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Gene Essentiality Methods and Protocols 1st Edition
Long Jason Lu (Eds.) Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Long Jason Lu (eds.)
ISBN(s): 9781493923977, 1493923978
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 6.18 MB
Year: 2015
Language: english
Methods in
Molecular Biology 1279
Gene
Essentiality
Methods and Protocols
METHODS IN M O L E C U L A R B I O LO G Y
Series Editor
John M. Walker
School of Life and Medical Sciences
University of Hertfordshire
Hatfield, Hertfordshire, AL10 9AB, UK
Edited by
Long Jason Lu
Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
Editor
Long Jason Lu
Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center
Cincinnati, OH, USA
This book is an update of the previously published book Microbial Essential Genes in this
series. In the first eight chapters, we cover two main types of approaches that have been
widely used to determine essential genes: single-gene knockouts and transposon mutagen-
esis, in both prokaryotes and Candida albicans. Since the last edition was published, we
have seen significant advancement in the computational predictions of microbial essential
genes. In the next seven chapters, we cover four main types of approaches: comparative
genomics, supervised machine learning, constraint-based methods, and corrections of
transposon mutagenesis data. We also present databases and servers that are often used in
studying gene essentiality.
Finally, I would like to thank all the authors for the contributions. I would also like to
thank Dr. John Walker. Without his encouragement and guidance, I would not have been
able to complete this book.
v
Contents
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
vii
viii Contents
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Contributors
ix
x Contributors
Abstract
Although whole genome approaches to the study of bacteria have grown substantially in the past decade,
there is still a need for quick and easy methods for the determination of which genes are essential for the
growth of these bacteria under specific growth conditions. There are numerous methods to accomplish
this depending on the resources and equipment available, each with their own advantages and disadvan-
tages. Here we describe a method we successfully employed to map the essential genes of Campylobacter
jejuni using a microarray transposon tracking approach where we constructed a saturated transposon
mutant library in the C. jejuni strain NCTC11168 and used a genomic microarray approach to identify
genes lacking transposon insertions under standard laboratory growth conditions. With a fully saturated
library, the absence of transposon insertions can be used as an indicator of a gene essential for the survival
and growth for the conditions used for the mutant library.
Key words Campylobacter jejuni, Essential genes, Microarray, Transposon based mutant library,
Dispensable genes
1 Introduction
Long Jason Lu (ed.), Gene Essentiality: Methods and Protocols, Methods in Molecular Biology, vol. 1279,
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-2398-4_1, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
1
2 Martin Stahl and Alain Stintzi
2 Materials
Fig. 1 Flowchart of the experimental approach of the microarray transposon tracking and data analysis. The
transposon mutant library was divided into pools for PCR amplification and microarray hybridization. Ensuing
data was normalized to the background fluorescence intensity, was assigned a binomial value of 1 or 0 denot-
ing its presence or absence from each array, and its mean insertion value was calculated
2.3 Microarray 1. Microarray slides: The microarray slides used in our study of
Hybridization Campylobacter were described previously [16–19]. Any com-
mercial or custom slide design with sufficient coverage of
the genome should suffice with the condition that it needs to
provide suitable binding targets for the amplified flanking
regions.
2. Coverslips: the design may also vary depending on the array
design, but they need to be sufficient in size to cover the whole
of the printed area of the array.
3. Fluorophores: succinimidyl esters of fluorescent indocarbocya-
nine (Cy3) and indodicarbocyanine (Cy5) are commonly used
ones for microarrays, but other options are available. The fluo-
rophores should be prepared based on manufacturer instruc-
tions. The Cy3 and Cy5 fluorophores used in our study were
obtained from GE healthcare and were resuspended in 60 μl
DMSO.
4. Microcon YM-30 filter (Millipore).
5. Vacuum centrifuge or other means of drying cDNA samples.
6. Sodium bicarbonate: 1 M, pH 9.0.
7. Amino-allyl dUTPs.
8. 20× SSC: 3 M NaCl, 0.3 M sodium citrate.
