Madda Walabu University Department of Mathematics

Applied Mathematics I
Math 1041
Chapter 1 Vectors and Vector Spaces
1.1 Scalar and vectors in 𝑹𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝟑

Physical quantities are classified as scalars and vectors.

✓ Physical quantities that possess only magnitude are called scalars. Example
mass, area, density, volume, etc.
✓ On the other hand, there are physical quantities such as force, displacement,
velocity, acceleration, etc that has both magnitude and direction. Such
quantities are called vectors.
Definition of Points in 𝒏-space

Once a unit length is selected, a number 𝑥 can be used to represent a point on a line. A pair
of numbers (𝑥, 𝑦) can be used to represent a point in the plane. A triple of numbers (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
can be used to represent a point in space.

The following pictures illustrate these representations:

(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is the coordinate of certain point 𝑝 if

𝑖. 𝑥 is the distance from 𝑦𝑧 plane 𝑖𝑖. 𝑦 is the distance from 𝑥𝑧 plane

𝑖𝑖𝑖. 𝑧 is the distance from 𝑥𝑦 plane

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Similarly, the set of all points in n-space (n-dimensional space) is represented by  n . For
the point X in  n , represented by 𝑛-tuple of real numbers (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ), the numbers
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 are called the coordinates of X.
If 𝐴 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) and B = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑛 ) are points in the same space  n , and if 𝑐 is
a real number then
𝑖. A and B are equal (or represent the same point) if 𝑎1 = 𝑏1, 𝑎2 = 𝑏2 … and 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛 .
𝑖𝑖. 𝐴 + 𝐵, 𝐴 – 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝐴 are defined to the points whose coordinates are (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 +
𝑏2 … 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 ), (𝑎1 − 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 … 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑏𝑛 ) and (𝑐𝑎1 , 𝑐𝑎2 , … , 𝑐𝑎𝑛 ), respectively.
Example 1) 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = (1,2), 𝐵 = (−3,4) , then find 𝐴 + 𝐵, 𝐴 − 𝐵 , −3𝐴

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2) Let 𝑋 = (1, 0, 𝜋, 4), 𝑌 = (2, 4, −2𝜋, −6), then find 2𝑋 + 𝑌 , 𝑋 − 2 𝑌

Distance between two points in Space

Let 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) be two points in space. The distance between 𝑃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2
is 𝑃1 𝑃2 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2

Vectors in 𝒏-space, Geometric interpretation in 2 and 3- spaces

Every pair of distinct points A and B in  n determines a directed line segment with initial
point at A and terminal point at B. We call such a directed line segment a vector and
denote it by AB . The length of the line segment is the magnitude of the vector.
Note: 1. AA has zero length without direction. It is called a zero or a null vector. It is

often denoted by O .

2. Two vectors AB and CD will be considered to be equal (or equivalence), AB = CD

, if they have the same magnitude and direction.

Let (a1, a2) be the coordinate representation of A and let (b1,

b2) be that of B. Let P be the point (b1-a1, b2 –a2). If O is the

origin, OP in the direction of AB and length of OP equal

to the length of AB 𝑖 𝑒 OP = AB
.

Thus, that any vector V= AB in the plane is a vector OP with

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initial point at the origin. This is the only vector whose initial point is the origin and P = B
– A, which is equal to AB . Moreover, V = OP is uniquely determined by its terminal point

P. If 𝑷 = (𝑥, 𝑦), then we shall write 𝑽 = (𝑥, 𝑦) and refer to it as the coordinate
representation of V relative to the chosen coordinate system.

The geometric interpretation of vectors operation is that:

1. A + B is a vector obtained by placing the initial point of B on the terminal point of

A.
2. If 𝑡 > 0, then 𝑡𝐴 is a vector in the direction of A. If 𝑡 < 0, A and 𝑡𝐴 are said to
have opposite direction as shown blow.

tA

Generally, if 𝐴 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) and B = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑛 ) are vectors in  n and if 𝑡 is any

real number, then
A + B = (a1 + b1 , a 2 + b2 ,..,a n + bn )

𝑡𝐴 = (𝑡𝑎1 , 𝑡𝑎2 , … , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 )

A and B are said to be parallel vectors 𝑖𝑓𝑓 either 𝐴 = 𝑡𝐵 for some real number
𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = 𝑡𝐴. 𝑖. 𝑒 A and B are parallel iff one is a scalar multiple of the other.

