CHAPTER 3

ANGLE MODULATION

3.0 PREREQUISTING ABOUT ANGLE MODULATION:

Angle modulation is a class of analog modulation. These techniques are based on altering the
angle (or phase) of a sinusoidal carrier wave to transmit data, as opposed to varying the amplitude,
such as in AM transmission.
Angle Modulation is modulation in which the angle of a sine-wave carrier is varied by a
modulating wave. Frequency Modulation (FM) and Phase Modulation (PM) are two types of
angle modulation. In frequency modulation the modulating signal causes the carrier frequency to
vary. These variations are controlled by both the frequency and the amplitude of the modulating
wave. In phase modulation the phase of the carrier is controlled by the modulating waveform. The
two main types of angle modulation are:
 Frequency modulation (FM), with its digital correspondence frequency-shift keying (FSK).
 Phase modulation (PM), with its digital correspondence phase-shift keying (PSK).
Contents:
 Frequency & Phase  Generation Of Wide
Modulation Band FM
 Narrow Band FM  Transmission
Bandwidth
 Wide Band FM
 FM Transmitter
2.1 FREQUENCY & PHASE MODULATION:
Besides using the amplitude of carrier to carrier information, one can also use the angle of a
carrier to carrier information. This approach is called angle modulation, and includes frequency
modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM). The amplitude of the carrier is maintained
constant. The major advantage of this approach is that it allows the trade-off between bandwidth
and noise performance.
An angle modulated signal can be written as

Where θ(t) is usually of the form θ( t) = 2πfct + ∅(t) and fc is the carrier frequency. The signal
s (t) = Acosθ(t)
Փ(t) is derived from the message signal m(t) . If Փ(t) = kpm(t) for some constant kp ,the resulting
modulation is called phase modulation. The parameter kp is called the phase
Sensitivity. In telecommunications and signal processing, frequency modulation (FM) is the
encoding of information in a carrier wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave.
(Compare with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier wave varies, while the
frequency remains constant.) Frequency modulation is known as phase modulation when the
carrier phase modulation is the time integral of the FM signal.

If the information to be transmitted (i.e., the baseband signal) is and the sinusoidal carrier

Is , where fc is the carrier's base frequency, and Ac is the carrier's

amplitude, the modulator combines the carrier with the baseband data signal to get the transmitted
signal:

In this equation, is the instantaneous frequency of the oscillator and is the frequency
deviation, which represents the maximum shift away from f c in one direction, assuming xm(t) is
limited to the range ±1.While most of the energy of the signal is contained within f c ± fΔ, it can be
shown by Fourier analysis that a wider range of frequencies is required to precisely represent an
FM signal. The frequency spectrum of an actual FM signal has components extending infinitely,
although their amplitude decreases and higher-order components are often neglected in practical
design problems.
Sinusoidal baseband signal:
Mathematically, a baseband modulated signal may be approximated by a sinusoidal continuous
wave signal with a frequency fm.
The integral of such a signal is:

In this case, the expression for y(t) above simplifies to:

37
Where, the amplitude of the modulating sinusoid is represented by the peak deviation
The harmonic distribution of a sine wave carrier modulated by such a sinusoidal signal can be
represented with Bessel functions; this provides the basis for a mathematical understanding of
frequency modulation in the frequency domain.
Modulation index:
As in other modulation systems, the value of the modulation index indicates by how much the
modulated variable varies around its unmodulated level. It relates to variations in the carrier
frequency:

Where, is the highest frequency component present in the modulating signal x m(t), and is
the peak frequency-deviation—i.e. the maximum deviation of the instantaneous frequency from
the carrier frequency. For a sine wave modulation, the modulation index is seen to be the ratio of
the amplitude of the modulating sine wave to the amplitude of the carrier wave (here unity).

If , the modulation is called narrowband FM, and its bandwidth is approximately .

For digital modulation systems, for example Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK), where a
binary signal modulates the carrier, the modulation index is given by:

Where, is the symbol period, and is used as the highest frequency of the modulating
binary waveform by convention, even though it would be more accurate to say it is the
Highest fundamental of the modulating binary waveform. In the case of digital modulation, the
Carrier is never transmitted. Rather, one of two frequencies is transmitted, either
or , depending on the binary state 0 or 1 of the modulation signal.

If , the modulation is called wideband FM and its bandwidth is approximately .