9. Hybridization buffer: 25 % formamide, 5× SSC, 0.1 % SDS,
1 % BSA (see Note 3).
10. Coverslip wash solution: 5× SSC, 0.1 % SDS (see Note 4).
11. Salmon sperm DNA.
12. Wash buffer 1: 2× SSC and 0.1 % SDS.
13. Wash buffer 2: 0.1× SSC.
14. Formamide.
Microarray Transposon Tracking for the Mapping of Conditionally Essential Genes… 5
3 Methods
3.3 Transposon The growth medium used to construct the transposon mutant
Mutant Library Growth library and the following step in the process are critical to define
the growth conditions governing the determination of the essen-
tial genes. For example, patching mutants from the library and
growing them under new growth conditions would identify which
genes are not essential for growth on MH broth but are essential
Microarray Transposon Tracking for the Mapping of Conditionally Essential Genes… 7
Table 1
List of primers used in our study [11]
Primer
name Sequence (5′–3′)
MS1 GGCCACGCGTCGACTAGTACNNNNNNNNNNGATAT
MS2 GGCCACGCGTCGACTAGTAC
MS3 GGCCACGCGTCGACTAGTACNNNNNNNNNNAGAG
AR54 AGAGCTTAGTACGTTAAACATGA
CM2 GGAACTATAGGGCGCAGGAT
SqFP GCCAACGACTACGCACTAGCCAAC
SqRP GAGCCAATATGCGAGAACACCCGAGAA
The primers MS1, MS2, and MS3 were designed based on primers used by Salama
et al. [5]. The primers pMOD forward, pMOD reverse, SqFP, and SqRP are primer
sequences commercially available with the Epicentre EZ:Tn5 transposon kit
3.4 Semi- This step serves to amplify both flanking sequences of the transposon
Degenerate PCR so as to increase the likelihood of properly identifying the transpo-
son insertion site. As outlined in Fig. 2, one primer is anchored on
transposon, while the other utilizes a degenerate sequence to allow
it to anneal to frequent locations within the genome. The second
step enriches the PCR product and adds the aminoallyl-dUTP
used for the fluorescent labeling. The DNA template in this step is
still the DNA extracted from the pool of 48 mutants.
1. Fifty nanograms of template DNA was added to a reaction
mixture containing 2 μM of the transposon-nested primer
AR54 or CM2, 1 μM of each degenerate primer MS1 and
MS3 (Table 1), 0.5 mM dNTPs, and 4.4 mM MgCl2 in 1×
PCR reaction buffer (Life Technologies). The PCR conditions
Microarray Transposon Tracking for the Mapping of Conditionally Essential Genes… 9
3.5 Purify and Label 1. Add samples to Microcon YM-30 filter and bring to 450 μl
Aminoallyl-Labeled with distilled water and centrifuge for 8 min at 9,000 × g in the
cDNA corresponding microcentrifuge tube (Millipore) (see Note 10).
2. Discard the flow-through and repeat the wash four times.
3. Concentrate the sample using an additional centrifugation
step. The precise length of the centrifugation step can vary
depending on the concentration of DNA in the sample, but an
8-min centrifugation is usually sufficient.
4. Invert the column and collect the retentate with a 1 min
centrifugation at 10,000 × g.
5. If the volume collected is over 9 μl, then reduce the volume
using a vacuum centrifuge; otherwise add sterile dH2O to
bring the sample volume to 9 μl.
6. Add 1 μl 1 M NaHCO3, pH 9.
7. Add 10 μl of a solution containing the monoreactive dye Cy-3
or Cy-5, one for each reaction condition.
8. Incubate for 60 min at room temperature in the dark.
9. Add 55 μl sterile dH2O and 35 μl of 100 mM NaOAc, pH 5.2
to the reaction tube.
10. Purify labeled cDNA using any appropriate PCR purification
kit, with the following alterations: Instead of a single ethanol
wash, wash the sample four times and elute the sample twice
using 30 μl sterile dH2O to maximize sample recovery.