Using the arrow notation PQ and RS are parallel if and only if 𝑄 – 𝑃 =

𝑡(𝑆 – 𝑅) 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 – 𝑅 = 𝑡(𝑄 – 𝑃) for some real number t.

Example 1) Let A = (6, -2, 4). Find two vectors C and D which are parallel to A. Are C and
D also parallel to each other?

2) Let 𝑃 = (3,7), 𝑄 = (−4,2), 𝑅 = (5,1), 𝑆 = (−16, −14). Is PQ parallel to

RS ?

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Different properties of vector addition and scalar multiplication

Let A, B and C be any members of  , and let 𝒎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒏 be any real numbers. Then
n

a) m(nA) = (mn) A Associativity

b) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

c) A + B = B + A Commutativity

d) (m + n) A = mA + nA
Distributive property
e) m( A + B) = mA + mB

f) 0.A = O

g) A + O = A

1.3 Scalar Product

Let 𝐴 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) and B = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑛 ) be two vectors. The scalar product of A

and B is the number 𝐴. 𝐵 defined by

A.B = a1b1 + a 2b 2 + ... + anbn

Note: The scalar product is also called a dot product or inner product.

Example Find the following dot product

1) 𝐴 = (3, −1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = (0, 2) 2) 𝑖 = (1,0,0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗 = (0,1,0).

The scalar product satisfies many of the laws that hold for real numbers. The basic ones are:

a) A.B = B.A

b) t ( A.B) = (tA).B = A.(tB)

c) (A + B).C = A.C + B.C

d) If A = O is the zero vector, then A.A = 0 , and otherwise A.A  0

Remark: 𝐴. 𝐴 can be written as 𝐴2

(𝐴 + 𝐵)2 = (𝐴 + 𝐵). (𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝐴2 + 2𝐴. 𝐵 + 𝑩𝟐
(𝐴 − 𝐵)2 = (𝐴 − 𝐵). (𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝐴2 − 2𝐴. 𝐵 + 𝑩𝟐
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Example

1. Let A = (3, 2, −1) and 𝐵 = (2,0, 3), and 𝐶 = (1, −1,1), then find the
following
b. 𝐼𝑠 𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝐴 ?
c. 2(𝐴. 𝐵)
d. (𝐴 + 𝐵). 𝐶
2. Find 𝐴. 𝐴, 𝐵. 𝐵, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶. 𝐶. Are all positive values?

Exercise: Given the vectors 𝐴 = (1, −1,2), 𝐵 = (−2,0,2), 𝐶 = (3,2,1). Evaluate

a. 𝐴. 𝐶 𝑏. 𝐵. 𝐶 𝑐. (𝐴 + 𝐵). 𝐶 𝑑. 𝐴. (2𝐵 +
3𝐶) 𝑒. (𝐴. 𝐵)𝐶

Definition: If the dot product of two non-zero vectors is zero, then the vectors are
perpendicular to each other.

Example Let 𝐸1 = (1,0,0), 𝐸2 = (0,1,0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸3 = (0,0,1) be unit vectors in 𝑅 3 . Then

𝐸1 . 𝐸2 = 0, 𝐸1 . 𝐸3 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸2 . 𝐸3 = 0. Thus, 𝐸𝑖 ⊥ 𝐸𝑗 , 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
1.3.1 Magnitude of a vector

The length, or norm or magnitude of vector A = (a1, a2, …, an), denoted by ||A||, is defined
as ||A|| = a12 + a 22 + ... + a n2 = √𝐴. 𝐴 = √𝐴2

= a12 + a 22 + ... + a n2 A.A = (a1 , a 2 ,...,an ).(a1 , a 2 ..., an ) = a12 + a 22 + ... + an2
2
A

Thus, the norm of the vector A is the number:

Example: Find norm of A If

 1 1 1 
a) A = (-1, 2, 3) b) A =  , , 
 3 3 3
Note: 1. A unit vector is a vector having norm of length 1.