While wideband FM uses more bandwidth, it can improve the signal-to-noise ratio significantly;
for example, doubling the value of , while keeping constant, results in an eight-fold
improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio. (Compare this with Chirp spread spectrum, which uses
extremely wide frequency deviations to achieve processing gains comparable to traditional, better-
known spread-spectrum modes).
With a tone-modulated FM wave, if the modulation frequency is held constant and the modulation
index is increased, the (non-negligible) bandwidth of the FM signal increases but the spacing
between spectra remains the same; some spectral components decrease in strength as others
increase. If the frequency deviation is held constant and the modulation frequency increased, the
spacing between spectra increases. Frequency modulation can be classified as narrowband if the
change in the carrier frequency is about the same as the signal frequency, or as wideband if the

change in the carrier frequency is much higher (modulation index >1) than the signal frequency.
For example, narrowband FM is used for two way radio systems such as Family Radio Service, in
which the carrier is allowed to deviate only 2.5 kHz above and below the center frequency with
speech signals of no more than 3.5 kHz bandwidth. Wideband FM is used for FM broadcasting, in
which music and speech are transmitted with up to 75 kHz deviation from the center frequency
and carry audio with up to a 20-kHz bandwidth.

Carson's rule:
BT = 2 ∆f + fm .
3.2 PHASE MODULATION:
Phase Modulation (PM) is another form of angle modulation. PM and FM are closely related to
each other. In both the cases, the total phase angle θ of the modulated signal varies. In an FM
wave, the total phase changes due to the change in the frequency of the carrier corresponding to
the changes in the modulating amplitude.
In PM, the total phase of the modulated carrier changes due to the changes in the instantaneous
phase of the carrier keeping the frequency of the carrier signal constant. These two types of
modulation schemes come under the category of angle modulation. However, PM is not as
extensively used as FM.
At time t1, the amplitude of m(t) increases from zero to E1. Therefore, at t1, the phase modulated
carrier also changes corresponding to E1, as shown in Figure (a). This phase remains to this
attained value until time t2, as between t1 and t2, the amplitude of m(t) remains constant at El. At
t2, the amplitude of m(t) shoots up to E2, and therefore the phase of the carrier again increases
corresponding to the increase in m(t). This new value of the phase attained at time t2remains
constant up to time t3. At time t3, m(t) goes negative and its amplitude becomes E3.
Consequently, the phase of the carrier also changes and it decreases from the previous value
attained at t2. The decrease in phase corresponds to the decrease in amplitude of m(t). The phase
of the carrier remains constant during the time interval between t3 and t4. At t4, m(t) goes positive
to reach the amplitude El resulting in a corresponding increase in the phase of modulated carrier at
time t4. Between t4 and t5, the phase remains constant. At t5 it decreases to the phase of the
unmodulated carrier, as the amplitude of m(t) is zero beyond t5.
 Equation of a PM Wave:

To derive the equation of a PM wave, it is convenient to consider the modulating signal as a pure
sinusoidal wave. The carrier signal is always a high frequency sinusoidal wave. Consider the
modulating signal, em and the carrier signal ec, as given by, equation 1 and 2, respectively.
em = Em cos ωm t ------------- (1)
ec = Ec sin ωc t ---------------- (2)
The initial phases of the modulating signal and the carrier signal are ignored in Equations (1) and
(2) because they do not contribute to the modulation process due to their constant values. After
PM, the phase of the carrier will not remain constant. It will vary according to the modulating
signal em maintaining the amplitude and frequency as constants. Suppose, after PM, the equation
of the carrier is represented as:
e = Ec Sin θ ------------- (3)
Where θ, is the instantaneous phase of the modulated carrier, and sinusoid ally varies in proportion to the
modulating signal. Therefore, after PM, the instantaneous phase of the modulated carrier can be written as:

θ = ωc t + Kp em -------------------- (4)
Where, kp is the constant Of proportionality for phase modulation.
Substituting Equation (1) in Equation (4), yon get:
θ = ωc t + Kp Em Cos ωm t ---------------------- (5)
In Equation (5), the factor, kpEm is defined as the modulation index, and is given as:
mp = Kp Em (6)
where, the subscript p signifies; that mp is the modulation index of the PM wave. Therefore,
equation (5) becomes
θ = ωc t + mp Cos ωm t ---------------------- (7)
Substituting Equation (7) and (3), you get:
e = Ec sin (ωct + mp cos ωmt) --------------------- (8)
3.3 NARROW BAND FM MODULATION:
The case where |θm(t)| ≪ 1 for all t is called narrow band FM. Using the approximations
cos x ≃ 1 and sin x ≃ x for |x| ≪ 1, the FM signal can be approximated as:
s(t) = Ac cos[ωct + θm(t)]
= Ac cos ωct cos θm(t) − Ac sin ωctsin θm(t)
≃ Ac cos ωct − Acθm(t) sin ωct

or in complex notation
jwct
s (t) = ACRE{e (1 + jθm t }
This is similar to the AM signal except that the discrete carrier component Ac coswc(t) is 90° out
of phase with the sinusoid Ac sinwc(t) multiplying the phase angle θm(t). The spectrum of
narrow band FM is similar to that of AM.
 The Bandwidth of an FM Signal:
The following formula, known as Carson‘s rule is often used as an estimate of the FM signal
bandwidth: BT = 2(∆f + fm) Hz
where ∆f is the peak frequency deviation and fm is the maximum baseband message
frequency component.
FM Demodulation by a Frequency Discriminator:

A frequency discriminator is a device that converts a received FM signal into a voltage that
is proportional to the instantaneous frequency of its input without using a local oscillator and,
consequently, in a non coherent manner.
• When the instantaneous frequency changes slowly relative to the time-constants of the filter, a
quasi-static analysis can be used.
• In quasi-static operation the filter output has the same instantaneous frequency as the input but
with an envelope that varies according to the amplitude response of the filter at the instantaneous
frequency.
• The amplitude variations are then detected with an envelope detector like the ones used for AM
demodulation.
An FM Discriminator Using the Pre-Envelope:

When θm(t) is small and band-limited so that cos θm(t) and sinθm(t) are essentially band-limited
signals with cut off frequencies less than fc, the pre-envelope of the FM signal is
j
s+(t) = s(t) + jˆs(t) = Ace (ωct+θm(t))
The angle of the pre-envelope is φ'(t) = arctan[ˆs(t)/s(t)] = ωct + θm(t)
The derivative of the phase is =ωct+ kθm(t)
td
dφ t std − s dt s t = ωct + kωm (t)
=dts t
dt s2 t +s^2(t)
which is exactly the instantaneous frequency. This can be approximated in discrete-time by
using FIR filters to form the derivatives and Hilbert transform. Notice that the denominator is
the squared envelope of the FM signal.
This formula can also be derived by observing,
d d
st= ACcos ωct + θm t = −AC ωct + kωm t sin⁡[ωct + θm t ]
dt dt

42
 d s^ t = d ACsin ωct + θm t = AC ωct + kωm t cos⁡[ωct + θm t ]
dt dt
So,
std s^(t)d
= AC2 ωct + kωm t ∗ cos2[wct + θm t + sin2[wct + θm t dts t
dts^(t) −
The bandwidth of an FM discriminator must be at least as great as that of the received FM
signal which is usually much greater than that of the baseband message. This limits the degree of
noise reduction that can be achieved by preceding the discriminator by a bandpass receive filter.
Using a Phase-Locked Loop for FM Demodulation:

A device called a phase-locked loop (PLL) can be used to demodulate an FM signal with
better performance in a noisy environment than a frequency discriminator. The block diagram
of a discrete-time version of a PLL as shown in figure,

FIG 2.2 PLL Block diagram

The block diagram of a basic PLL is shown in the figure below. It is basically a flip flop
consisting of a phase detector, a low pass filter (LPF),and a Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
The input signal Vi with an input frequency fi is passed through a phase detector. A phase detector

