M a them a ti cs | 8.

27

PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS

(a) In most of the questions involving figures like triangle or any parallelogram, taking origin as (0,0) helps a lot
in arriving at desired solution. One must ensure that conditions given are not violated.
(b) One must remember that in an isosceles triangle, centroid, orthocentre, incentre and circumcentre lie on the
same line.
(c) The centroid, incentre, orthocentre and circumcentre coincide in an equilateral triangle.
(d) If area of the triangle is zero, then the three points are collinear.
(e) Find the equation of the line passing through two given points, if the third point satisfies the equation of the
line, then three points are collinear
(f) Whenever origin is shifted to a new point (α, β), then new equation can be obtained by putting x + α in place
of x and y + β in placed of y.

FORMULAE SHEET

(a) Distance Formula: The distance between two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is

PQ = (x1 – x2 )2 + (y1 – y 2 )2 = (x1 – x2 )2 + (y1 – y 2 )2

And between two polar co-ordinate A(r1, q1) and B(r2, q2) is AB = r12 + r22 − 2r1r2 cos(θ1 − θ2 )

(b) Section Formula: If P(x1, y1), Q(x2, y2) and the point R(x, y) divide the line PQ internally in the ratio m:n then
the co-ordinates of R will be
mx2 + nx1 my 2 − ny1  mx + nx1 my 2 + ny1 
x= and y = i.e. R  2 , 
m+n m−n ,  m+n m + n 
 x + x 2 y1 + y 2 
And if R is a mid-point of line PQ, then the co-ordinates of R will be  1 , 
 2 2 

(c) Centroid of Triangle: If A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3) be the vertices of the triangle ABC and G is
 x + x 2 + x3 y1 + y 2 + y 3 
Centroid, then co-ordinate of G will be  1 ,  .
 3 3 A
  I3 I2
ax1 + bx2 + cx3 ay1 + by 2 + cy 3
(d) Co-ordinates
= of Incentre: x = , y B C
a+b+c a+b+c

(e) Co-ordinates of Ex-centre: As shown in figure, ex-centres of ∆ABC I1

with respect to vertices A, B and C are denoted by
I1, I2 and I3, respectively,
Figure 8.47

 −ax1 + bx2 + cx3 −ay1 + by 2 + cy 3   ax1 – bx2 + cx3 ay1 − by 2 + cy 3 

I1 =  ,  ; I2 =  ,  ,
−a + b + c −a + b + c  a−b + c a−b + c 
 
 ax + bx2 − cx3 ay1 + by 2 − cy 3 
I3 =  1 , 
 a+b−c a+b−c 
8 . 2 8 | Straight Line

(f) Co-ordinates of Circumcentre: If O is the circumcentre of any ∆ABC, then its co-ordinates will be

 x sin2A + x2 sin2B + x3 sin2C y1 sin2A + y 2 sin2B + y 3 sin2C 

O =  1 , 
 Σ sin2A Σ sin2A 

(g) Co-ordinates of Orthocentre: If H is the orthocentre of any ∆ABC, then its co-ordinates will be

 x tanA + x2 tanB + x3 tanC y1 tanA + y 2 tanB + y 3 tanC 

H=  1 ,
 Σ tanA Σ tanA 
 
y 2 − y1
(h) Slope of Line: Slope of line made by joining of points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is given by m
= tan=
θ
x2 − x1
m2 − m1
(i) Angle between two Lines: tan θ =
1 + m1m2
( j) Equation of a Line:
y 2 – y1
(i) Slope point form: y – y1 = m(x – x1) ; (ii) Two point form: y – y1 = (x – x1 )
x2 – x1
x y
(iii) Slope intercept form: y = mx + c; (iv) Intercept form: + =1
a b
(v) Normal form: x cos α + y sin α = P
x – x1 y – y1
(vi) Parametric form or distance form: = = r ; and x = x1 + r cos θ and y = y1 + r sin θ
cos θ sin θ

(k) Length of Perpendicular: The perpendicular distance ‘p’ of a point P(x1, y1) from the line ax + by + c = 0 is
| ax1 +by1 + c |
p =
a2 +b2
c1 – c2
(i) Distance between parallel lines:
a2 +b2
(ii) Lines making angle α with given line: y – y’ = tan (θ + α) (x – x’) and y – y’ = tan (θ – α) (x – x’)
a1 b1 c1
(iii) Concurrency of lines: The lines are concurrent if a2 b2 c2 = 0
a3 b2 c3

ax +by + c a1 x +b1 y + c1
(l) Equation of bisector of the angle between two lines: =± (ab1 ≠ a1b)
a2 +b2 a12 +b12
(m) Pair of straight line:
(i) ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0 always represents a pair of straight lines passing through the origin and if
•• h2 > ab ⇒ lines are real and distinct.
•• h2 = ab ⇒ lines are coincident.
•• h2 < ab ⇒ lines are imaginary with real point of intersection, i.e. (0, 0)
2h a
(ii) m1 + m2 =
− and m1m2 =
b b

2 h2 – ab
(iii) tan θ =
a+b

(n) General equation for pair of straight lines: ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c =0 represents a pair of straight
a h g
lines, if h b f = 0
g f c
 M a them a ti cs | 9.41

PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS

(a) Let S = 0, S’ = 0 be two circles with centers C1, C2 and radii R1, R2 respectively.
(i) If C1C2 > r1 + r2 then each circle lies completely outside the other circle.
(ii) If C1C2 = r1 + r2 then the two circles touch each other externally. (Trick) the point of contact divides C1C2
in the ratio r1 : r2 internally.
(iii) If |r1 – r2| < C1C2 < r1 + r2 then the two circles intersect at two points P and Q.
(iv) If C1C2 = |r1 – r2| then the two circles touch each other internally. (Trick) The point of contact divides C1C2
in the ratio r1 : r2 externally.
(v) If C1C2 < |r1 – r2| then one circle lies completely inside the other circle.

