Topic 1_Ch.

1-2_Fundamentals of chemistry

Chemistry

Topic 1 Planet Earth

Chapter 1-2
Fundamentals of chemistry
A. You should remember:

 Some important lab safety rules

 All hazard warning labels with respective examples and safety precautions

 Storage of some special chemicals

 How to dilute concentrated acids and alkalis

 Definition of physical and chemical changes

B. You should be able to

 Distinguish and correct unsafe laboratory practices

 Recognize the hazard warning labels of chemicals

 State the precaution when handling chemicals with different hazard warning labels

 State and explain the storage of special chemicals

 State and explain how to dilute concentrated acids and alkalis

 Distinguish physical properties and chemical properties

 Distinguish and explain physical and chemical changes

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Topic 1_Ch. 1-2_Fundamentals of chemistry

1.1A Chemistry laboratory－laboratory safety rules

DON’Ts DOs

1. Do not enter the laboratory unless a teacher is 1. Always follow strictly the instructions given by

present. your teacher.

2. Do not run or play in the laboratory. 2. Always read the label on a reagent bottle carefully

3. Do not remove anything from the laboratory to make sure it contains the chemical you need. Put

without your teacher’s permission. the bottle back to its original position immediately

4. Do not touch chemicals and hot objects with bare after use, with their labels facing out.

hands. Use a spatula to transfer solid chemicals. 3. Wear safety glasses and protective gloves whenever

5. Do not leave experiments unattended. necessary.

6. Do not smell gases directly. You should wave the 4. Always handle flammable chemicals with great

gas towards your nose. care. Keep them away from naked flames.

5. Always handle concentrated acids and alkalis with

great care.

7. When you put a chemical into a test tube for 6. Report all accidents and breakages to your teacher.

heating, fill not more than one third of the test If a chemical gets onto your skin or clothing,

tube with the chemical. Do not look down at the wash the affected area with plenty of water.

test tube directly or point its mouth towards 7. Turn off the Bunsen burner when it is not in use.

anyone when holding it for heating. 8. Always wash your hands thoroughly after

8. Do not taste anything in the laboratory. experiments.

9. Do not eat or drink in the laboratory. 9. Dispose of solid waste in the waste bin, never in the

10. Do not put chemicals into the sink. Put them into sink.

appropriate waste bottles. 10. Clean up all the spillage at once. Clean up the bench

11. Do not wear loose clothing. and wash hands after experiment.

12. Do not allow your hair or tie to dangle when

conducting experiments.

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Topic 1_Ch. 1-2_Fundamentals of chemistry

Classwork 1.1A
1. Study the following diagrams.

Write down all aspects you consider UNSAFE in the laboratory.

(1) He does not wear safety glasses when using a Bunsen burner.

(2) He does not stopper the reagent bottles immediately after use.

(a) (3) He does not clean up any chemical spillage immediately.

(4) He leave an experiment unattended.

(5) He eats in the laboratory.

(1) They do not wear safety glasses when using a Bunsen burner.

(2) She points the mouth of the test tube towards the boy when heating.

(b) (3) They do not stopper the reagent bottle immediately after use.

(4) Alcohol is flammable.

But, they put it near to a naked flame.

(1) He should not smell gases directly.

(2) He leaves the reagent bottle open.

(c)

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Topic 1_Ch. 1-2_Fundamentals of chemistry

(1) They are not wearing safety glasses.

(2) Point the mouth of the test tube towards classmate when holding the test tube for heating.

(d)

(1) She leaves experiments unattended.

(2) Leave the bottle of alcohol near the naked flame.

(e) (3) Put too much water in the beaker for heating.

(1) She does not place a fireproof mat under the Bunsen burner.

(2) She tries to pick up the beaker of hot water using bare hands.

(f) (3) The hair dangles / She did not tie up her hair.