basically a comparator which compares the input frequency fiwith the feedback frequency fo .The
phase detector provides an output error voltage Ver (=fi+fo),which is a DC
voltage. This DC voltage is then passed on to an LPF. The LPF removes the high frequency noise
and produces a steady DC level, Vf (=Fi-Fo). Vf also represents the dynamic characteristics of the
PLL.The DC level is then passed on to a VCO. The output frequency of the VCO (fo) is directly
proportional to the input signal. Both the input frequency and output frequency are compared and
adjusted through feedback loops until the output frequency equals the input frequency. Thus the
PLL works in these stages – free-running, capture and phase lock.
As the name suggests, the free running stage refer to the stage when there is no input voltage
applied. As soon as the input frequency is applied the VCO starts to change and begin producing
an output frequency for comparison this stage is called the capture stage. The frequency
comparison stops as soon as the output frequency is adjusted to become equal to the input
frequency. This stage is called the phase locked state.
3.4 WIDE-BAND FM:
s (t) = ACcos(2πfct + φ(t)
Finding its FT is not easy:ϕ(t) is inside the cosine.
To analyze the spectrum, we use complex envelope.
s(t) can be written as: Consider single tone FM: s(t) =ACcos(2πfct + βsin2πfm(t))
Wideband FM is defined as the situation where the modulation index is above 0.5. Under these
circumstances the sidebands beyond the first two terms are not insignificant. Broadcast FM
stations use wideband FM, and using this mode they are able to take advantage of the wide
bandwidth available to transmit high quality audio as well as other services like a stereo channel,
and possibly other services as well on a single carrier.The bandwidth of the FM transmission is a
means of categorising the basic attributes for the signal, and as a result these terms are often seen
in the technical literature associated with
frequency modulation, and products using FM. This is one area where the figure for modulation
index is used.
 GENERATION OF WIDEBAND FM SIGNALS:
Indirect Method for Wideband FM Generation:
Consider the following block diagram

m(t)
Narrowband
FM
Modulator P
(.) gFM (WB) (t)

gFM (NB) (t)

Assume a BPF is included in this
block to pass the signal with the
highest carrier freuqnecy and
reject all others

FIG 2.3 Block diagram of FM generation

A narrowband FM signal can be generated easily using the block diagram of the narrowband FM
modulator that was described in a previous lecture. The narrowband FM modulator generates a
narrowband FM signal using simple components such as an integrator (an OpAmp), oscillators,
multipliers, and adders. The generated narrowband FM signal can be converted to a wideband FM
signal by simply passing it through a non–linear device with power P. Both the carrier frequency
and the frequency deviationf of the narrowband signal are increased by a factor P. Sometimes,
the desired increase in the carrier frequency and the desired increase inf are different. In this
case, we increasef to the desired value and use a frequency shifter (multiplication by a sinusoid
followed by a BPF) to change the carrier frequency to the desired value.
 System 1:
Frequency Shifter

Narrowband BPF g (t)

m(t) FM ( . )2200 FM2 (WB)

BWm = 5 kHz Modulator f2 = 77 kHz

g (t) fc2 = 135 MHz
g (t) FM3 (WB) BW2 = 2(f2 + BWm)
FM (NB)
f1 = 35 Hz f3 = 77 kHz = 164 kHz
fc1 = 300 kHz fc3 = 660 MHz
BW = 2*5 = 10 kHz BW3 = 2(f 3 + BWm) cos(2(525M)t)
= 164 kHz
 FIG 2.4 Block diagram of FM generation
In this system, we are using a single non–linear device with an order of 2200 or multiple devices
with a combined order of 2200. It is clear that the output of the non–linear device has the correct
f but an incorrect carrier frequency which is corrected using a the frequency shifter with
oscillator that has a frequency equal to the difference between the frequency of its input signal and

the desired carrier frequency. We could also have used an oscillator with a frequency that is the
sum of the frequencies of the input signal and the desired carrier frequency. This system is
characterized by having a frequency shifter with an oscillator frequency that is relatively large.
 System 2:
Frequency Shifter