2. A = 0 A=0

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Any non-zero vector can be fully represented by providing its magnitude and a unit vector
  A
along its direction. Let A be a unit vector in the direction of A. Then A =
A

Example: Given a vector 𝐴 = (1, 2, 2). Find a unit vector in the direction of A.
Exercise:

a) Given three vectors 𝐴 = (1, 1, 1), 𝐵 = (−1, 2, 3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = (0, 3, 4), find the unit
vector in the direction of 𝐴 + 𝐵 – 𝐶.
b) Find a unit vector in the direction of 𝐴 = (−1, 2, 3).

Theorem: 1. Let 𝛼 be a number and A be any vector. Then ||𝛼𝐴|| = |𝛼| ||𝐴||.

Proof ||𝛼𝐴|| = √𝛼𝐴. 𝛼𝐴 = √𝛼 2 (𝐴. 𝐴) = √𝛼 2 √𝐴. 𝐴= |𝛼| ||𝐴||.

𝐴
2. For any vector 𝐴 ≠ 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ||𝐴||
is the unit vector.

𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 1 ||𝐴||
Proof ||||𝐴||||= √||𝐴|| . ||𝐴|| = √𝐴. 𝐴 = = 1.
||𝐴|| ||𝐴||

2 2 2
3. If A and B are perpendicular vectors, the (||𝐴 + 𝐵||) = ||𝐴|| + ||𝐵||
4. (Corollary) 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 orthogonal 𝑖𝑓𝑓 ||𝐴 + 𝐵|| = ||𝐴 − 𝐵||

1.3.2 Angle between two vectors

Let A = (a1 , a 2 , a 3 ) and B = (b1 , b 2 , b 3 ) be non-zero vectors and

let  be the angle between A and B (0    ) .

Then A.B = A B cos 

Example

Let 𝐴 = (2, −1, 2), 𝐵 = (1, −1, 0) and find the angle between them.

Definition: Two non-zero vectors are said to be orthogonal (Perpendicular) if the angle

between them is .
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Note: Two non-zero vectors A and B are said to be orthogonal (Perpendicular) if 𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝟎.

Example: Which of the following pairs of vectors are perpendicular?

a. (1, −1,1), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2,1,5)

b. (−5,2,7), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (3, −1,2)
c. (1, −1,1), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2,3,1)
d. (  , 2,1), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2, −  , 0)

1.3.3 Orthogonal Projection

Let A and B be two non-zero vectors. Let  be the angle

between them. From the terminal point of B drop a

perpendicular to the line containing A.

The vector OD has magnitude OD = B cos  , 0     , and its direction is either

the same as that of A or opposite to it depending on whether  is acute or obtuse.

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Since A is a unit vector in the direction of A and since OD has magnitude B cos 
A

and is in the direction of A or opposite to A, we can write

 A.B 
OD = ( B cos ) 1
A or OD = 
 A2
A
A
 

This vector is called the projection of B along A and is denoted by ProjA B .

 A.B 
That is, Pr oj AB =  2  A
 A 
 

A.B
We call t = 2
the component of B along A.
A

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Note: 1. Pr oj AB is parallel to A. That is Pr oj AB = tA , for some t  

2. B - Pr oj AB is orthogonal (perpendicular) to A.

 1
Example : 1. Let A = (3, -1, -2) and B =  2, − 3,  , then find ProjA B and ProjB A
 2
1.3.5 Direction Cosine

Given a non-zero vector u = (u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) in 3 . The direction cosines of the vector u are:

u1 u u
Cos = , Cos = 2 , Cos = 3
u u u

Where the direction angles,  ,  , and  are the angles that the vector makes with the
positive x, y, and z-axes respectively.

Remark: Cos 2 + Cos 2  + Cos 2 = 1

Example 1.3.7: Let u = (1, -2, 3). Find the direction cosines of u.

Solution: Since u = u.u = (1,−2,3).(1,−2,3) = 1 + 4 + 9 = 14

Thus, the direction cosines are: Cos = u1 = 1 , Cos = u 2 = − 2 , and Cos = u 3 = 3

u 14 u 14 u 14

Activity: Is Cos 2 + Cos 2  + Cos 2 = 1 ?