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Topic 1_Ch. 1-2_Fundamentals of chemistry

1.1B Hazard warning labels

1. Hazard warning labels are needed to warn the users with hazardous chemicals.

2. There are 8 hazard warning labels commonly used to warn the users.

Hazardous nature Hazard warning label Examples Safety precautions

Explosive: • potassium and sodium which • keep away from heat and naked flames

It is a substance which have turned yellow (due to • handle with extreme care — avoid shock or friction

may explode if ignited in formation of superoxides), • make sure the container is properly stoppered

air or exposed to heat. A ammonium dichromate

shock or friction may also • 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine

start an explosion.

Oxidizing: • concentrated sulphuric acid, • make sure the container is properly stoppered

It is a substance which concentrated nitric acid (do not • keep away from heat and naked flames

may start a highly include hydrochloric acid) • keep away from metals, combustible materials and

exothermic reaction when • nitrates, potassium flammable chemicals

in contact with easily permanganate, potassium • avoid contact with the eyes and skin; if any concentrated acid

oxidizable materials. It can dichromate, potassium is accidentally spilt into the eyes or onto the skin, wash the

create a fire risk. chlorate, potassium iodate, affected area with running water for at least 3 minutes and

potassium nitrite go for medical check-up

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Topic 1_Ch. 1-2_Fundamentals of chemistry

Flammable: • hydrogen, carbon monoxide, • in case of solids or liquids, make sure the container is

It is a gas, liquid or solid methane, LPG, town gas properly stoppered

that may easily catch fire • methanol, ethanol, ether, ethyl • in case of gases, make sure there is no leakage into the

under ordinary conditions. ethanoate, carbon disulphide, laboratory

propanone, benzene • keep away from heat and naked flames

• yellow phosphorus, sulphur,

potassium, sodium, fine

powders of aluminium,

magnesium and zinc

Carcinogenic: • known carcinogens: asbestos, • must wear a laboratory coat, safety spectacles and gloves

It is a substance which benzene • avoid breathing in their vapours/particles. Therefore,

would cause cancer or be • suspected carcinogens: perform the experiment in fume cupboard (for gases)
or
suspected to cause cancer nitrobenzene, • make sure the container is properly stoppered

on prolonged contact. tetrachloromethane, • should avoid using carcinogens at schools

trichloromethane

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Topic 1_Ch. 1-2_Fundamentals of chemistry

Toxic: • chlorine, hydrogen sulphide, • avoid breathing in their vapours/particles. Therefore,

It is a substance, which if carbon monoxide, nitrogen perform the experiment in fume cupboard (for gases)

breathed in, or swallowed, dioxide, sulphur dioxide • in case of solids or liquids, make sure the container is

or absorbed through the • bromine, carbon disulphide, properly stoppered

skin, may involve serious methanol, tetrachloromethane, • wear gloves (if gloves are not used, wash hands thoroughly

health risk or even death. methanal solution (37%) after handling chemicals)

• cyanides, lead compounds,

mercury and most of its

compounds, potassium

chromate

• yellow phosphorus

• 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine

Harmful: • trichloromethane, • avoid breathing in their vapours/particles

It is a substance, which if 1,1,1-trichloroethane • the laboratory should be well ventilated

breathed in, or swallowed, • iodine, barium compounds • avoid contact with the eyes and skin; if accidentally spilt into

or absorbed through the (except barium sulphate), the eyes or onto the skin, wash the affected area with a lot of

skin, may involve limited oxalic acid, oxalates, iron(II) water

health risk. sulphate

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Topic 1_Ch. 1-2_Fundamentals of chemistry

Corrosive: • hydrogen chloride (gas) • wear a laboratory coat, safety spectacles and gloves

It is a substance which • bromine, concentrated mineral • perform the experiment in fume cupboard

would destroy living acids, concentrated ethanoic • handle them with care, especially when they are hot or being

tissues upon contact. acid, concentrated aqueous heated

ammonia, concentrated • avoid contact with the eyes and skin; when accidentally spilt
sulphuric acid/
hydrogen peroxide solution, into the eyes or onto the skin, wash the affected area with
nitric acid/
hydrochloric acid sodium hypochlorite solution running water for at least 3 minutes and go for medical