Narrowband BPF
m(t) FM gFM2 (WB) (t)
( . ) 44 (.) 50
BWm = 5 kHz Modulator f2 = 77 kHz
fc2 = 135 MHz
gFM (NB) (t) gFM3 (WB) (t) BW 2 = 2(f2 + BWm)
f1 = 35 Hz f3 = 1540 Hz = 164 kHz
fc1 = 300 kHz fc3 = 13.2 MHz
BW = 2*5 = 10 kHz BW3 = 2(f3 + BWm) cos(2(10.5M)t) gFM4 (WB) (t)
= 13080 Hz
f4 = 1540 Hz
fc4 = 135/50 = 2.7 MHz
BW4 = 2(f4 + BWm) =
13080 Hz
 FIG 2.5 Block diagram of FM generation
In this system, we are using two non–linear devices (or two sets of non–linear devices) with
orders 44 and 50 (44*50 = 2200). There are other possibilities for the factorizing 2200 such as
2*1100,4*550,8*275,10*220.. Depending on the available components, one of these
factorizations may be better than the others. In fact, in this case, we could have used the same
factorization but put 50 first followed by 44. We want the output signal of the overall system to be
as shown in the block diagram above, so we have to insure that the input to the non–linear device
with order 50 has the correct carrier frequency such that its output has a carrier frequency of 135
MHz. This is done by dividing the desired output carrier frequency by the non–linearity order of
50, which gives 2.7 Mhz. This allows us to figure out the frequency of the require oscillator which
will be in this case either 13.2–2.7 = 10.5 MHz or 13.2+2.7 = 15.9 MHz. We are generally free to
choose which ever we like unless the available components dictate the use of one of them and not
the other. Comparing this system with System 1 shows that the frequency of the oscillator that is
required here is significantly lower (10.5 MHz compared to 525 MHz), which is generally an
advantage.

2.5 TRANSMISSION BANDWIDTH:

FIG 2.6 Spectrum of FM Bandwidth

2.6 FM TRANSMITTER
 Indirect method (phase shift) of modulation
The part of the Armstrong FM transmitter (Armstrong phase modulator) which is expressed in
dotted lines describes the principle of operation of an Armstrong phase modulator. It should be
noted, first that the output signal from the carrier oscillator is supplied to circuits that perform the
task of modulating the carrier signal. The oscillator does not change frequency, as is the case of
direct FM. These points out the major advantage of phase modulation (PM), or indirect FM, over
direct FM. That is the phase modulator is crystal controlled for frequency.

FIG 2.7 Armstrong Modulator

The crystal-controlled carrier oscillator signal is directed to two circuits in parallel. This signal
(usually a sine wave) is established as the reference past carrier signal and is assigned a value
0°.The balanced modulator is an amplitude modulator used to form an envelope of double side-
bands and to suppress the carrier signal (DSSC). This requires two input signals, the carrier signal
and the modulating message signal. The output of the modulator is connected to the adder circuit;
here the 90° phase-delayed carriers signal will be added back to replace the suppressed carrier.
The act of delaying the carrier phase by 90° does not change the carrier frequency or its wave -
shape. This signal identified as the 90° carrier signal.

FIG 2.8 Phasor diagram of Armstrong Modulator

The carrier frequency change at the adder output is a function of the output phase shift and is
found by. fc = ∆θfs (in hertz)
When θ is the phase change in radians and f s is the lowest audio modulating frequency. In most
FM radio bands, the lowest audio frequency is 50Hz. Therefore, the carrier frequency change at
the adder output is 0.6125 x 50Hz = ± 30Hz since 10% AM represents the upper limit of carrier
voltage change, then ± 30Hz is the maximum deviation from the modulator for PM.
The 90° phase shift network does not change the signal frequency because the components and
resulting phase change are constant with time. However, the phase of the adder output voltage is
in a continual state of change brought about by the cyclical variations of the message signal, and
during the time of a phase change, there will also be a frequency change.

In figure. (c). during time (a), the signal has a frequency f 1, and is at the zero reference phase.
During time (c), the signal has a frequency f 1 but has changed phase to θ. During time (b) when
the phase is in the process of changing, from 0 to θ. the frequency is less than f1.
 Using Reactance modulator direct method

FIG 2.9 Reactance Modulator

The FM transmitter has three basic sections.
1. The exciter section contains the carrier oscillator, reactance modulator and the
buffer amplifier.
2. The frequency multiplier section, which features several frequency multipliers.
3. The poweroutput ection, which includes a low-
level power amplifier, the final power amplifier, and the impedance matching network to
 properly load the power section with the antenna impedance.
The essential function of each circuit in the FM transmitter may be described as follows.

The Exciter
1. The function of the carrier oscillator is to generate a stable sine wave signal at the
rest frequency, when no modulation is applied. It must be able to linearly change
frequency when fully modulated, with no measurable change in amplitude.
2. The buffer amplifier acts as a constant high-impedance load on the oscillator to help
stabilize the oscillator frequency. The buffer amplifier may have a small gain.
3. The modulator acts to change the carrier oscillator frequency by application of the
message signal. The positive peak of the message signal generally lowers the
oscillator's frequency to a point below the rest frequency, and the negative
message peak raises the oscillator frequency to a value above the rest frequency.
The greater the peak-to-peak message signal, the larger the oscillator deviation.