1.4 Cross Product

Definition: The cross product (or vector product) A x B of two vectors 𝐴 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 )
and B = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑛 ) is defined by

A x B = (a2 b3 – a3 b2, a3 b1 – a1 b3, a1 b2 - a2 b1)

➢ Note that the cross product is defined in 

3

Example Let 𝐴 = (2, −1, 3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = (−1, −2, 4)

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Find A x B and B x A.

The following are some of the basic properties of cross product

Theorem: For vectors A, B and C,

1) A x B = -(B x A)
2) A x A = O
3) tA x B = t(A x B) = A x (tB), t 

= A B − (A.B )
2 2 2 2
4) AxB

5) C. (A x B) = B. (C x A) = A. (B x C)
6) (A + B) x C = (A x C) + (B x C)
7) C x (A + B) = (C x A) + (C x B)
8) A . (A x B) = 0 and B. (A x B) = 0 (that is, AxB is perpendicular to both
A and B.)
9) (AxB) x C = (A. C) B – (B.C)A
Exercise: Let 𝐴 = (2,1,0), 𝐵 = (2, −1,1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = (0,1,1). Find

a. 𝐴𝑥𝐵 𝑏. (𝐴𝑥𝐵)𝑥𝐶 𝑐. (𝐴. 𝐶)𝐵 – (𝐵. 𝐶)𝐴 𝑑. 𝐵𝑥𝐶 𝑒. 𝐴𝑥(𝐵𝑥𝐶)

From 4) of the above theorem, we derive an important formula for the norm of the cross
product.

= A B − (A.B )
2 2 2 2
AxB

2 2 2 2
= A B − A B cos 2  (  is the angle between A and B)

= A
2
(
B 1 − cos2 
2
)
= A B sin 2 
2 2

 AxB = A B sin  (For 0    , sin is non- negative)

Exercise :

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1. For the unit vectors i, j and k , find i  j , j  k and k  i . What is j  i ?

2. If A and B are parallel, what is A B?

3. If A and B are orthogonal, What is A  B ?

4. Find a unit vector perpendicular to both 𝐴 = (2, −3,1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = (1,2, −4).
5. Prove that (𝐴 – 𝐵)𝑥(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 2(𝐴𝑥𝐵).

Application on area and volume

Let u and v be vectors and consider the parallelogram that the two vectors make.
Then

u  v = Area of the Parallelogram

The direction of 𝒖𝒙𝒗 is a right angle to the parallelogram that follows the right hand rule.

To find the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by three vectors 𝒖, 𝒗, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒘, we find the
triple product:

u.(vxw)
= Volume

This can be found by computing the determinant of the three vectors:

u1 v1 w1
u2 v2 w2
u3 v3 w3
= u1 (v2 w3 − v3 w2 ) − v1 (u 2 w3 − u 3 w2 ) + w1 (u 2 v3 − u 3 v 2 )

Example

1. Find the area of the parallelogram which is formed by the two vectors

𝑢 = (1, 3, 2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = (−2, 1, 3).

2. Find the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by the vectors

𝑢 = (3, −2, −1), 𝑣 = (1, 3, 2), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤 = (−2, 1, 3).

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Exercise: Find the area of the triangle having vertices at

𝑢 = (3, −2, −1), 𝑣 = (1, 3, 2), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤 = (−2, 1, 3).

1.5 Lines and planes

Definition: A line  is any set of the form {p : p = A + tB, t } where B is assumed to

be a non-zero vector and A is a fixed point on the line.

Note that if (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is on line  and if 𝐴 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) and 𝐵 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑛 ) then

(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) + t (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑛 ) for some real number 𝑡.

Activity: Is point A on  ? Is B parallel to a vector

formed by any two points of  ?

𝑃 = 𝐴 + 𝑡𝐵 is a vector equation of a line through A

Example Find equation of a line through 𝑃1 = (0, 1, 2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2 = (−1, 1, 1).

Solution: We need a point A on the line and a vector B parallel to the vector

formed by two point of the line.