• potassium, sodium, sodium check-up

hydroxide, potassium

hydroxide, silver nitrate,

anhydrous aluminium chloride

Irritant: • bench dilute mineral acids, • avoid contact with the eyes and skin; when accidentally spilt

It is a noncorrosive aqueous ammonia into the eyes or onto the skin, wash the affected area with

substance but can cause • anhydrous iron(III) chloride, a lot of water

reddening or inflammation ammonium dichromate,

of the skin. potassium dichromate

3. When more than one hazard warning labels can be used, only the most important ones are required.

E.g. Corrosive > Irritant Toxic > Harmful Explosive > Oxidizing > Flammable

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Topic 1_Ch. 1-2_Fundamentals of chemistry
Classwork 1.1B
1. Draw a hazard warning label for each of the following substances.

Hydrogen Chlorine Concentrated sodium hydroxide solution

2. Write down hazard warning labels that should be labelled on

(a) sodium flammable and corrosive

(b) bromine toxic and corrosive

(c) concentrated sulphuric acid oxidizing and corrosive

(d) potassium cyanide toxic

(e) carbon disulphide flammable and toxic

(f) ammonium dichromate explosive and irritant

(g) mercury toxic

(h) benzene flammable and carcinogenic

(i) tetrachloromethane carcinogenic

3. If some dilute hydrochloric acid gets into your eye while doing an experiment. What should you do at

once?

Wash the eyes with running cold water for at least 3 minutes.

4. Give ONE safety precaution we should take when the experiment involves toxic gases or vapours.

Perform the experiment in fume cupboard.

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Topic 1_Ch. 1-2_Fundamentals of chemistry

1.1C Storage of chemicals

Some chemicals require special storage methods. A few examples are:

1. To prevent contact and reaction with air, potassium or sodium is kept under paraffin oil. (Potassium

and sodium are reactive and are oxidized rapidly in air.) Yellow phosphorus is kept under water.

2. Flammable or volatile liquids have to be stored in a cool place, away from direct sunlight and heat

sources. Their containers should never be completely filled.

3. Chemicals which readily absorb moisture are kept in well-sealed containers, e.g. anhydrous

aluminium chloride, dry cobalt(II) chloride paper.

4. Some chemicals will decompose much more quickly in the presence of light.

Examples are concentrated nitric acid, silver nitrate solution, hydrogen peroxide

solution, chlorine water and bromine water. They are kept in brown bottles.

1.1D Dilution of concentrated acids and alkalis

1. When diluting a concentrated acid or alkali, we should add concentrated acids or alkalis slowly to a large

amount of water with stirring.

2. If water is added to the concentrated acid or alkali, a lot of heat is released. As acids and alkalis have

a higher density than water, the heat evolved is large enough to boil the water on above. The corrosive

solution may splash out of the container.

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Topic 1_Ch. 1-2_Fundamentals of chemistry
Classwork 1.1C-D
1. Write brief explanations for the following:

(a) In diluting concentrated sulphuric acid, the acid should be slowly added to the water while stirring

it, and not the other way round.

On diluting sulphuric acid, a large amount of heat is evolved. As sulphuric acid has a higher density

than water, the heat evolved is large enough to boil the water on above. As a result, the concentrated

sulphuric acid may splash out.

(b) Sodium should be stored in paraffin oil.

Sodium metal is a very reactive metal and it can react with oxygen and water in the air. It is immersed

in paraffin oil so as to prevent it from contacting with air.

2. Give ONE safety precaution we should take when potassium reacts with water.

Use a small piece of potassium with a large amount of water/ use plastic screen.

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Topic 1_Ch. 1-2_Fundamentals of chemistry

2.1 Physical properties and chemical properties of substances

1. Definition of physical and chemical properties:

Physical properties are properties that can be determined without changing the substance into new

one(s).

Chemical properties are related to chemical reactions the substance can undergo.

The substance is changed into new one(s).

2. The following are some physical properties of substances.

Appearance It means what a substance looks, such as its physical state (solid, liquidor gas) under some

particular conditions, its colour, whether it is shiny or dull.

➔ Chlorine is a yellowish green gas with a pungent smell.

