + a : s ∈ S}. Find the supremum and infimum of the set

(−1)n
 
S = 1+ :n∈N .
n
Solution:
The supremum of a set S is defined as the least upper bound of S, denoted sup(S), such that: 1.
sup(S) ≥ s, for all s ∈ S (upper bound). 2. If α is any upper bound of S, then α ≥ sup(S).
To prove sup(S + a) = sup(S) + a, let M = sup(S). By definition, M is the least upper bound of S.
For S + a = {s + a : s ∈ S}, adding a to every element of S shifts the bounds of the set by a. Thus:
- The upper bound sup(S + a) becomes M + a, and no smaller value can be the upper bound. Hence,
sup(S + a) =n sup(S) + a. o
(−1)n
For S = 1 + n : n ∈ N : - When n is odd, s = 1 + n1 . - When n is even, s = 1 − n1 . As n → ∞,
the sequence oscillates between 1 and 1 ± n1 .
1 1
sup(S) = 1 + = 2, inf(S) = 1 − = 0.
1 1
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1. (b) Rational Numbers Not Order-Complete

Question: Show that the set Q of rational numbers is not order-complete.
Solution: A set is order-complete if every nonempty subset that is bounded above has a supremum
within the set. Consider S = {x ∈ Q :√x2 < 2}. - S is√bounded above by any rational r such that r2 > 2.
- The least upper bound of S in R is 2. However, 2 ∈ / Q. Thus, Q is not order-complete.
—

1. (c) Archimedean Property

Question: State and prove the Archimedean property of real numbers. Prove that
 
1
inf : n ∈ N = 0.
n
Solution: The Archimedean property states that for any x ∈ R, there exists n ∈ N such that n > x.
1
Similarly, for y > 0, there exists m ∈ N such that m < y.
To prove inf n : n ∈ N = 0: - For any ϵ > 0, there exists n such that n1 < ϵ. - Hence, 0 is the
1

greatest lower bound.

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1
2. (a) Limit Point of a Set
Question: Define the limit point of a set. Show that 0 is the only limit point of n1 : n ∈ N .


Solution: A limit point p of a set S satisfies: for every ϵ > 0, there exists x ∈ S \ {p} such that
|x − p| < ϵ. 
For S = n1 : n ∈ N , as n → ∞, n1 → 0. No other point satisfies the definition of a limit point, as S
is discrete.
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2. (b) Countable Sets

Question: Define a countable set. Prove N × N is countable.
Solution: A set is countable if it is finite or bijective with N. For N × N: - Pair (m, n) as f (m, n) =
2m 3n . - This map is injective, showing N × N is countable.
—
—

2. (c) Limit of Root Sequence

Question: Prove that √
n
lim n = 1.
n→∞
√
Solution: Let an = n
n. Taking the natural logarithm, we rewrite:
ln(n)
ln(an ) = .
n
As n → ∞: - Numerator ln(n) → ∞. - Denominator n → ∞, faster than ln(n).
Thus, by L’Hôpital’s Rule:
ln(n) 1/n
lim = lim = 0.
n→∞ n n→∞ 1
So, ln(an ) → 0, implying an → e0 = 1.
—

3. (a) Limit of Product of Sequences

Question: If {an } and {bn } are sequences such that limn→∞ an = a and limn→∞ bn = b, prove that
lim (an bn ) = ab.
n→∞

Solution: Using the definition of limits, for any ϵ > 0:

|an − a| < ϵ1 , |bn − b| < ϵ2 for sufficiently large n.
|an bn − ab| = |an bn − abn + abn − ab| ≤ |bn ||an − a| + |a||bn − b|.
Given an → a and bn → b, choose ϵ1 , ϵ2 such that the terms vanish as n → ∞. Hence, limn→∞ (an bn ) =
ab.
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3. (b) Cauchy Sequences

Question: Define a Cauchy sequence. Show that every Cauchy sequence is bounded. Is the converse
true? Justify your answer.
Solution: A sequence {an } is Cauchy if for every ϵ > 0, there exists N such that |an − am | < ϵ for
all n, m ≥ N .
(1) Every Cauchy sequence is bounded: For ϵ = 1, there exists N such that |an − am | < 1 for
n, m ≥ N . - Let M = max(|a1 |, |a2 |, . . . , |aN −1 |, |aN + 1|). Then, |an | ≤ M , showing boundedness.
(2) Converse: Not all bounded sequences are Cauchy. For example, an = (−1)n is bounded but
not Cauchy, as it oscillates.
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2
3. (c) Convergence of a Recurrence Sequence
Question: Show that the sequence {an }, defined by
√
a1 = 1, an+1 = 2 + an , ∀n ≥ 1,

converges. Find limn→∞ an .