10 Martin Stahl and Alain Stintzi
3.7 Data Analysis 1. To consider a spot to be present, it has to possess a mean fluo-
rescent intensity greater than 2 standard deviations above the
background.
2. Based on this threshold, assign each gene a binomial value of 0
for absent or 1 for present to indicate the probability of inser-
tion. Calculate the probability of insertion by adding together
the results from each replicate, and dividing the sum of the
probability of insertion for each gene by the total number of
replicates. This will produce a mean insertion value for each gene.
Microarray Transposon Tracking for the Mapping of Conditionally Essential Genes… 11
4 Notes
References
1. Kobayashi K, Ehrlich SD, Albertini A, Amati collection of single-gene deletion mutants of
G, Andersen KK, Arnaud M, Asai K, Ashikaga Acinetobacter baylyi ADP1. Mol Syst Biol
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LC, Danchin A, Debarbouille M, Dervyn E, Judson N, Mekalanos JJ (2002) A genome-
Deuerling E, Devine K, Devine SK, Dreesen scale analysis for identification of genes required
O, Errington J, Fillinger S, Foster SJ, Fujita Y, for growth or survival of Haemophilus influen-
Galizzi A, Gardan R, Eschevins C, Fukushima zae. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99(2):966–971.
T, Haga K, Harwood CR, Hecker M, Hosoya doi:10.1073/pnas.012602299
D, Hullo MF, Kakeshita H, Karamata D, 4. Sassetti CM, Boyd DH, Rubin EJ (2003)
Kasahara Y, Kawamura F, Koga K, Koski P, Genes required for mycobacterial growth
Kuwana R, Imamura D, Ishimaru M, Ishikawa defined by high density mutagenesis. Mol
S, Ishio I, Le Coq D, Masson A, Mauel C, Microbiol 48(1):77–84
Meima R, Mellado RP, Moir A, Moriya S,
Nagakawa E, Nanamiya H, Nakai S, Nygaard 5. Salama NR, Shepherd B, Falkow S (2004)
P, Ogura M, Ohanan T, O’Reilly M, O’Rourke Global transposon mutagenesis and essential
M, Pragai Z, Pooley HM, Rapoport G, Rawlins gene analysis of Helicobacter pylori. J Bacteriol
JP, Rivas LA, Rivolta C, Sadaie A, Sadaie Y, 186(23):7926–7935. doi:10.1128/JB.186.23.
Sarvas M, Sato T, Saxild HH, Scanlan E, 7926-7935.2004
Schumann W, Seegers JF, Sekiguchi J, 6. Glass JI, Assad-Garcia N, Alperovich N,
Sekowska A, Seror SJ, Simon M, Stragier P, Yooseph S, Lewis MR, Maruf M, Hutchison
Studer R, Takamatsu H, Tanaka T, Takeuchi CA 3rd, Smith HO, Venter JC (2006) Essential
M, Thomaides HB, Vagner V, van Dijl JM, genes of a minimal bacterium. Proc Natl Acad
Watabe K, Wipat A, Yamamoto H, Yamamoto Sci U S A 103(2):425–430. doi:10.1073/
M, Yamamoto Y, Yamane K, Yata K, Yoshida K, pnas.0510013103
Yoshikawa H, Zuber U, Ogasawara N (2003) 7. Liberati NT, Urbach JM, Miyata S, Lee DG,
Essential Bacillus subtilis genes. Proc Natl Acad Drenkard E, Wu G, Villanueva J, Wei T,
Sci U S A 100(8):4678–4683. doi:10.1073/ Ausubel FM (2006) An ordered, nonredun-
pnas.0730515100 dant library of Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain
2. de Berardinis V, Vallenet D, Castelli V, Besnard PA14 transposon insertion mutants. Proc
M, Pinet A, Cruaud C, Samair S, Lechaplais C, Natl Acad Sci U S A 103(8):2833–2838.
