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intro to logic

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intro to logic

Uploaded by

Fatima Mussawar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Introduction to Logic

Here’s a simplified explanation of the content to make it easier to understand:

What is Logic?

● Logic is the study of correct reasoning.


● It helps us decide whether a conclusion follows logically from given statements
(called premises).

Key Concepts in Logic:

1. Reasoning:

○ A process where we draw conclusions from given facts or assumptions.


○ Example:
■ Premise 1: If it rains, the ground will be wet.
■ Premise 2: It rains.
■ Conclusion: The ground is wet.
2. Valid Reasoning:

○A reasoning is valid if the conclusion must follow from the premises.


○Example:
■ If A is true, B must be true.
3. Sound Reasoning:

○ A reasoning is sound if it is valid and the premises are actually true.


○ Example:
■ Premise: All humans are mortal. Socrates is a human.
■ Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

Parts of Logical Arguments:

● Premises: The facts or assumptions you start with.


● Conclusion: What you infer from the premises.
● Logic only checks if the conclusion logically follows; it doesn’t check if premises are
true.
Types of Validity:

1. Deductive Validity:

○ If premises are true, the conclusion is 100% guaranteed to be true.


○ Example: All birds can fly. A sparrow is a bird. So, a sparrow can fly.
2. Inductive Validity:

○ Premises make the conclusion likely but not certain.


○ Example: The sun rose today, and it has risen every day so far. So, the sun
will probably rise tomorrow.

Formal Logic (Symbolic Logic):

● Uses symbols like letters (P, Q) and operators (→, ∧, ∨) to express arguments.
● Example:
○ P: It rains.
○ Q: The ground is wet.
○ Logical form: P → Q (If it rains, then the ground is wet).

Truth-Functional Operators:

These are used to connect simple statements and show how their truth affects the result:

1. Negation (¬): "Not P" is true if P is false.


2. Conjunction (∧): "P and Q" is true only if both P and Q are true.
3. Disjunction (∨): "P or Q" is true if at least one of P or Q is true.

Quantifiers:

● Universal Quantifier (∀): Means "all."


○ Example: ∀x (Human(x) → Mortal(x)) = "All humans are mortal."
● Existential Quantifier (∃): Means "some."
○ Example: ∃x (Human(x) ∧ Mortal(x)) = "Some humans are mortal."
Truth Tables:

● A way to see how the truth of statements depends on conditions.


● Example for "P and Q":

P Q P∧Q

True True True

True False False

False True False

False False False

Uses of Logic:

1. To check the correctness of arguments.


2. To clarify complex ideas.
3. For computer programming and automated reasoning.

Here’s a list of MCQs and definitions extracted from the provided file content:

MCQs (Multiple Choice Questions):

Basics of Logic

1. What does logic study?


A) Valid reasoning
B) Emotions
C) Beliefs
D) Science
Answer: A

2. Which of the following describes valid reasoning?


A) Statements follow logically from premises
B) Premises are always true
C) Involves guessing
D) None of the above
Answer: A

3. What is sound reasoning?


A) Valid reasoning with acceptable assumptions
B) Invalid reasoning with true premises
C) Reasoning without premises
D) Always correct reasoning
Answer: A

4. What are the two types of validity?


A) Logical and Analytical
B) Deductive and Inductive
C) Theoretical and Practical
D) General and Specific
Answer: B

5. What is the main focus of logic?


A) Checking if conclusions follow from premises
B) Verifying if premises are true
C) Investigating emotional appeals
D) Proving scientific theories
Answer: A

Propositional and Predicate Logic

6. What does propositional logic deal with?


A) Simple and compound propositions
B) Numbers and variables
C) Quantifiers only
D) Shapes and geometry
Answer: A

7. What symbol represents negation?


A) ∧
B) ∨
C) ¬
D) →
Answer: C

8. What is the role of quantifiers in logic?


A) To connect propositions
B) To express "all" or "some"
C) To negate statements
D) To symbolize complex claims
Answer: B

9. Which quantifier represents "all"?


A) ∃
B) →
C) ∀
D) ¬
Answer: C

10. What is an example of an existential quantifier?


A) ∀x (Human(x) → Mortal(x))
B) ∃x (Human(x) ∧ Mortal(x))
C) P → Q
D) ¬(P ∧ Q)
Answer: B

Truth and Validity

11. When is a disjunction (P ∨ Q) true?


A) Only if P and Q are true
B) If at least one of P or Q is true
C) If both P and Q are false
D) None of the above
Answer: B

12. What is the definition of a tautology?


A) A statement that is always false
B) A statement that is always true
C) A contradictory statement
D) A statement with ambiguous meaning
Answer: B

13. What is the definition of a contradiction?


A) A statement that is always true
B) A statement that is always false
C) A statement with unclear premises
D) A statement with true premises
Answer: B

14. What is required for an argument to be valid?


A) The premises must lead to the conclusion
B) All premises must be false
C) The conclusion must contradict the premises
D) It must contain quantifiers
Answer: A
Definitions:

1. Logic: The study of valid reasoning and criteria for determining whether reasoning is
valid or invalid.

2. Reasoning: A sequence of statements where some are inferred from others to draw
conclusions.

3. Valid Reasoning: Reasoning where the conclusions follow logically from the
premises.

4. Sound Reasoning: Valid reasoning based on assumptions that are true or


acceptable.

5. Propositional Logic: The branch of logic that studies the validity of arguments
involving simple or compound propositions.

6. Predicate Logic: An extension of propositional logic that includes quantifiers and


predicates to describe properties of objects or relations between them.

7. Premises: The statements or assumptions from which a conclusion is drawn in an


argument.

8. Conclusion: The statement that follows logically from the premises.

9. Tautology: A statement that is true in all situations.

10. Contradiction: A statement that is false in all situations.

11. Quantifiers: Symbols used in logic to express "all" (∀) or "some" (∃).

12. Negation (¬): A logical operation that inverts the truth value of a statement.

13. Conjunction (∧): A logical operation that is true when both connected statements
are true.

14. Disjunction (∨): A logical operation that is true when at least one of the connected
statements is true.

15. Implication (→): A logical relationship where one statement leads to another.

16. Logical Equivalence: Two statements are logically equivalent if their truth conditions
are identical.

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