Solution: Assume limn→∞ an = L. Then:
√
L= 2 + L.

Squaring both sides:

L2 = 2 + L =⇒ L2 − L − 2 = 0 =⇒ (L − 2)(L + 1) = 0.

Thus, L = 2 (since an > 0).

√ To prove convergence: - {an } is bounded: an ≤ 2 by induction. - {an } is monotonic: an+1 − an =
2 + an − an < 0.
Hence, {an } converges to L = 2.
—

4. (a) Convergence of a Positive Series

P
Question: If un is a positive term series such that
un+1
lim = l, l < 1,
n→∞ un
P
show that un converges. Does this hold for l = 1? Justify.
Solution: By the Ratio Test, if limn→∞ uun+1
P
n
= l and l < 1, then un converges. For l = 1, the
test is inconclusive. For example, un = 1/n has l = 1 but diverges.
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4. (b) Testing Convergence

P√ P n2 P1
Question: Test the convergence of the following series: (i) ( n2 + 1 − n), (ii) (n+1)3 , (iii) 3 ·
1·2 1·2·3
3·5 · 3·5·7 · · ·. √ 1
P1
Solution: (i) n2 + 1 − n = 2n + O(1/n3 ). The series diverges by comparison to n . (ii) Expand
2
n 1 1
(n+1)3 ∼ n . The series diverges. (iii) The terms n2 dominate, so the series converges.
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5. (a) Absolute and Conditional Convergence

Question: Define absolute and conditional convergence. Show that every absolutely convergent series
converges. P P
P Solution: Absolute P convergence: |aP
n | converges. Conditional convergence: an converges but
|an | does not. If |an | converges, then an converges by the Comparison Test.
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5. (b) Radius of Convergence

P (x−1)n
Question: Find the radius of convergence of n2 .
Solution: By the Ratio Test:
(x − 1)n+1 /(n + 1)2 |x − 1|
lim = lim = |x − 1|.
n→∞ (x − 1)n /n2 n→∞ 1
Convergence if |x − 1| < 1. Thus, R = 1.
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3
6. (a) Uniform Convergence
Question: If fn → f uniformly on [a, b] and fn are continuous, show f is continuous.
Solution: Uniform convergence preserves continuity: For any ϵ > 0, |fn (x) − f (x)| < ϵ, combined
with continuity of fn .
—
—

6. (b) Testing for Uniform Convergence

Question: Test the sequence {fn }, where
nx
fn (x) = ,
1 + nx2
for uniform convergence on [0, 1].
Solution: For uniform convergence, consider supx∈[0,1] |fn (x)−f (x)|. Let us evaluate supx∈[0,1] fn (x).
1. Fix x ∈ (0, 1]. Compute:
nx
fn (x) = .
1 + nx2
As n → ∞, for any fixed x > 0, fn (x) → 0.
2. At x = 0:
fn (0) = 0.
3. Maximum value of fn (x): To find the maximum, differentiate fn (x) with respect to x:
n(1 + nx2 ) − 2nx2
fn′ (x) = .
(1 + nx2 )2
Setting fn′ (x) = 0, solve for x:
1
1 + nx2 − 2nx2 = 0 =⇒ nx2 = 1 =⇒ x = √ .
n
At x = √1 , compute fn (x):
n
  n· √1 √
1 n n
fn √ = 1 = .
n 1+n· n
2
Since sup fn (x) → ∞ as n → ∞, the convergence is not uniform on [0, 1].
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6. (c) Uniform Convergence of a Series

Question: Show that the series
X 1
n4
+ n2 x2
converges uniformly for all real values of x. Can the series be integrated term by term on any interval
[a, b]?
Solution:
1
1. **Uniform convergence**: For each term of the series, un (x) = n4 +n 2 x2 , observe:

1
un (x) ≤ .
n4
P 1 P
The series n4 converges, as it is a p-series with p = 4 > 1. By the Weierstrass M-test, un (x)
converges uniformly on R. P
2. **Term-by-term integration**: Since un (x) are continuous and un (x) converges uniformly, the
series can be integrated term by term on any interval [a, b]:
Z bX∞ X∞ Z b
un (x) dx = un (x) dx.
a n=1 n=1 a