Odour It refers to the smell of a substance.

Taste It refers to the flavour of a substance.

Hardness It refers to the ability of a substance to resist scratching. A substance will scratch any other

substance which is softer than itself.

Density It refers to how much substance can take up a specific volume of space. The density of a

substance is defined as the mass (in gram) of the substance per unit volume (in cm3).

Solubility It refers to how well a substance (the solute) dissolves in another substance (the solvent).

The solubility of a substance in water at a particular temperature is defined as the mass (in

gram) of the substance that dissolves in 100 cm3 of water at that particular temperature.

E.g.: Solubility of common salt in water at 25oC = 36.0 g per 100 cm3 water

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Melting It refers to the temperature at which a substance melts (i.e. changes from the solid state to

point the liquid state).

Boiling It refers to the temperature at which a substance boils (i.e. changes from the liquid state to

point the gas state)

Malleability It refers to how easily a solid can be rolled into sheets.

➔ Aluminium is malleable. It can be rolled into sheets.

Ductility It refers to how easily a solid can be pulled into wires.

➔ Iron is ductile. It can be drawn into wires.

Electrical It refers to the ability of a substance to transfer an electric current
conductivity
Thermal It refers to the ability of a substance to transfer heat
conductivity
3. Here are the examples of physical and chemical properties.

(1) Color of water: colourless

(2) Physical state of water at 25oC: liquid

(3) Boiling point of water: 100oC

Physical properties (4) Density of water: 1 g/ cm3

(5) Electrical conductivity

(6) Viscosity

(7) Odorless

(1) Water causes rusting of iron.

Chemical properties
(2) Water can be electrolysed into hydrogen and oxygen.

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Classwork 2.1
1. Which of the following is a physical property of water?

A. It has a density of 1 g dm–3 at room conditions.

B. Ice melts at 0oC under 1 atmospheric pressure.

C. Ice sublimes at room conditions.

D. It is a good conductor of electricity.

2. Which of the following is a chemical property of carbon dioxide?

A. It is a colourless gas.

B. It is denser than air.

C. It can be cooled to make dry ice.

D. It turns limewater milky.

2.2 Physical and chemical changes

1. Physical change

During a physical change, no new substance is formed.

Example:

(a) The change of physical state of a substance invovles only a physical change.

This is because no new substances are formed during the process.

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(b) A solid can change directly into a gas without becoming a liquid first.

The process is called sublimation (昇華).

Examples:

(1) At above –78 °C, dry ice changes (sublimes) into carbon

dioxide gas directly.

At below –78 °C, carbon dioxide gas freezes and becomes dry

ice directly.

(2) Iodine solid sublimes to form vapour on heating. When in

contact with a cool surface, the iodine vapour changes

to iodine solid. Note that iodine solid and iodine vapour are

made up of iodine particles.

2. Chemical change

During a chemical change, one or more new substance(s) is formed.

Example of chemical change:

(a) Rusting of iron invovles a chemical change.

This is because when iron rusts, new substance is formed, e.g. rust.

(b) Burning of a piece of paper involves a chemical change.

This is because when a piece of paper burns, new substances are formed, e.g. water vapor and

carbon dioxide.

3. More example of physical change and chemical change

Physical change Chemical change

sublimation of dry ice neutralization (acid + alkali)

cutting a piece of paper sodium is oxidized

hammering an iron block limewater becomes milky

evaporating sea water photosynthesis

dissolving salt into water respiration

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Classwork 2.2
1. Which of the following is NOT a physical change?