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Scarpelli C, Medigue C, Cohen GN, Marliere P, Brittnacher M, Manoil C (2007) A compre-
Salanoubat M, Weissenbach J (2008) A complete hensive transposon mutant library of Francisella
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Natl Acad Sci U S A 104(3):1009–1014. (2004) Large-scale identification of essential
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doi:10.1126/science.1063566 doi:10.1186/1471-2164-10-481
Chapter 2
Abstract
Essential genes in pathogens are important for the development of antibacterial drugs. In this report, we
described a protocol to identify essential genes in the Streptococcus sanguinis SK36 strain using genome-
wide deletion mutation. A fusion PCR-based method is used to construct gene deletion fragments, which
contain kanamycin resistance cassettes with two flanking arms of DNA upstream and downstream of the
target gene. The linear fused PCR amplicons were transformed into S. sanguinis SK36 cells. No kanamycin-
resistant transformants suggested the gene essentiality because the deletion of the essential gene renders a
lethal phenotype of the transformants. The putative essential genes were further confirmed by independent
transformations up to five attempts. The false nonessential genes were also identified by removing double-
band mutants.
Key words Essential genes, Streptococcus sanguinis, Fusion PCR, Deletion mutation, Genome-wide
1 Introduction
Essential genes are defined as those that are indispensable for cel-
lular life [1, 2]. Identification of essential bacterial genes is impor-
tant for the development of antibacterial drugs, for designing new
bacterial strains for synthetic biology, and for understanding the
origins of life [2]. However, systematic identification of essential
genes remains challenging because of various limitations.
Streptococcus sanguinis is a member of human indigenous oral
microflora that forms dental plaques, and is one of the most recog-
nized agents of infective endocarditis [3–5]. The transformation
frequency of S. sanguinis is high [6] and its relatively small genome
has been completely sequenced [7]. Hence, S. sanguinis is an ideal
candidate for genome-wide identification of essential genes. We
performed genome-wide essential gene identification and identi-
fied a clearly defined set of essential genes in S. sanguinis [2, 8].
In this study, a fusion PCR-based method was used to construct
gene deletion fragments that contain a kanamycin resistance cassette
Long Jason Lu (ed.), Gene Essentiality: Methods and Protocols, Methods in Molecular Biology, vol. 1279,
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-2398-4_2, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
15
16 Lei Chen et al.
2 Materials
3 Methods
3.1 Primer Design 1. Primers are designed on the basis of the S. sanguinis SK36
and Construction genome sequence. Three sets of primers: F1/R1, F2/R2, and
of Gene Deletion F3/R3 are designed for amplification of approximately 1 kb
Fragments upstream sequence of the target gene, the aphA-3 encoding
kanamycin resistance (Kmr) protein, and approximately 1 kb
downstream sequence of the target gene (see Note 1), respec-
tively (Fig. 1). Primers R1 and F3 are designed to contain
25 bp adaptor sequences at their 5′ end that are complemen-
tary to the aphA-3. The primers are designed such that their
melting temperatures would be as close as possible to 60 °C,
facilitating a uniform annealing temperature for all PCR reac-
tions in 96-well plates (see Note 2).
2. Primers F1, R1, F3, and R3 are ordered in 96-well plates based
on gene order. Each plate contains one type of primers in the
same gene order.
3. Dilute the primers in 96-well plates to a final concentration of
10 μM for PCR amplification using a multichannel pipette to
obtain the working primer plate (see Note 3).
4. PCR amplification: For the aphA-3 (see Note 4), perform large
scale PCR amplification only once to create single-gene dele-
tion constructs. Digest plasmids containing Kmr cassettes using
F1
F2 F3
F1
Transformation and
homologous recombination
Fig. 1 Schematic construction of the gene deletion fragment by fusion PCR. PCRs are performed using F1/R1,
F2/R2, and F3/R3 primers. The three amplicons are purified and mixed in equal amounts as template and a
fusion PCR amplicon is obtained using F1/R3, which is used for the following transformation and homologous
recombination
18 Lei Chen et al.
3.2 Cell 1. Prepare fresh TH + HS medium and aliquot into 2- and 10-ml
Transformation tubes.