 Frequency multipliers are tuned-input, tuned-output RF amplifiers in which the output

resonant circuit is tuned to a multiple of the input frequency. Common frequency
multipliers are 2x, 3x and 4x multiplication. A 5x Frequency multiplier is sometimes
seen, but its extreme low efficiency forbids widespread usage. Note that multiplication
is by whole numbers only. There can not a 1.5x multiplier, for instance.

 The final power section develops the carrier power, to be transmitted and often has a
low-power amplifier driven the final power amplifier. The impedance matching network
is the same as for the AM transmitter and matches the antenna impedance to the correct
load on the final over amplifier.
 Frequency Multiplier
A special form of class C amplifier is the frequency. multiplier. Any class C amplifier is capable
of performing frequency multiplidàtion if the tuned circuit in the collector resonates at some
integer multiple of the input frequency.
For example a frequency doubler can be constructed by simply connecting a parallel tuned circuit
in the collector of a class C amplifier that resonates at twice the input frequency. When the
collector current pulse occurs, it excites or rings the tuned circuit at twice the input frequency. A
current pulse flows for every other cycle of the input.A Tripler circuit is constructed in the same
way except that the tuned circuit resonates at 3 times the input - frequency. In this way, the tuned
circuit receives one input pulse for every three cycles of oscillation it produces Multipliers can be
constructed to increase the input
frequency by any integer factor up to approximately 10. As' the multiplication factor gets higher,
the power output of the multiplier decreases. For most practical applications, the best result is
obtained with multipliers of 2 and 3.
Another way to look the operation of class C multipliers is .to .remember that the non-sinusoidal
current pulse is rich in harmonics. Each time the pulse occurs, the second, third, fourth, fifth, and
higher harmonics are generated. The purpose of the tuned circuit in the collector is to act as a filter
to select the desired harmonics.

FIG 2.10 Block Diagram of Frequency Multiplier - 1

FIG 2.10 Block Diagram of Frequency Multiplier - 2

In many applications a multiplication factor greater than that achievable with a single multiplier
stage is required. In such cases two or more multipliers are cascaded to produce an overall
multiplication of 6. In the second example, three multipliers provide an overall multiplication of
30. The total multiplication factor is simply the product of individual stage multiplication factors.
 Reactance Modulator

The reactance modulator takes its name from the fact that the impedance of the circuit acts as a
reactance (capacitive or inductive) that is connected in parallel with the resonant circuit of the
Oscillator. The varicap can only appear as a capacitance that becomes part of the frequency
determining branch of the oscillator circuit. However, other discrete devices can appear as a
capacitor or as an inductor to the oscillator, depending on how the circuit is arranged. A colpitts
oscillator uses a capacitive voltage divider as the phase-reversing feedback
path and would most likely tapped coil as the phase-reversing element in the
feedback loop and most commonly uses a modulator that appears inductive.
2.7 COMPARISION OF VARIOUS MODULATIONS:
 Comparisons of Various Modulations:
Amplitude modulation Frequency modulation Phase modulation
1. Amplitude of the carrier 1. Frequency of the carrier 1. Phase of the carrier wave
wave is varied in accordance wave is varied in accordance is varied in accordance with
with the message signal. with the message signal. the message signal.
2.Much affected by noise. 2.More immune to the noise. 2. Noise voltage is constant.
3.System fidelity is poor. 3.Improved system fidelity. Improved system fidelity.
4.Linear modulation 4.Non Linear modulation 4.Non Linear modulation

 Comparisons of Narrowband and Wideband FM:

Narrowband FM Wideband FM
1. Modulation index > 1. 1. Modulation index < 1.
2.Bandwidth B = 2∆ . 2.Bandwidth B = 2.
3. Occupies more bandwidth. 3. Occupies less bandwidth.
4.Used inentertainment 4.Used in FM Mobile
broadcastings communication services.

2.8 APPLICATION & ITS USES:

 Magnetic Tape Storage.
 Sound
 Noise Fm Reduction
 Frequency Modulation (FM) stereo decoders, FM Demodulation
networks for FM operation.
 Frequency synthesis that provides multiple of a reference signal frequency.
 Used in motor speed controls, tracking filters