Take A = P1 and B = P2 – P1. Then

A + t B = (0, 1, 2) + t (-1, 0, -1)

(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (0, 1, 2) + 𝑡 (−1, 0, −1) is equation of the line. By giving distinct values
for 𝑡 we will obtain distinct points on the line. Find some of the points.
Note: The equation of a line passing through points A and B is given by:
𝑃 = 𝐴 + 𝑡(𝐵 – 𝐴) or 𝑃 = (1 – 𝑡)𝐴 + 𝐵, t  
Exercise: Let the line L1 passes through the points (5,1,7) and (6,0,8) and the line L2
passes through the points (3,1,3) and (−1,3,  ) . Find the value of  for
which the two lines intersect.

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Suppose 𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a point on line  through 𝐴 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) in the direction of

𝐵 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑛 ). Then 𝑝 = 𝐴 + 𝑡𝐵  (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) +
t (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑛 ) or equivalently

𝑥 = 𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝑡

𝑦 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 𝑡

𝑧 = 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 𝑡

These equations are parametric equation of a line and t is called a parameter.

Exe. Find the parametric equation of a line that contains (2, -1, 1) and is parallel to the
1
vector (3, , 0).
2

From the parametric equation of a line in 3 , derive the equation

y − a1 y − a2 z − a3
= =
b1 b2 b3

It is called standard form of equation of a line.

If the line is on a plane show that the standard form reduces to an equation of the form

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏.

Two lines  𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 given by A1 + tB1 and A2 + tB2 are said to be parallel if B1 and B2 are
parallel. That is the vectors P1 – Q1 and P2 – Q2 are parallel for any two points P1, Q1 of 
and P2, Q2 of 𝑚.

Exercise : Find the equation of the plane passing through the three points

P1 = (2,1,1), P2 = (3,-1,1), P3 = (4,1,-1).

Let Q be a point outside a plane normal to N. We define the distance from point Q to the
plane as follows. Let Po be the point of intersection of the line through Q, in the direction of
N, and the plane through P. The distance d from Q to the plane is the distance between Q
and Po.

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Now we find a formula for this distance. Clearly d = Pr oj QP QP

= Pr oj QN P

 N.QP 
However, Pr ojN QP =  N
 N2 
 

 N.QP  N.QP N.QP

Hence d =  N = N =
 N2  N
2
N
 

Therefore the distance d of a point Q from a plane through P which is normal to N is given

N.QP
by: d =
N

13
 Madda Walabu University, Department of Mathematics
Applied Mathematics I

1.6 Vector Space; Subspace

Definition 2.1.1: Let K be a set of numbers. We shall say that K is field if it satisfies the
following conditions:
a) If x, y ∈K ⟹x + y and xy ∈K.
b) If x ∈K, then –x ∈K. Furthermore, if x  0, then x-1 ∈ K.
c) 0 and 1 ∈K.
Example 1. , ℂ and ℚ are fields.Type equation here.
Activity 1: Are ℤ (The set of all integers) and Q (the set of all rational numbers fields?
Remark: The essential thing about a field is that its elements can be added and multiplied and
the results are also elements of the field. Moreover, every element can be divided
by a non-zero element.
Definition 2.1.2: A vector space V over a field K is a set of objects which can be added and
can be multiplied by elements of K. It satisfies the following properties.
V1) For any 𝑢, 𝑣  𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎  𝐾, we have

𝑢 + 𝑣𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑢 𝑉

V2) For any 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤  𝑉,

(𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑤 = 𝑢 + (𝑣 + 𝑤)

V3) There is an element of 𝑉, denoted by O (called the zero element), such that

0 + 𝑢 = 𝑢 + 0 = 𝑢 for all elements u of V.

V4) For 𝑢  𝑉, there exists – 𝑢  𝑉 such that

𝑢 + (−𝑢) = 0

V5) For u, v  V, we have

u+v = v+u

V6) For 𝑢, 𝑣  𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎  𝑘,

𝑎(𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝑎𝑢 + 𝑎𝑣

V7) For 𝑢  𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎, 𝑏  𝑘, (𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑢 + 𝑏𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎𝑏) 𝑢 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑢)

V8) For 𝑢  𝑣,

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1𝑢 = 𝑢

Activity 2: What is the name given for each of the above properties?