(b) Two intersecting circles are said to cut each other orthogonally if the angle between the circles is a right angle.
Let the circles be S = x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, S’ = x2 + y2 + 2g’x + 2f’y + c’ = 0.
And let d be the distance between the centers of two intersecting circles with radii r1, r2. The two cir-
cles will intersect orthogonally if and only if

(i) D2 = and
(ii) 2g g’ + 2f f’ = c + c’.
9 .42 | Circle

FORMULAE SHEET

1. General equation of a circle: x2 + y2 + 2gx +2fy + c = 0

(i) Centre of the circle = (–g, –f).
1 1
g= coefficient of x, and f = coefficient of y.
2 2

(ii) r = g2 + f 2 − c

2 ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 represents a circle if

(i) a = b ≠ 0 (ii) h = 0 (iii) ∆ = abc + 2hgf – af2 – bg2 – ch2 ≠ 0 (iv) g2 + f2– c ≥ 0

3. if centre of circle is (h, k) and radius ‘r’ then equation of circle is: (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2

4. The equation of the circle drawn on the straight line joining two given points (x1 , y1) and (x2 , y2) as diameter
is : (x – x1) (x – x2) + (y – y1) (y – y2) = 0

2 2
 x + x 2 y1 + y 2   x2 − x1   y 2 − y1 
Centre :  1 .r=  + 
 2 , 2   
   2   2 

5. (i) In parametric form:

x=–g+ (g2
)
+ f 2 − c cos θ and y = –f + (g 2
)
+ f 2 − c sin θ , (0 ≤ θ < 2π)

6. (i) Circle passing through three non-collinear points

x2 + y 2 x y 1
x12 + y12 x1 y1 1
A(x1 , y1), B(x2, y2), C(x3 ,y3) is represented by =0
x22 + y 22 x2 y2 1
x32 + y 32 x3 y3 1

7. Circle circumscribing the triangle formed by the lines

a12 + b12
a1 b1
a1 x + b1 y + c1
a22 + b22
ai x + bi y + ci = 0 ( i= 1,2,3) : a2 b2 = 0
a2 x + b2 y + c2
a32 + b32
a3 b3
a3 x + b3 y + c3

8. Intercepts length made by the circle On X and Y axes are 2 g2 − c and 2 f 2 − c respectively.

9. Position of point (x1, y1) lies outside, on or inside a circle S ≡ x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0.
When S1 ≡ x12 + y12 + 2gx + 2fy + c > = < 0 respectively.

10. The power of P(x1, y1) w.r.t. S = x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is equal to PA. PB which is S1 = x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy2 + c.
PA. PB = PC.PD = PT2 = square of the length of a tangent
 M a them a ti cs | 9.43

11. Intercept length cut off from the line y =mx + c by the circle x + y = a is 2 2 2 2
( )
a2 1 + m2 − c2
2
1+m
12. The equation of tangent at (x1, y1) to circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is xx1 + yy1 + g(x +x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0.

13. The equation of tangent at (a cos θ , a sin θ) is x cos θ + y sin θ = a

14. Condition for tangency:

line y = mx + c is tangent of the circle x2 + y2 = a2 if c2 = a2(1 + m2)

  ma ±a 
and the point of contact of tangent y = mx ± a 1 + m2 is  , 
 2 
 1+m 1 + m2 

15. The length of the tangent from a point P(x1,y1) to the circle S = x2 + y2 +2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is equal to

x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c

16. Pair of tangent from point (0, 0) to the circle are at right angles if g2 + f2 = 2c.

17. Equation of director circle of the circle x2 + y2 = a2 is equal to x2 + y2 = 2a2 .

18. Equation of Director circle of circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is

x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + 2c – g2 – f2 = 0.
x y
19. The equation of normal at any point (x1, y1) to the circle x2 + y2 = a2 is xy1 – x1y = 0 or = .
x1 y1
20. Equation of normal at (a cosθ , a sinθ) is y = x tan θ or y = mx .

21. The equation of the chord of contact of tangents drawn from a point (x1, y1)
to the circle x2 + y2 = a2 is xx1 + yy2 = a2. And
to the circle x2+ y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0.
3

22. Area of ∆ APQ is given by

(
a x12 + y12 − a2 ) 2
.=
RL3
. Where L & R are length of tangent and radius of circle.
x12 + y12 R 2 + L2
P

A R

23. The equation of the chord of the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0. Bisected at the point (x1, y1) is given T = S1.
i.e., xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c.

24. The equation of the common chord of two circles x2 + y2 + 2g1x + 2f1y + c1 = 0 and x2 + y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2 = 0
is equal to 2x(g1 – g2) + 2y(f1 – f2) + c1 – c2 = 0 i.e., S1 – S2 = 0.

2 2
25. Length of the common chord : PQ = 2(PM) = 2 C1P − C1M . Where,
C1P = radius of the circle S1 = 0
C1M =perpendicular length from the centre C1 to the common chord PQ.
9 .44 | Circle

26. Equation of polar of the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 and x2 + y2 = a2

w.r.t. (x1, y1) is xx1 + yy1+ g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0 and xx1 + yy1 – a2 = 0. Respectively.

 a2l a2m 
27. The pole of the line lx + my + n = 0 with respect to the circle x2 + y2 = a2:  − ,− 
 n n 

28. P (x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) are conjugate points of the circle x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c =0
When x1 x2 + y1 y 2 + g(x1 + x2 ) + f(y1 + y 2 ) + c =.
0
If P and Q are conjugate points w.r.t. a circle with centre at O and radius r then PQ2 = OP2 + OQ – 2r2.

29. The points P and T are a intersection point of direct common tangents and transverse. Common tangents
respectively, and it divide line joining the centres of the circles externally and internally respectively in the
ratio of their radii.
C1P r1
= (externally)
C2P r2
C1 T r1
= (internally)
C2 T r2
Hence, the ordinates of P and T are.

r x −r x r y −r y   r1 x2 + r2 x1 r1 y 2 + r2 y1 
P ≡  1 2 2 1 , 1 2 2 1  and T ≡  , 
 r1 − r2 r1 − r2   r1 + r2 r1 + r2 

30. If two circles S ≡ x2+ y2 + 2g1x + 2f1y + c1 = 0 and S’ ≡ x2+ y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2 = 0 of r1 , r2 and d be the distance
between their centres then the angle of intersection θ between them is given by

r12 + r22 − d2 2 ( g1g2 + f1 f2 ) − ( c1 + c2 )

(
cos 180 − θ =) or cos = (180 − θ ) = .
2r1r2 2 g12 + f12 − c1 g12 + f12 − c2

31. Condition for orthogonality: 2g1g2 + 2f1f2 = c1 + c2

32. S1 – S2 = 0 the equation of the radical axis of the two circle. i.e. 2x (g1 – g2) + 2y (f1 – f2) + c1 – c2 = 0 which is
a straight line.