A. Passing electricity through a copper wire

B. Sublimation of iodine

C. Boiling of water

D. Burning of paper

2. Which one of the following is part of EVERY chemical change?

A. Heat is produced.

B. One or more new substances are formed.

C. A colour change takes place.

D. There is a change of state.

3. State whether each of the following is a physical change or a chemical change.

(a) Breaking a glass cup physical change

(b) Grinding a sugar cube into a fine powder physical change

(c) Coal burning in air chemical change

(d) Frying an egg chemical change

(e) Wine turning sour chemical change

(f) Wine being distilled physical change

(g) Passing electricity through a copper wire physical change

(h) Diffusion of tea bag physical change

(i) Melting of wax physical change

(j) Burning of wax chemical change

(k) Evaporating a salt solution to dryness physical change

(l) Magnet attracting iron nails physical change

(m) 'Dry ice' (solid carbon dioxide) subliming physical change

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More practices
1. Cathy heated a test tube containing some ethanol (commonly called alcohol) in the laboratory as shown

on the right. Cathy made FIVE mistakes when conducting the experiment. List them out.

Any FIVE of the following:

• She did not wear safety spectacles.

• She did not tie up her long hair.

• She did not stopper the reagent bottles after taking the chemicals out

from them.

• She should not have heated the ethanol directly as ethanol is

flammable.

• She should not have pointed the test tube to herself.

• She should not have placed the bottle of ethanol near the Bunsen

flame as ethanol is flammable.

2. A bottle of methanol is shown below.

(a) What chemical hazards are associated with methanol?

Toxic and flammable.

(b) Suggest TWO safety measures in handling methanol in the laboratory.

Wear safety spectacles and/or protective gloves / Handle methanol in the fume cupboard. / Keep

bottles containing methanol away from heat source and flames.

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3. The following paragraph describes some properties of water.

Water plays a very important role in our lives. It has its own unique properties. Water is tasteless
and has no smell. It is a colourless liquid at room conditions. If we heat up water to 100oC, it will
change into steam. On the other hand, if water is cooled down to 0oC, it will change into ice.
Besides, if we put an iron nail into water, the iron will rust. If we add a piece of sodium to water,
sodium will react with water vigorously, and hydrogen gas is produced together with the formation
of an alkaline solution.

(a) What physical properties of water can you find from the above description?

Water is tasteless/ odourless / colourless liquid at room conditions.

(b) What chemical properties of water can you find from the above description?

It reacts with iron and oxygen to form rust. / It reacts with sodium to form sodium hydroxide and

hydrogen gas.

(c) State ONE physical change that can be found from the above description.

Water changes into steam at 100oC. / Water changes into ice at 0oC.

(d) Explain why you consider this a physical change.

It is because no new substance is formed.

(e) State ONE chemical change that can be found from the above description.

Iron reacts with water and air to form iron rust. / Sodium reacts with water to form hydrogen gas.

(f) Explain why you consider this a chemical change.

New substance which is rust / hydrogen gas (depends on your answer in (e)) is formed.

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MC Questions
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

A A B A D B C

1. Which of the following is/are the proper action(s) in the school laboratory?

(1) Reporting all accidents and breakages to your teacher at once

(2) Touching chemicals with bare hands

(3) Smelling directly to identify a gas produced in a chemical reaction

A. (1) only

B. (2) only

C. (1) and (3) only

D. (2) and (3) only

2. If you accidentally break a test tube while washing it in the sink, you should

(1) report to your teacher at once.

(2) pick up the broken glass pieces using bare hands.

(3) throw the broken glass pieces into the general rubbish bin.

A. (1) only

B. (2) only

C. (1) and (3) only

D. (2) and (3) only

3. Which of the following actions is INCORRECT when working in the laboratory?

A Wear safety glasses when using a Bunsen burner.

B Return excess materials to the reagent bottle containing it.

C Report all accidents to the teacher.

D Turn off the Bunsen burner when not using it.

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4. Which of the following hazard warning labels should be displayed on a bottle of alcohol?

A B C D

5. The diagram below shows a bottle of toilet bowl cleaner.

Which of the following hazard warning labels should be displayed on the bottle of cleanser?

A B C D

6. Which of the following is NOT a physical property of wood?

A. It floats on water

B. It can burn in air.

C. It is an insulator of heat.

D. It is softer than iron.

7. Glass cleaners are used for cleaning windows. They contain mainly aqueous ammonia, which gives an

irritating smell and can cause inflammation to our skin. Which of the following hazard warning labels

should be shown on a bottle of glass cleaner?

A B C D

END
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