Other properties of a vector space can be deduced from the above eight properties. For example,
the property 0u = O can be proved as :

0u + u = 0u + 1.u (by V8)

= (0 + 1) u (by V7)

= 1. u

=u

By adding –u to both sides of ou + u = u, we have 0u = O

Show that 𝑛 is a vector space over .

Let = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , . . . , 𝑢𝑛 ) , 𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , . . . , 𝑣𝑛 ) and 𝛼 ∈ . Then

𝑖, 𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , . . . , 𝑢𝑛 ) + (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , . . . , 𝑣𝑛 )

Examples of different models of a vector space

1) Consider sets 2 and 

Clearly, for V = 2 and k = , properties V1 and V2 hold.

The element 0 of 2 that satisfied v3 is 0 = (0, 0).

The other 5 properties can be easily verified. Hence 2 is a vector space over.

2) Let V = 2 and K = ℂ
For any u, v  2, we have u + v  2.

But for a  ℂ, au is not always in 2.

For example for a = 3i and u = (1, -2), au = (3i, -2i)  2 .

Hence 2 is not vector space over ℂ.

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Thus when dealing with vector spaces, we shall always specify the field over which we
take the vector space.

3) Let F be the set of all functions form  to , for any f and g in F, f + g is a function
from  to  defined by (f + g) (x) = f(x) + g(x).
For a  , af = af(x) is in F.

The zero element O of F is the zero function f(x) = 0 for all x  .

By verifying the other properties, we can see that F is a vector space over .

The algebraic properties of elements of an arbitrary vector space are very similar to those of
elements of 2, 3, or n. Consequently, we call elements of a vector space as vectors

Activity 2.2.1: Which of the following are vector spaces?

a) C on 2
b) Cn over ℂ
c) Qn over Q
d) n over ℂ
Subspaces, Linear Combinations and generators

Definition2.3.1: Suppose V is a vector space over K and W is a subset of V. If, under the
addition and scalar multiplication that is defined on V, W is also a vector space then we call W
a subspace of V

Using this definition and the axioms of a vector space, we can easily prove the following:

A subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if:

i) W is closed under addition. That is, if 𝑢, 𝑤  𝑊, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑢 + 𝑤  𝑊

ii) W is closed under scalar multiplication. That is, if 𝑢𝑊 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎  𝑘, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑢𝑊.
iii) W contains the additive identity 0.
Then as W  V, properties V1 – V8 are satisfied for the elements of W.

Hence W itself is a vector space over k. We call W a subspace of V.

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Example 2.3.1: Consider 𝐻 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥, 𝑦   𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 0} .

H is a subset of the vector space 2 over . To show that H is a subspace of V, it is enough to

show the above three properties hold in H.

Let 𝑢 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be in H. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥1 + 4𝑦1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 + 4𝑦2 =

0

𝑢 + 𝑤 = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ) and (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) + 4(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ) = 𝑥1 + 4 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 +

4 𝑦2 = 0 + 0 = 0

Which shows u + w  H
.
For a  , au = (ax , ax ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ( ax ) + 4( ax ) = a( x + 4 x ) = 0a = 0.
1 2 1 2 1 2

Hence au  H.

Now, the element O of 2 is (0, 0). 0 + 4(0) = 0. Hence O = (0, 0) is in H.

 H is a subspace of 2

Activity 2.3.1: Take any vector A in 3. Let W be the set of all vectors B in 3 where B.A = 0.
Discuss whether W is a subspace of 3 or not.

Definition 2.3.2: Let 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 be elements of a vector space V over K. Let 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛

be elements of K. Then an expression of the form 𝑊 = 𝑥1 𝑣1 + 𝑥2 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 𝑣𝑛 is called
a linear combination of v1, v2, …, vn..

Example 1: The sum 2(3, 1) + 4(-1, 2) +(1, 0) is a linear combination of (3, 1), (-1, 2) and (1,
0). As this sum is equal to (3, 10), we say that (3, 10) is a linear combination of the three ordered
pairs.