33. The two limiting points of the given co-axial system are ( c , 0) and ( − c , 0).

34. If two limiting points of a coaxial system of circles is (a, b) and (α, β).
then S1 + λS2 = 0, λ ≠ –1. or, {(x – a)2 + (y – b)2} + λ{(x – α)2 + (y – β)2} = 0, λ ≠ –1 is the
Coaxial system of circle.

35. If origin is a limiting point of the coaxial system containing the circle x2 + y2 +2gx + 2fy + c = 0 then the other
 −gc −fc 
limiting point is  , .
 g2 + f 2 g2 + f 2 
 
1 0 . 2 6 | Parabola

PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS

A Working Rule to find the equation of a parabola when focus & directrix are given:
Step 1: Find the distance between focus and general point P(x, y) by the distance formula.
Step 2: Find the perpendicular distance from the point P(x, y) to the given directrix.
ax1 + by1 + c
(The perpendicular distance from a point P(x1, y1) to the line ax + by + c = 0 is )
a2 + b2
Step 3: Equate the distances calculated in step 1 and step 2. On simplification we get the required equation of the
parabola.

A Working Rule to find the equation of a parabola when the vertex and the focus are given:
y 2 − y1
Step 1: Find the slope of the axis formed by joining the focus and the vertex by the formula
x2 − x1
Step 2: Find the slope of the directrix by the formula m1.m2 = –1; where m1 is the slope of the axis of the parabola
and m2 is the slope of the directrix.
Step 3: Find a point on the directrix as the vertex, which is the middle point between the focus and the point on
the directrix, by means of the mid-point formula.
Step 4: Write the equation of the directrix, using the slope point formula.
Step 5: The focus and the directrix are now known so we can find the equation of the parabola by the method
given above.
 M a them a ti cs | 10.27

FORMULAE SHEET

1. Definition: A parabola is the locus of a point which moves so that its distance from a fixed point is equal to
its distance from a fixed straight line.
For e.g. if the focus is (α, β) and the directrix is ax + by + c = 0 then the equation of the parabola is
(ax + by + c)2
(x – α)2 + (y – β)2 =
a2 + b2
2. The general equation of the second degree ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 represents a parabola if
∆ ≠ 0 and h2 = ab.
3.
Equation of the parabola
y2 = 4ax y2 = –4ax x2 = 4ay x2 = –4ay
Properties
Vertex (Co-ordinates) (0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 0)
Focus (Co-ordinates) (a, 0) (–a, 0) (0, a) (0, –a)
Latus rectum (length) 4a 4a 4a 4a
Axis (Equation) y =0 y =0 x=0 x=0
Directrix (Equation) x = –a x=a y = –a y=a
Symmetry (about) x-axis x-axis y-axis y-axis

4. The equation of the chord joining points P(at12, 2at1) and Q(at22, 2at2) on the parabola y2 = 4ax is y(t1 + t2) =
2x + 2at1t2.

5. If the equation of the chord joining points t1 and t2 on the parabola y2 = 4ax passes through the focus then
t1t2 = –1.
In other words, if one end of a focal chord of the parabola y2 = 4ax is P(at2, 2at) then the co-ordinates of the
 a −2a 
other end is Q  , .
 t2 t 
 a −2a 
6. The length of the focal chord passing through P(at2, 2at) and Q  ,  is a(t + 1/t) .
2

 t 2 t 
 4  2
7. The length of the chord intercepted by the parabola on the line y = mx + c is   a(1 + m )(a − mc) .
 m2 

8. The length of the chord joining two points ‘t1’ and ‘t2’ on the parabola y2 = 4ax is a(t1 – t2) (t1 + t2 )2 + 4 .

9. The equation of the tangent to the parabola y2 = 4ax at a point (x1, y1) is given by yy1 =2a(x +x1)
10. Parametric Form

Equation of the parabola Point of contact Equation of the tangent

y = 4ax
2
(at , 2at)
2
ty = x + at2
y2 = –4ax (–at2, 2at) ty = –x + at2
x2 = 4ay (2at, at2) tx = y + at2
x2 = –4ay (2at, – at2) tx = –y + at2
1 0 . 2 8 | Parabola

11. Slope form

Equation of the parabola Equation of the tangent Condition of tangency Point of contact

a a  a 2a 
y2 = 4ax y = mx + c=  2, 
m m m m 

a a  −a −2a 
y2 = –4ax y = mx – c=–  2, 
m m m m 

a a  2a a 
x2 = 4ay x = mx + c=  , 2
m m m m 

a a  −2a −a 
x2 = –4ay x = mx – c=–  ,
2 
m m  m m 

12. The point of intersection of tangents at the points (at12, 2at1) and (at22, 2at2) is given by (at1t2, a(t1 + t2))

13. If SZ be perpendicular to the tangent at a point P of a parabola, then Z lies on the tangent at the vertex and
SZ2 = AS × SP, where A is the vertex of the parabola.
14. Angle between tangents at two points P(at12, 2at1) and Q(at22, 2at2) on the parabola y2 = 4ax is θ = tan–1
t2 − t1
1 + t1 t2

15. Equation of normal in different forms

Equation of the parabola Equation of the normal

y1
y2 = 4ax y – y1 = – (x – x1)
2a

y1
y2 = –4ax y – y1 = (x – x1)
2a
x1
x2 = 4ay x – x1 = – (y – y1)
2a
x1
x2 = –4ay x – x1 = – (y – y1)
2a

Equation of the parabola Parametric coordinates Equation of the normal

y2 = 4ax (at2, 2at) y + tx = 2at + at3
y2 = –4ax (–at2, 2at) y – tx = 2at + at3
x2 = 4ay (2at, at2) x + ty = 2at + at3
x2 = –4ay (2at, – at2) x – ty = 2at + at3

Equation of the parabola Equation of the normal (Feet of the normal)

y2 = 4ax y = mx – 2am – am3 (am2, –2am)
y2 = –4ax y = mx + 2am + am3 (–am2, 2am)
x2 = 4ay x = my – 2am – am3 (–2am, am2)
x2 = –4ay x = my + 2am + am3 (2am, –am2)
 M a them a ti cs | 10.29

16. The point of intersection of normals at any two points P(at12, 2at1) and Q(at22, 2at2) on the parabola y2 = 4ax is
given by R[2a + a(t12 + t22 + t1t2), –at1t2(t1 + t2)]

17. (i) The algebraic sum of the slopes of the normals at the co-normal point is zero.
(ii) The centroid of a triangle formed by the co-normal points on a parabola lies on its axis.
2
18. If the normal at the point P (at12, 2at1) meets the parabola y2 = 4ax again at (at22, 2at2). Then t2 = –t1 – .
t1
19. If the normal drawn at the point P(at12, 2at1) and Q(at22, 2at2) to the parabola y2 = 4ax intersect at a third point
on the parabola then t1.t2 = 2.