2. Inoculate 5 μl of stock S. sanguinis SK36 (stored at −80 °C) in
2-ml TH + HS medium, cap tightly and culture overnight at
37 °C, and pre-incubate 10-ml TH + HS tubes concomitantly.
3. After incubation overnight, transfer 50 μl aliquots of cultures
into 10-ml TH + HS tubes and incubate at 37 °C for 3 h to
obtain OD660 of 0.07–0.08, and use immediately for
transformations.
4. Cell transformation: Add 2 μl of 70 ng S. sanguinis SK36 com-
petence stimulating peptide and 2 μl of linear recombinant
PCR amplicon (approximately 50 ng) to Eppendorf tubes on
96-well blocks and pre-warm at 37 °C. Transfer 330 μl of
SK36 cultures incubated for 3 h in each tube. Incubate at
37 °C for 1 h. Replace DNA with sterile ddH2O as a control
(see Note 7).
5. Place the block on ice and spread 100 μl of each transforma-
tion on BHI agar plates (see Note 8) containing 500 μg/ml
kanamycin. Incubate the plates at 37 °C for 2 days under
microaerobic conditions.
Transformation
No colony Colonies
Difference<100 bp Difference>100 bp
Internal PCR
4 Notes
Acknowledgment
References
Abstract
Porphyromonas gingivalis is a keystone pathogen in the development and progression of periodontal
disease. Obstacles to the development of saturated transposon libraries have previously limited transposon
mutant-based screens as well as essential gene studies. We have developed a system for efficient transposon
mutagenesis of P. gingivalis using a modified mariner transposon. Tn-seq is a technique that allows for
quantitative assessment of individual mutants within a transposon mutant library by sequencing the trans-
poson–genome junctions and then compiling mutant presence by mapping to a base genome. Using Tn-seq,
it is possible to quickly define all the insertional mutants in a library and thus identify nonessential genes
under the conditions in which the library was produced. Identification of fitness of individual mutants
under specific conditions can be performed by exposing the library to selective pressures.
Key words Porphyromonas gingivalis, Transposon mutagenesis, Essential genes, Mariner, Tn-seq
Abbreviations
BAM Binary alignment/map format
Pg Porphyromonas gingivalis
PCR Polymerase chain reaction
BHIHKSbcStgC Supplemented brain–heart infusion
BAPHK Supplemented blood agar plate
BROP Bioinformatics resource oral pathogens
BED Browser extensible data format
SAM Sequence alignment/map format
BLAST Basic local alignment search tool
DEG Database of essential genes
WT Wild-type
Long Jason Lu (ed.), Gene Essentiality: Methods and Protocols, Methods in Molecular Biology, vol. 1279,
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-2398-4_3, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
25
26 Brian A. Klein et al.
1 Introduction
2 Materials
2. Media.
● P. gingivalis solid media:
Blood agar plates (BAPHK).
– Trypticase soy agar.
– Defibrinated sheep’s blood (5.0 % vol/vol).
– Hemin (5.0 μg/ml).
– Vitamin K (0.5 μg/ml).
P. gingivalis liquid culture:
● Brain–Heart Infusion Broth (BHIHKSbcStgC).
– Brain–heart infusion.
– Yeast extract (1.0 mg/ml).
– Hemin (5.0 μg/ml).
– Vitamin K (0.5 μg/ml).
– Sodium bicarbonate (1.0 mg/ml).
– Sodium thioglycolate (0.25 mg/ml).
– Cysteine (0.5 mg/ml).
● P. gingivalis antibiotics gentamicin (25–50 μg/ml) and
erythromycin (2–10 μg/ml).
● E. coli Luria broth base (LB) or Luria agar.
● E. coli antibiotic carbenicillin (50 μg/ml).
3. GasPak™ EZ Anaerobe Pouch System (BD Biosciences)
(http://www.bdbiosciences.com/).
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