Example 2:Let 𝑊 = (−7 , 7 , 11). Express 𝑊 as a linear combination of 𝑣1 = (1,2,1), 𝑣2 =

(−4, −1,2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣3 = (−3,1,3)

Solution:

Let 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼3 be numbers such that 𝛼1 𝑣1 + 𝛼2 𝑣2 + 𝛼3 𝑣3 = 𝑊

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Thus 𝛼1 = 4, 𝛼2 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼3 = 1

Generally, 𝛼1 = 𝑡, 𝛼2 = 5 − 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼3 = 3 − 𝑡, 𝑡 ∈ 𝑅

Activity 2.3.2:
i) Take two elements v1 and v2 of 3. Let W be the set of all linear combinations

of v1 & v2. Show that W is a subspace of  3 . W is called the subspace

generated by v1 and v2
ii) Generalize i) by showing that a set w generated by elements v1, v2,
…, vn of a vector space V is a subspace.

1.7 Linear dependence and independence; Bases of a vector space

Definition 2.4.1: Let V be a vector space over k. Elements 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑽 are said to be

linearly independent if and only if the following condition is satisfied:

whenever 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … , 𝛼𝑛 are in 𝐾 such that 𝛼1 𝑣1 + 𝛼2 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑛 𝑣𝑛 = 0, then 𝑎𝑖 = 0

for 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛.

If the above condition does not hold, the vectors are called linearly dependent. In other words
𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 are linearly dependent if and only if there are numbers 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … , 𝛼𝑛 where 𝛼1 𝑣1 +
𝛼2 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑛 𝑣𝑛 = 0 for at least one non-zero 𝑎𝑖.

Example 2.4.1: Consider 𝑣1 = (1, −1,1), 𝑣2 = (2, 0, −1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣3 = (2, −2, 2)

i) 𝛼1 𝑣1 + 𝛼2 𝑣2 = 𝛼1 (1, −1, 1) + 𝛼2 (2, 0, −1) = (𝛼1 + 2𝛼2 , −𝛼1 , 𝛼1 − 𝛼2 )

a1v1 + a2v2 = 0  a1 + 2a2 = 0, -a1 = 0 and a1 – a2 = 0

 a1 = 0 and a2 = 0

Hence v1 & v2 are linearly independent.

ii) a1v1 + a2v3 = a1 (1, -1, 1) + a2 (2, -2, 2)

= (a1 + 2a2, -a1 – 2a2 , a1 +2 a2)

a1v1 + a2v3 = 0  a1 + 2a2 = 0, -a1 – 2a2 = 0 and a1 +2 a2 = 0

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 a1 = -2a2

Take a1 = 2 and a2 = -1, we get 2(1, -1, 1) + (-1) (2, -2, 2) = 0.

As the constants are not all equal to zero, v1 and v3 are linearly dependent.

Activity 2.4.1: Show that v1, v2 and v3 are also linearly dependent.

Remark: If vectors are linearly dependent, at least one of them can be written as a linear

combination of the others.

Activity 2.4.2: Show that (1, 0, 0, …,0), (0, 1,0,…)…, (0,0,0, …, 1) are linearly independent
vectors in n.

Definition 2.5.1: If elements e1, e2, …, en of a vector space V are linearly independent and
generate V, then the set B = {e1, e2, …, en} is called a basis of V. we shall
also say that the elements e1, e2,…, en constitute or form a basis of V.

Example 2.5.1:

1) Show that e1 = (0, -1) and e2 = (2, 1) form a basis of 2.

Solution: we have to show that

i) e1 and e2 are linearly independent

ii) They generate 2 i.e every element (x,y) of 2 can be written as a linear
combination of e1and e2.
i) a1 e1 + a2 e2 = O  a1(0, -1) + a2(2,1) = (0, 0)

 2a2 = 0 and –a1 + a2 = 0

 a2 = 0 and a1 = 0

 e1 and e2 are linearly independent

ii) (x, y) = a1e2 + a2 e2  (x, y) = (0, -a1) + (2a2, a2)

 x = 2a2 and y = -a1 + a2

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x
 a2 = and a1 = a2 – y … (*)
2

x − 2y
=
2

Therefore, given any (x, y), we can find a1 and a2 given by (*) and (x, y) can be written
as a linear combination of e1 and e2 as

(x, y) =  x − 2 y  (0, − 1) +  x  (2, 1)

 2  2

4 − 6
For example, (4, 3) =  4
 (0,−1) +   (2,1)
 2  2

Or (4, 3) = -(0, -1) + 2(2, 1)

Note that {(1, 0), (0, 1)} is also a basis of 2. Hence a vector space can have two or more
basis. Find other bases of 2.