20. If the normal chord at a point P(at2, 2at) to the parabola y2 = 4ax subtends a right angle at the vertex of the
parabola, then t2 = 2.

21. The chord of contact of tangents drawn from a point P(x1, y1) to the parabola y2 = 4ax is yy1 = 2a(x + x1).

22. The combined equation of the pair of tangents drawn from an external point (x1, y1) to the parabola y2 = 4ax is
SS1 = T2 where, S = y2 – 4ax, S1 = y12 – 4ax1 and T = yy1 – 2a(x + x1).

23. The equation of the chord of the parabola y2 = 4ax which is bisected at (x1, y1) is
yy1 – 2a(x + x1) = y12 – 4ax1 or, T = S1.

24. The polar of a point (x1, y1) with respect to the parabola y2 = 4ax is yy1 = 2a(x + x1).

25. The equation of the diameter of the parabola y2 = 4ax bisecting chords of slope m is y = 2a/m.

26. A circle on any focal radii of a point P(at2, 2at) as diameter touches the tangent at the vertex and intercepts a

chord of length a 1 + t2 on a normal at the point P.

27. If the tangents at P and Q meet at T, then

(i) TP and TQ subtend equal angles at the focus S.
(ii) ST2 = SP×SQ, and
(iii) Δ SPT and Δ STQ are similar.

28. Tangents and normals at the extremities of the latus rectum of a parabola y2 = 4ax constitute a square, their
points of intersection being (–a, 0) and (3a, 0).

29. The semi latus rectum of the parabola y2 = 4ax, is the harmonic mean between segments of any focal chord
2bc 1 1 1
of the parabola, i.e. 2a = or, + = .
b+c b c a
30. The orthocentre of any triangle formed by tangents at any three points P(t1), Q(t2) and R(t3) on a parabola
y2 = 4ax lies on the directrix and has the coordinates (–a, a(t1 + t2 + t3 + t1t2t3)).

31. If a normal drawn to a parabola passes through a point P(h, k), then k = mh – 2am – am3, i.e,
am3 + m(2a – h) + k = 0,
2a − h k
⇒ m1 + m2 + m3 = 0; m 1m 2 + m 2m 3 + m 3 m 1 = ; and m1m2m3 = − .
a a
32. The equation of a circle circumscribing the triangle formed by three co-normal points and which passes
through the vertex of the parabola is 2(x2 + y2) – 2(h + 2a)x – ky = 0.

33. The area of a triangle formed inside the parabola y2 = 4ax is 1 (y1 – y2)(y2 – y3)(y3 – y1) where y1, y2, y3 are the
ordinates of the vertices of the triangle. 8a

34. If the vertex and the focus of a parabola are on the x-axis and at a distance a and b from the origin respectively
then the equation of the parabola is y2 = 4(b – a)(x – a).
 M a them a ti cs | 11.33

PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS

x2 y2 m2 (a2 − b2 )2
•• If the line=
y mx + c is a normal to the ellipse + 1 then c2 =
= is the condition of normality
a2 b2 a2 + b2m2
of the line to the ellipse.

••  he tangent and normal at any point of an ellipse bisect the external and angles between the focal
T
radii to the point. It follows from the above property that if an incident light ray passing through the
focus (S) strikes the concave side of the ellipse, then the reflected ray will pass through the other
focus (S’).

•• If SM and S’M’ are perpendicular from the foci upon the tangent at any point of the ellipse, then SM. S’M’ = b2
and M, M’ lie on the auxiliary circle.
x2 y 2
•• If the tangent at any point P on the ellipse + 1 meets the major axis in T and minor axis in T’, then CN.
=
2 2
CT = a , CN’. CT’ = b
2 2 a b

Where N and N’ are the feet of the perpendicular from P on the respective axis.

•• If SM and S’ M’ are perpendicular from the foci S and S’ respectively upon a tangent to the ellipse, then CM
and CM’ are parallel to S’P and SP respectively.

FORMULAE SHEET

1. The general equation of second order ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c =0 represents an ellipse
 a h g
 
if ∆ ≠ 0, h2 < ab. where  ∆ = h b f 
 g f c 

2. The sum of the focal distance of any point on an ellipse is a constant and is equal to the length of the major
axis of the ellipse i.e. SP + S’P = 2a.
x2 y2
3. Standard equation of an ellipse is + 1
=
a2 b2
Where a = length of semi-major axis,
b = length of semi-minor axis
1 1 . 3 4 | Ellipse

4.

 x2 y 2 
Ellipse  2 + 2 = 1
Imp. Terms  a b 

For a > b For b > a

Centre (0, 0) (0, 0)
Vertices (±a, 0) (0, ±b)
Length of major axis 2a 2b
Length of minor axis 2b 2a
Foci (±ae , 0) (0 , ± be)
Equation of directrices x = ±a/e y = ±b/e
Relation in a, b and e b2 = a2 (1 – e2) a2 = b2 (1 – e2)
Length of latus rectum 2b2 2a2
a b

Ends of latus rectum  b2   a2 

 ±ae, ±   ± , ± be 
 a   b 
  

Parametric equations (a cos φ, b sinφ) (a cos φ, b sin φ)

(0 ≤ φ < 2π)
Focal radii SP = a – ex1 SP = b –ey1
S’P = a + ex1 S’P = b + ey1
Sum of focal radii (SP + S’P =) 2a 2b
Distance between foci 2ae 2be
Distance between directrices 2a/e 2b/e
Tangents at the vertices x = –a, x = a y = b, y = –b

5. The equations=x acos φ,

= y bsin φ taken together are called the parametric equations of the ellipse

x2 y2
+ 1 , where φ is the parameter.
=
a2 b2

6. (i) If the centre of the ellipse is at (h, k) and the axes are parallel to the coordinate axes, then its equation is

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ 1.
=
a2 b2
(lx + my + n)2 (mx − ly + p)2
(ii) If the equation of the ellipse is + 1 , where lx + my + n =
= 0 and mx − ly + p =0
a2 b2
lx + my + n mx − ly + p
are perpendicular lines. Substitute = X and = Y , to put the equation in the standard form.
2 2
l +m l2 + m2
x2 y2
7. If P(acos α, bsin α ) and Q(acos β, bsin β) are any two points on the ellipse + 1 , then the equation of a
=
a2 b2
x α+β y α+β α −β
chord joining these two points is cos   + sin  =cos  .
a  2  b  2   2 
 M a them a ti cs | 11.35

x2 y 2 x2 y2
8. The point P(x1 , y1 ) lies outside, on, or inside the ellipse + 1 according to 1 + 1 − 1 > 0, =
= 0 or < 0
2 2 2 2
respectively. a b a b

x2 y2
9. The line =
y mx + c intersects the ellipse + 1 on two distinct points if a2m2 + b2 > c2 , on one point
=
2 2
a b
2 x2 y 2
if=c a m + b and does not intersect if a m2 + b2 < c2 . For an ellipse
2 2 2
+ 2
1 , the auxiliary circle is
=
x2 + y 2 =a2 . a2 b2

x2 y2 xx1 yy1
10. The equation of the tangent to the ellipse + 1 at the point (x1 , y1 ) is
= + 1 . The equation
=
2 2 2
a b a b2

mx ± a2m2 + b2 and the point of contact is

of tangent to the ellipse having its slope equal to m is y =
 ±a2m   b2 x y
 ,  . The equation of the tangent at any point (acos φ, bsin φ) is cos φ + sin φ =1 .
 2 2 2  a b
 a m +b a2m2 + b2 
2 2
x y
Point of intersection of the tangents to the ellipse + 1 at the points P(acos θ1 , bsin θ1 ) ,
=
2
a b2
 acos ( (θ1 + θ2 ) / 2 ) b sin ( (θ1 + θ2 ) / 2 ) 
and Q(acos θ2 , bsin θ2 ) is  , .
 cos ( (θ − θ ) / 2 ) cos ( (θ − θ ) / 2 ) 
 1 2 1 2 

11. Equation of pair of tangents drawn from an outside point P(x1 , y1 ) is SS1 = T2 .

x2 y2
12. For an ellipse + 1 , the equation of director circle is x2 + y 2 = a2 + b2 .
=
2 2
a b
x2 y2 a2 x b2 y
13. The equation of normal to the ellipse + 1 at the point (x1 , y1 ) is
= − =a2 − b2 . The equation of
a2 b 2 x1 y 1
2 2
x y
normal to the ellipse + ) a2 − b2 .
1 at any point (acos φ, bsin φ) is (ax sec φ − bycosecφ=
=
2 2
a b
x2 y2
14. If m is the slope of the normal to the ellipse + 1 , then the equation of the normal is
=
a2 b2
m(a2 − b2 )  ±a2 ±mb2 
y mx ±
= . The co-ordinates of the point of contact are  , .
 2 
a2 + b2m2  a +b m
2 2
a2 + b2m2 

15. The properties of conormal points are

x2 y 2
(i) Property 1: The sum of the eccentric angles of the co-normal points on the ellipse + 1 is an odd
=
multiple of π . a2 b2

x2 y 2
(ii) Property 2: If θ1 , θ2 and θ3 are eccentric angles of three co-normal points on the ellipse + 1,
=
then sin(θ1 + θ2 ) + sin(θ2 + θ3 ) + sin(θ3 + θ1 ) = 0 . a2 b2

(iii) Property 3: Co-normal points lie on a fixed curve called an Apollonian Rectangular

(
Hyperbola a2 − b2 xy + b2kx − a2hy =
0 )
(iv) Property 4: If the normal at four points P(x1y1), Q(x2y2), R(x3y3) and S(x4y4) on the

x2 y2 1 1 1 1 
ellipse + 1 are concurrent, then (x1 + x2 + x3 + x 4 )  +
=
x
+ + 4.
 =
a2 b2  1 x 2 x3 x 4 
1 1 . 3 6 | Ellipse

16. If SM and S’M’ are perpendiculars from the foci upon the tangent at any point of the ellipse, then
SM × S'M' = b2 and M, M’ lie on the auxiliary circle.

x2 y2
17. If the tangent at any point P on the ellipse + 1 meets the major axis at T and minor axis at T’, then
=
a2 b2
CN × CT = a2, CN’ × CT’ = b2. Where N and N’ are the feet of the perpendiculars from P on the respectively axis.

x2 y2
18. The equation of the chord of the ellipse + 1 , whose mid point is (x1 , y1 ) , is T = S1 .
=
a2 b2
x2 y2 xx1 yy1
19. The chord of contact from a point P(x1 , y1 ) to an ellipse + 1 is T = 0 is
= + 1.
=
2 2 2
a b a b2
x2 y2
20. The equation of the diameter bisecting the chords =
(y mx + c) of slope m of the ellipse + 1
=
a2 b2
b2
is y = − x.
a2m
x2 y2 −b2
21. If m1 and m2 are the slopes of two conjugate diameters of an ellipse + 1 , then m1m2 =
= .
a2 b2 a2

22. The eccentric angle of the ends of a pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse differ by a right angle,
π
i.e., φ − φ ' = .
2
23. The sum of the squares of any two conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipse is constant and is equal to the sum
of the squares of the semi axes of the ellipse i.e., CP2 + CD2 = a2 + b2.

24. The product of the focal distances of a point on an ellipse is equal to the square of the semi-diameter which
is conjugate to the diameter through the point i.e., SP × S'P = CD2.

25. The tangents at the extremities of a pair of conjugate diameters form a parallelogram whose area is constant
and equal to the product of the axes.
i.e. Area of the parallelogram = (2a)(2b) = Area of the rectangle contained under major and minor axes.