2) Show that e1 = (2, 1, 0) and e2 = (1, 1, 0) form a basis of 3.

Solution: e1 = (2, 1, 0) and e2 = (1, 1, 0) are linearly independent but they do not generate
3. There are no numbers a1 and a2 for which

(3, 4, 2) = a1 (2, 1, 0) + a2 (1, 1, 0).

Hence {(2, 1, 0), (1,1,0)} is not a basis of 3.

The vectors E1 = (1, 0, 0) , E2 = (0, 1, 0), E3 = (0, 0, 1) are linearly independent and every
element (x, y, z) of 3 can be written as

(x, y, z) = x(1, 0, 0) + y(0, 1, 0) + z (0, 0, 1)

= xE1 + yE2 + zE3

Hence {E1, E2, E3} is a basis of 3.

Note that the set of elements E1 = (1, 0, 0,…,0), E2 = (0, 1, 0, … 0),…,En = (0, 0, 0, …,1) is a
basis of n. It is called a standard basis.

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Let B = {e1 , e2, …, en} be a basis of V. since B generates V, any u in V can be represented
as u = a1e1 + a2 e2 + … + an en. Since the ei are linearly independent, such a representation is
unique. We call (a1, a2, …, an) the coordinate vector of u with respect to the basis B, and we
call ai the i – th coordinate.

Example 2.5.2

1) In 1) of example 3.3.1 The coordinate vector of (4,3) with respect to the basis
{(0, -1), (2,1)} is (-1, 2). But with respect to the standard basis it is (4, 3).

Find coordinates of (4,3) in some other basis of 2.

2) Consider the set V of all polynomial functions f:  →  which are of degree less than
or equal to 2.
Every element of V has the form f(x) = bx2 + cx + d, where b, c, d  

V is a vector space over  (show).

Clearly, e1 = x2, e2 = x and e3 = 1 are in V and a1e1 + a2 e2 + a3e3 = O

(0 is the zero function)

 a1x2 + a2e2 + a3 e3 = 0 for all x

 a1 = a2 = a3 = 0.

Which shows e1, e2 and e3 are linearly independent

bx2 + cx + d = a1e1 + a2e2 + a3e3 for all x

 bx2 + cx + d = a1x2 + a2x + a3

 b = a1, c = a2 and d = a3

Thus e1, e2 and e3 generate V.

 {x2, x1 1} is a basis of V and the coordinate vector of an element

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f(x) = bx2 + cx + d is (b, c, d)

The coordinate vector of x2 – 3x + 5 is (1, -3, 5)

Activity 2.5.1: Show that the polynomials

E1 = (x – 1)2 = x2 – 2x + 1

E2 = x – 1

and E3 = 1

form a basis of a vector space V defined in 2) of example 2.5.2. What is the coordinate
of f(x) = 2x2 – 5x + 6 with respect to the basis {E1, E2, E3}?

E = {(1, 0, 0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)} and B = {(-1,1,0), (-2, 0, 2), (1, 1, 1)} are bases of  3 and each

has three elements. Can you find a basis of  3 having two elements? four elements?

The main result of this section is that any two bases of a vector space have the same number of
elements. To prove this, we use the following theorem.

Theorem 2.5.1: Let V be a vector space over the field K. Let {v1, v2,…,vn} be a basis of V. If
w1, w2,…,wm are elements of V, where m > n, then w1, w2, …, wm are linearly
dependent.

Proof (reading assignment)

Theorem 2.5.2: Let V be a vector space and suppose that one basis B has n elements, and
another basis W has m elements. Them m = n.

Proof: As B is a basis, m > n is impossible. Otherwise by theorem 3.4.1, W will be a linearly

dependent set. Which contradicts the fact that W is a basis. Similarly, as W is a basis, n
> m is also impossible. Hence n = m.

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