26. Two conjugate diameters are called equi-conjugate, if their lengths are equal i.e., (CP)2 = (CD)2

(a2 + b2 )
∴(CP) = (CD) = for equi-conjugate diameters.
2
x2 y2  −a2l −b2m 
27. Equation of the polar of the point (x1, y1) w.r.t. an ellipse + 1 is P 
= , .
a2 b2  n n 


x2 y2  −a2l −b2m 
28. The pole of the line lx + my + n =0 with respect to the ellipse + 1 is P 
= , .
a2 b2  n n 

x1 x2 y1 y 2
29. Condition for a conjugate point is + 1.
=
a2 b2
x2 y2 a2
30. The length of a sub tangent at P(x1 , y1 ) to the ellipse + 1 is
= − x1 .
a2 b2 x1

x2 y2 b2
31. The length of a sub normal at P(x1 , y1 ) to the ellipse + 1 is
= x1= (1 − e2 )x1 .
a2 b2 a2
 M a them a ti cs | 12.27

PROBLEM SOLVING TACTICS

( x − h) (y − k)
2 2

(a) In general convert the given hyperbola equation into the standard form − 1 and compare it
=
a2 b2
2 2 2 2
x y x y
with − 1 . Then solve using the properties of the hyperbola
= − 1 . So, it is advised to remember
=
2 2 2
a b a b2
the standard results.
x2 y 2
(b) Most of the standard results of a hyperbola can be obtained from the results of an ellipse + 1 just by
=
changing the sign of b2. a2 b2

FORMULAE SHEET

HYPERBOLA

(a) Standard Hyperbola:

Hyperbola x2 y2 x2 y2
− 1
= − + 1
=
Imp. Terms a2 b2 a2 b2
x2 y2
or − −1
=
a2 b2

Centre (0, 0) (0, 0)

Length of transverse axis 2a 2b
Length of conjugate axis 2b 2a
Foci (±ae, 0) (0, ±be)
Equation of directrices x = ± a/e y = ± b/e
Eccentricity
 a2 + b2   a2 + b2 
e=   e=  
 a2   b2 
   

Length of L.R. 2b2/a 2a2/b

Parametric co-ordinates (a sec φ, b tan φ) (a tan φ, b sec φ)

0 ≤ φ < 2π 0 ≤ φ < 2π
Focal radii SP = ex1 – a SP = ey1 – b

S¢P = ex1 + a S¢P = ey1 + b

|S¢P – SP| 2a 2b
Tangents at the vertices x = –a, x = a y =–b, y = b
Equation of the transverse axis y=0 x=0
Equation of the conjugate axis x=0 y=0
1 2 . 2 8 | Hyperbola

S(0,be)
Y

N B L
M′ M P(x,y) B (0, b) b
y=

Rectum
Z a

X′ X X′ X
A′ Z′ C Z A S(ae,0) C b
S′(–ae,0) y=−

Latus
(–a,0) (a,0) a
a B′(0, –b)
a x=
N′ x=– B′ e L′

S’(0,–be)
e
Y′
Y′

Figure 12.32: Hyperbola Figure 12.33: Conjugate Hyperbola

(b) Special form of hyperbola: If (h , k) is the centre of a hyperbola and its axes are parallel to the co-ordinate
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
axes, then the equation of the hyperbola is − =1
a2 b2

(c) Parametric equations of a hyperbola: The equation x = a sec φ and y = b tan φ are known as the parametric
equation of the standard hyperbola
x2 y2
− = 1.
a2 b2
x2 y2 x12 y12 xx1 yy1
S
If = − , then S1 = − −1 ; T = − −1
2 2 2 2 2
a b a b a b2

(d) Position of a point and a line w.r.t. a hyperbola: n The point (x1, y1) lies inside, on or outside the hyperbola
x2 y2 x12 y12
− = 1 according to–1 being >, = or < zero. −
a2 b2 a2 b2
The line y = mx + c intersects at 2 distinct points, 1 point or does not intersect with the hyperbola according as c2
>, = or < a2m2 – b2.

(e) Tangent:
x2 y2
(i) Point form: The equation of tangent to the hyperbola − = 1 at (x1, y1) is
a2 b2
xx1 yy1
− = 1.
2
a b2
x2 y 2
(ii) Parametric form: The equation of tangent to the hyperbola − = 1 at parametric coordinates (a sec φ, b
2 2
x y a b
tan φ) is sec φ − φ =11.
a b
x2 y 2
(iii) Slope form: The equation of the tangents having slope m to the hyperbola − = 1 are
a2 b2
y = mx ± a2m2 − b2 and the co-ordinates of points of contacts are

 a2m b2 
± ,± 
 
 a2m2 − b2 a2m2 + b2 
x2 y2
(f) Equation of a pair of tangents from an external point (x1, y1) to the hyperbola − = 1 is SS1 = T2.
2 2
a b
 M a them a ti cs | 12.29

(g) Normal:
x2 y2
(i) Point form: The equation of the normal to the hyperbola − = 1 at (x1, y1) is
2 2
a2 b2
a x b y
+ = a2 + b2.
x1 y1

(ii) Parametric form: The equation of the normal at parametric coordinates (a sec θ, b tanθ) to the hyperbola

x2 y2
− = 1 is ax cos θ + by cot θ = a2 + b2.
a2 b2
2 2
(iii) Slope form: The equation of the normal having slope m to the hyperbola x − y = 1 is
a2 b2
m(a2 + b2 )
y = mx 
a2 − b2m2
x2 y 2
(iv) Condition for normality: y = mx + c is a normal to the hyperbola − = 1 if
2 2 2 a2 b2
m(a + b )
c2 =
(a2 − m2b2 )
 a2 mb2 
(v) Points of contact: Co-ordinates of the points of contact are  ± , .
 
 a2 − b2m2 a2 − b2m2 
x2 y2
(h) The equation of the director circle of the hyperbola = 1 is given by x2 + y2 = a2 – b2.
−
a2 b2
(i) Equation of the chord of contact of the tangents drawn from the external point (x1, y1) to the hyperbola is

xx1 yy1
given by − = 1.
2
a b2
x2 y2
( j) The equation of the chord of the hyperbola − = 1 whose mid point is (x1, y1) is T = S1.
a2 b2

(k) Equation of a chord joining points P(a sec f1, b tan f1) and Q (a sec f2, b tan f2) is

x  φ − φ2  y  φ1 + φ2   φ + φ2 
cos  1  − sin  cos  1
 = 
a  2  b  2   2 

(l) Equation of the polar of the point (x1, y1) w.r.t. the hyperbola is given by T = 0.

x2 y2  a2  b2m 
The pole of the line lx + my + n = 0 w.r.t. − = 1 is  − , 
a2 b2  n n 

x2 y2 b2
(m) The equation of a diameter of the hyperbola − = 1 corresponding to the chords of slope m is y = x
a2 b2 a2m
b2
(n) The diameters y = m1x and y = m2x are conjugate if m1m2 =
a2
(o) Asymptotes:
•• Asymptote to a curve touches the curve at infinity.
x2 y2 b
•• The equation of the asymptotes of the hyperbola − = 1 are y = ± x.
a2
b 2 a
1 2 . 3 0 | Hyperbola

•• The asymptote of a hyperbola passes through the centre of the hyperbola.

x2 y2 x2 y2
•• * The combined equation of the asymptotes of the hyperbola − = 1 is − =0
a2 b2 a2 b2
x2 y2 a2
•• * The angle between the asymptotes of − = 1 is 2 tan–1
or 2 sec–1 e.
a2 b2 b2
•• A hyperbola and its conjugate hyperbola have the same asymptotes.
•• The bisector of the angles between the asymptotes are the coordinate axes.
•• Equation of the hyperbola – Equation of the asymptotes = constant.

(p) Rectangular or Equilateral Hyperbola:

•• A hyperbola for which a = b is said to be a rectangular hyperbola, its equation is x2 – y2 = a2.
•• xy = c2 represents a rectangular hyperbola with asymptotes x = 0, y = 0.
•• Eccentricity of a rectangular hyperbola is 2 and the angle between the asymptotes of a rectangular
hyperbola is 90º.
c
•• Parametric equation of the hyperbola xy = c2 are x = ct, y = , where t is a parameter.
t
•• Equation of a chord joining t1, t2 on xy = c2 is x + y t1t2 = c(t1 + t2)
x y
•• Equation of a tangent at (x1, y1) to xy = c2 is + = 2.
x1 y1
•• Equation of a tangent at t is x + yt2 = 2ct
•• Equation of the normal at (x1, y1) to xy = c2 is xx1 – yy1 = x12 – y12.
•• Equation of the normal at t on xy = c2 is xt3 – yt – ct4 + c = 0.
(i.e. Four normals can be drawn from a point to the hyperbola xy = c2)
•• If a triangle is inscribed in a rectangular hyperbola then its orthocentre lies on the hyperbola.
•• Equation of chord of the hyperbola xy = c2 whose middle point is given is T = S1.
 2ct1 t2 2c 
•• Point of intersection of tangents at t1 and t2 to the hyperbola xy = c2 is  , 
 t1 + t2 t1 + t2 
 M a them a ti cs | 26.27

   
(t) The perpendicular distance of a point P( r ) from a plane passing through the points a , b and c is given by
       
P=
(
( r − a) . b × c + c × a + a × b
     
)
b× c + c × a + a×b

 
(u) Angle between a line and the plane: If θ is the angle between a line r=
 ( a + λb ) and the plane r.n

= d , then
b.n
sin θ =   .
b n
   
(v) The equation of sphere with center at C( c ) and radius ‘a’ is r − c =
a. If center is the origin then r = a.

   a.n − d
(w) The plane r.n = d touches the sphere= r − a R,if=  R , i.e. the condition of tangency.
n
 
(x) If a and b are the position vectors of the extremities of a diameter of a sphere, then its equation is given by
    2       2  2  2
( r − a) . r= ( ) (
− b 0 or r − r. a + b + a.b = )
0 or r − a + r − b = a − b .

FORMULAE SHEET

(a) OP = x î +y ˆj
 y
(b) OP
= x2 + y 2 and direction is tan=
θ
x

Vector a
(c) Unit vector Û = = 
Its modulus a

(d) Properties of vector addition:

         
i. a + b = b + a commutative ( ) ( )
(a) a + b + c = a + b + c Associative
     
ii. a + 0 =a Null vector is an additive identity (b) a + ( −a ) =0 Additive inverse

      
( )
iii. c a + b = ca + cb (c) ( c + d) a =ca + da
   
iv. ( cd) a = c ( da ) (d) 1 × a =a

(e) Section formula:

 
(i) If a and b are the position vectors of two points A and B, then the position vector of a point which divides
 

AB in the ratio m:n is given by r =
na + mb (.
)
(m + n)
 

(ii) Position vector of mid-point of AB =
a+b
.
( )
2
2 6 . 28 | Vectors

  
(f) Collinearity of three points: If a, b, and c are the position vectors (non-zero) of three points and given they
  
are collinear then there exists λ , γ both not being 0 such that a + λb + γc

    
(g) Coplanar vectors: Let a, b be non-zero, non-collinear vectors. Then, any vector r coplanar with a, b can be
    
expressed uniquely as a linear combination of a, b i.e. there exist some unique x, y ∈ R, such that xa + yb = r

(h) Product of two vectors:

(i) Scalar Product (dot product)


If a.b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
 
a.b
Note : • cos θ =  
ab
 
• a and b are perpendicular if θ= 90°

(ii) Properties of scalar product:

      
i. a.b = b. a ii. ma.nb = a .mnb
= mna.b ( )
    
( )
iii. a. b + c = a.c + a.b
( 
iv. a + b )
2   
=a2 + 2.a.b + b2

v. If ˆi
= (=
1,0,0 ) , ˆj ( 0,1,0
= ) ,kˆ ( 0,0,1 ) then ˆi.=
ˆj ˆj.k
=ˆ k.i
ˆ=ˆ 0

 
(iii) Vector (cross) Product of two vectors:
= Let a (=a1 , a2 , a3 ) ,b (b1 , b2 , b3 ) be two vectors then the cross
   
product of a × b is devoted by a × b and defined by

   a2 a3 a1 a2 
a ×=
b ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) × (b1 , b2 , b=
3)  =  ( a2b3 − a3b2 ,a3b1 − a1b3 ,a1b2 − a2b1 )
 b2 b3 b1 b2 

OR
ˆi ˆj kˆ
 
a ×=
b a1 a2 a= 3 ( a2b3 − a3b2 ) ˆi + ( a3b1 − a1b3 ) ˆj + ( a1b2 − a2b1 ) kˆ
b1 b2 b3
   
a × b = a × b sin θ nˆ

 
Note: (i) θ being angle between a & b
       
(ii) If θ =0 , The = a × b 0 and a & b are parallel if a × b =0.
a × b 0 i.e. =
 M a them a ti cs | 26.29

(iv) Properties of cross product

         
0 ⇒ a 0=
=
i. a × b = or b 0 or a  b ii. a × b =−b × a

          
( )
iii. a × b + c = a × b + a × c (
iv. (na ) × b= n a × b )
 
    vi. a × b is a Area of parallelogram with sides
v. a × b is perpendicular to both a and b 

a and b .

 
(v) Scalar Triple Product: If a = a1ˆi + a2ˆj + a3k,b ˆ  = c ˆi + c ˆj + c kˆ .
ˆ = b ˆi + b ˆj + b k,c
1 2 3 1 2 3
        
( )
Then a. b × c = b. ( c × a ) = c. a × b ( )
a1 a2 a3
  
(
a. b × c = )
b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
   
( )
a. b × c is also represented as a b c 

  

=a b c  =
b c a  c a b 
     
 
a b c  = − a c b 
   
  
• If any of the two vectors are parallel, then a b c  = 0
     
• a b c  is the volume of the parallelepiped whose coterminous edges are formed by a b c
 
     
• If a b c are coplanar, a b c  = 0

1         
• a × b + b × c + c × a = area of triangle having a ,b, c as position vectors of vertices of a triangle.
2

(vi) Vector Triple Product:

      
a × b ×=
c( ) ( a.c ) b − ( a.b ) c
      
(a×b = ×c ) ( a.c ) b − (b.c ) a
  
   a×b × a
Unit vector coplanar with a and b perpendicular to a is ±    .
( )
a×b × a ( )
 M a them a ti cs | 27.23

FORMULAE SHEET

(a) Distance between the points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) is (x2 − x1 )2 + (y 2 − y1 )2 + (z 2 − z1 )2

(b) Coordinates of the point dividing the distance between the points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) in the ratio m:n are
 mx2 + nx1 my 2 + ny1 mz 2 + nz1 
 , , 
 m+n m+n m + n 

(c) If A(x1, y1, z1), B(x2, y2, z2) and C(x3, y3, z3) are vertices of a triangle, then its centroid is

 x1 + x2 + x3 y1 + y 2 + y 3 z1 + z 2 + z3 
 , , 
 3 3 3 
(d) If A(x1, y1, z1) and B (x2, y2, z2) are the two points, the point which divides the line segment AB in ratio λ:1 is

 λx2 + x1 λy 2 + y1 λz 2 + z1 
 λ + 1 , λ + 1 , λ + 1 
 

(e) If (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) are the two points on the line with x2 – x1, y2 – y1, z2 – z1 as direction ratios, then their
d.c.s are
x2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1
± ,± ,±
2 2
Σ(x2 − x1 ) Σ(x2 − x1 ) Σ(x2 − x1 )2

(f) If  , m, n are d.c.s of a line, then l2 + m2 + n2 = 1. Thus, if a line makes angles α, β, γ with axes, then
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ =1 and sin2 α + sin2 β + sin2 γ = 2

a b c
(g) If a, b, c are the d.r.s of a line, then the d.c.s of the line are ± ,± ,±
2 2
Σa Σa Σa2
 
(h) If p(x, y, z) is a point in space such that OP = r has d.c.s  , m, n, then
  
(a)  | r |,m | r |,n | r | are the projections on x-axis, y-axis and z-axis, respectively.
  
=(b) x = | r |, y m= | r |, z n | r |
 
(c) r =| r | (l ˆi + mjˆ + nk)ˆ and rˆ = ˆi + mjˆ + nkˆ

  |r |
Moreover, if a, b, c are d.r.s of a vector = r , then r (aiˆ + bjˆ + ck).
ˆ
2 2 2
a +b +c

(i) Length of projection of the line segment joining (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) on a line with d.c.s  , m, n is |
 (x2 − x1 ) + m(y 2 − y1 ) + n(z 2 − z1 ) |

( j) If θ is the angle between two lines having direction ratios a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 then
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2
cos θ = ±
Σa12 Σa22
a1 b1 c1
(k) Two lines are parallel if = = and two lines are perpendicular if a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 =
0
a2 b2 c2

(l) Cartesian equations of a line passing through (x1, y1, z1) and having direction ratios a, b, c are
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = = t
a b c
2 7 . 2 4 | 3D Geometr y

    
(m) Vector equation of a line passing through the point A(a) and parallel to vector b is r = a + λb for scalar λ.

(n) Cartesian equation of a line passing through two points having coordinates (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = .
x2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1
     
(o) Vector equation of a line passing through two points having position vectors a and b is r = α + λ(b − a)
  
      | b × (a − a ) |
2
(p) Distance between the parallel lines r= a1 + λb and r= a2 + µb is  1
|b|
     
(q) Shortest distance (S.D.) between two lines with equations; r= a1 + λb1 and r= a2 + µb2 is
     
| (b1 × b2 ) ⋅ (a2 − a1 ) | b1 .b2
  . If θ is the angle between the lines, then cos θ =  
| b1 × b2 | | b1 || b2 |

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
(r) The length of perpendicular from the point (α , β, γ ) to the line = = , m, n being d.cs)
( ,m,n
 m n

is given by (α − x1 )2 + (β − y1 )2 + ( γ − z1 )2 − [(α − x1 ) + m(β − y1 ) + n( γ − z1 )]2

     
(s) If a and b are the unit vectors along the sides of an angle, then a + b and a − b are the vectors, respectively,
along the internal and external bisector of the angle. In fact, the bisectors of the angles between the lines,
 
      a b 
r = xa and r = yb are given by r = λ   +   ; λ ∈ R
| a | |b |
 
(t) Equation of plane passing through the point (x1, y1, z1) is a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1 ) =
0.

(u) Equation of plane passing through three points (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3) is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1 =
0
x3 − x1 y 3 − y1 z3 − z1
x y z
(v) Equation of a plane making intercepts a, b, c on axes is + + =1
a b c
  
(w) Vector equation of a plane through the point a and perpendicular to the unit vector nˆ is (r − a).nˆ =
0
  nˆ ⋅ nˆ
(x) If θ is the angle between the two planes r= .nˆ 1 d1 and r=⋅ nˆ 2 d2 , then cos θ = 1 2
| nˆ 1 || nˆ 2 |
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
(y) Equation of a plane containing the line = = and passing through the point (x2, y2, z2) not
a b c
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
on the line is a b c =0
x2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y 2 z − z2
(z) Equation of a plane through the line = = and parallel to the line = =
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
is a1 b1 c1 = 0
a2 b2 c2